V entilation

I nformation
P aper
n° 5
June 2004 Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre
© INIVE EEIG
Operating Agent
and Management
Boulevard Poincaré 79
Displacement
B-1060 Brussels – Belgium
[email protected] - www.inive.org Ventilation
Dr. Peter G. Schild
International Energy Agency Norwegian Building Research Institute
Energy Conservation in Buildings
and Community Systems Programme

1 Introduction
1.1 Definitions
Mixing ventilation: This is the most common
air distribution method, involving supplying
ventilation air to the room at high velocity,
causing the air in the room to be well mixed
with fresh air.
Occupied zone: The spatial volume within the
room that is frequently occupied by people. It Figure 1 : Principle of displacement
is 1.3 ~ 1.8 m high (sitting/standing people) ventilation. Air in occupied zone becomes both
and not closer than 0.3 ~ 1.5 m from the walls. heated and polluted by occupants etc., and
rises upwards due to natural convection.
Draught-risk zone (near-zone): The region near
the supply diffuser where occupants without mixing significantly with the room air
experience discomfort due to cold draught above. This process leads to a continual
along the floor (illustrated by red isovels in upwards uniform displacement of air in the
Figure 1, Figure 7, Figure 8). room, akin to filling a bathtub with water.

1.2 Principle of function The air in the occupied zone is thus generally
The principle involves air supply and fresher than for mixing ventilation. Air is
distribution in a room by upwards extracted from the room at ceiling level.
displacement, i.e. as direct as possible through-
flow in the occupied zone in order to achieve In addition, for localized pollutant sources that
high ventilation efficiency. In addition, air generate heat, such as humans, the released
distribution by displacement generally makes it pollutants rise rapidly to above the occupied
possible to supply a larger quantity of air than zone, due to buoyancy forces (an upwards
for conventional mixing ventilation, which flowing natural convection plume). This local
requires concentrated supply at high velocity. upwards flow also brings up a steady stream of
fresh air from the floor up to the breathing
The air flow pattern differs greatly from that zone of occupants. The air in the breathing
caused by conventional mixing supply jets. zone is thus slightly fresher than elsewhere in
Air is supplied at low velocity to the occupied the room at the same height.
zone, often near the floor (Figure 1). The new
air is slightly cooler than the air in the room, The supplied air flow rate and its cooling
and thus has a strong tendency to fall and capacity are limited by the size of the air
spread out over the floor in a uniformly thin supply areas, and on the magnitude of the air
layer (approximately 20 cm), due to gravity,

1
flow rate that is technically/economically The main performance advantages of
justifiable. The cooling capacity is also limited displacement ventilation over mixing
by how cold the supply temperature can be ventilation are [1]:
without causing local discomfort (cold draught • Less cooling needed for a given
along floor). temperature in the occupied zone
• Longer periods with free cooling
1.3 Applications and limitations • Better air quality in the occupied space
Displacement ventilation is only appropriate (though there can be more airborne
where the supply air should be cooler than the respirable dust in the breathing zone [3])
room air, and where the contaminants are
warmer and/or lighter than the surrounding air The main weak points of displacement
in the room. Displacement ventilation is ventilation are [1]:
therefore well suited for achieving good air • Risk of cold sensation or draught near the
quality in occupied spaces. Well-designed floor. Preventing this requires proficient
displacement ventilation is superior to mixing design skills.
ventilation in rooms with a high occupancy • Wall-mounted diffusers can take up much
density, e.g. restaurants, classrooms, and space, and must not be blocked by
meeting rooms. High ceilings further improve furniture along the wall. Freestanding
the ventilation efficiency of displacement furniture in the room poses generally no
ventilation, e.g. conference rooms, theatres, problem, as the supply air can flow around
supermarkets. More generally, displacement it or underneath it, akin to water filling a
ventilation is preferable where a large air flow bathtub.
rate is required in a small room, or for • Wall-mounted diffusers permit little
ventilation of tall rooms (above 3 metres). flexibility in changes in layout during
building’s lifetime. There must be close
Mixing ventilation is often a better choice than collaboration between architect and HVAC
displacement ventilation in rooms where air designer to find suitable locations for
quality is not an issue, or in cellular offices. diffusers.
Displacement ventilation may be less
preferable than mixing ventilation in the Air flow rate per unit floor area [l /s·m²]

following cases [1]: 0 5 10 15 20 25

150
• Where the main pollutants are too
Cooling capacity per unit floor area [W/m²]

draughty
denser/colder than the ambient air (e.g. 125 chilled
particulate, dust) ceiling
• Where overheating is the main problem, 100
+ displ.

not air quality chilled

• Where ceiling height is below 2.3 metres 75
ceiling displacement
+ mix. ventilation
• Where continued very significant
movement disturbs the air flow in the room 50

• If the main problem is cooling, in rooms

mixing
with low or normal ceiling height (e.g. 25
ventilation
offices), mixing ventilation with a chilled
ceiling is recommended. 0

• Mixing ventilation is widely used for

0 20 40 60 80 100
Air flow rate per unit floor area [m³/h·m²]
common applications, i.e. for air flow rates
below approx. 10 ℓ/s·m². Figure 2 : Appropriate ventilation systems for
different flow rates and heat loads [3]. The
Figure 2 summarizes the differing areas of “∆T” lines are temperature difference between
application of displacement and mixing room and supply air when ventilation alone is
ventilation, both with or without chilled used for cooling.
ceilings [3]. This figure is a rough guide as to
the best system giving the least draught.

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When displacement is combined with a chilled little draught. This mixing is localised at low
ceiling, the supply air temperature should be level, thus not appreciably reducing the
constant, while the cooling output is controlled ventilation efficiency.
by flow rate adjustment in the chilled ceiling.
Air can be supplied though carpet, but the
cleanliness of the carpet is an issue.
2 Types and their properties
2.3 Ceiling supply from textile ducts
2.1 Floor-standing diffusers for or socks
horizontal flow Such ducts are mostly used in deep open plan
This is the most common type of displacement enclosures. When the supply air reaches the
ventilation. It is illustrated in Figure 1. This floor, it spreads out along the floor just as in
principle requires that the supply air is always the gravity current seen in conventional
at least 1°C below the room air temperature displacement ventilation. The maximum
(see also point 3.1.1). The number of diffusers allowable velocity in the falling curtain of
in the room (more specifically, the total supply air, um (Figure 4), depends on whether
horizontal perimeter of diffusers) limits the the ducts are above a zone of permanent
total ventilation rate that can be achieved occupancy or not. If it is a transit zone, or
without causing draught. zone infrequent occupancy, then um can be up
to 0.25 m/s.
There are 3 main types of such supply
diffusers: Such ducts can alternatively be used as supply
• Flat, flush with wall, integrated terminal devices at floor level, in which case
• Protruding from wall, free-standing: flat- normal design rules for floor-standing diffusers
faced, ½-radial or ¼-radial for placing in apply.
corners.
• Free-standing in the floor, with duct from Some other duct types (not textile) are
ceiling or from below up through the floor designed with many small high-velocity jets
spaced uniformly along the duct’s length.
2.2 Under-floor ventilation Such installations are documented and
designed according to rules for mixing
Figure 3 illustrates this principle. The limiting ventilation.
design condition is winter, when the supply air
must be at least 2°C below the room air Textile duct systems require a good routine for
temperature in order to achieve effective cleaning the ducts (recommended by the duct
displacement. The number of diffusers limits manufacturer), and the supply air must be well
the total ventilation rate that can be achieved filtered.
without causing draught.

Figure 3 : Under-floor displacement

ventilation, e.g. computer rooms with raised
floor. Figure 4: Supply through horizontal textile
ducts.
Usually circular outlets are used in a modular
raised floor. The outlets are shaped to cause
swirl so that the air mixes quickly, causing

V. I. P. n°5 3 June 2004

2.4 Downward flow from ceiling The air flow leaving a horizontal supply
supply regions diffuser will accelerate as it falls to the floor
and reach its maximum velocity vmax at the
This specialized air distribution method
point where the cross sectional area of the flow
(Figure 5) is relevant where there is a need to
along the floor is smallest (Figure 6). From this
create local regions of fresh air at breathing
point on, the height of the layer of flow along
height or where the floor region is particularly
the floor stays uniform (at approx. 20 cm) but
contaminated. These installations are a
the velocity decays with distance from the
challenge to design well. An example is
diffuser.
operating theatres in hospitals.

vmax vr

acceleration region velocity decay region

vmax

velocity curve for vr

(local profile max.) vr
distance, r

Figure 5: Supply through large areas in the Figure 6: Cross section through flow along
ceiling. Exhaust at floor level. floor, from a floor-standing supply outlet.

For diffusers with radial flow (Figure 7), the

3 Design procedure velocity decay is inversely proportional with
distance from the diffuser’s central axis (due to
3.1 Thermal comfort constraints the increase with cross-sectional flow area
proportional to radius r). For linear flow
3.1.1 Draught-risk zone and draught risk diffusers (Figure 8), the velocity decay is much
calculation more gradual (exponential, due to friction &
By far the most common and significant error mixing) since the cross-sectional flow area is
that is made in the design of displacement constant with distance r.
ventilation is that one allows too low supply air
temperature (which can happen if the supply
temperature is improperly controlled by a room
thermostat), or the air velocity along the floor
is too large (i.e. if too few supply diffusers are
used, such that each diffuser has a larger flow
rate). These factors increase the area of the
floor that is too draughty for comfort (the
draught-risk zone) adjacent to the supply
diffusers. The architectural layout must take
into account that the floor area within the Figure 7: Plan view showing two examples of
draught-risk zone of a diffuser is not suitable radial flow pattern along floor: ideal ½-radial
for permanent occupancy, though it can be a diffuser, and a flat-faced diffuser.
transit zone, for example.

The supply air temperature during periods of

occupancy should not fall below 18°C during
summer and 19 ~ 20°C during summer,
depending on the performance of the diffuser.

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 given in [10]. Acceptable boundary values of
draught-risk for different classes of indoor
environment are given in [9].

3.1.2 Temperature stratification

In displacement ventilation, the air temperature
increases from floor to ceiling. This means
that the occupied space is cooler than the air
above. Thus, compared to mixing ventilation,
the supply air temperature can be approx.
1 ~ 2°C higher for rooms of height 3 m, and up
to 4°C for tall rooms. This gives longer
Figure 8: Plan view showing uniform linear periods of the year where free cooling can be
applied, and at other times less energy is
flow pattern at some distance from a wall with
needed for cooling the supply air, compared to
a continuous diffuser along its length, or
regularly spaced wall diffusers. mixing ventilation.

For diffusers with a radial flow pattern In most applications in rooms of normal
(Figure 7) the relationship between distance height, it is possible to assume a linear vertical
and velocity is approximately described by: temperature profile from the floor, and that the
1 air temperature at floor level is half-way
⎛ q g ∆Ts ⎞ 3 between the supply and extract temperatures
vr ≈ K v ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ (Equ. 1) (the “50% assumption”, see Figure 9). For
⎝ Ts r ⎠ more accurate calculations of vertical
Similarly, for linear diffusers (Figure 8) the temperature profile, see [5].
maximum velocity is described by:
1
Extract air
⎛ q g ∆Ts ⎞ 3 Ceiling
v ≈ K v ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ (Equ. 2)
temperature,
Te
⎝ Ts ⎠
Where:
Mean air
v = velocity [m/s] Height temperature
Kv = diffuser constant. Typical value is 1.9 Supply air at floor, Tf
for radial and 1.5 for linear diffuser. temperature,
qs = supply volume flow rate [m³/s] Ts
g = gravitational acceleration [9.81 m/s²] Floor
∆Ts = Supply under-temperature [K]
Temperature
Ts = Supply temperature [K]
r = distance from diffuser’s central axis
(flow epicentre) (only relevant to 50 % 50 %
radial diffusers) Figure 9: Illustration of the 50% assumption.

Kv is not strictly constant, as it is influenced The temperature gradient should not exceed
slightly by temperature. For more accurate 3°C between feet and the torso (from 0.1 and
equations with improved constants, see [4]. 1.1 m) ([8] or [9]).

To prevent discomfort due to draught, the air 3.2 Air quality constraints
velocity along the floor in the occupied zone
should not exceed 0.15 m/s in winter and 3.2.1 Ventilation efficiency in practice
0.25 m/s in summer ([8] or [9]). Displacement ventilation can work with lower
ventilation rates than mixing ventilation. This
The local air temperature has a very significant is because it has a better ventilation efficiency.
influence on the level of discomfort due to This applies to both:
draught. One should therefore consider • air quality (local contaminant removal
conducting design calculations of draught-risk efficiency in the breathing zone ≈ 120%)
using the Draught-Risk (DR) relationship

V. I. P. n°5 5 June 2004

• and temperature efficiency (i.e. heat documentation exists. Such diffusers are
removal efficiency in the occupied zone; generally designed with special aerodynamic
see point 3.1.2). features to reduce draught problems. Nordtest
has defined a performance documentation
However, when a very low ventilation rate and method [4]. Improvised diffusers made of a
large under-temperature is used, mixing simple grille or perforated metal sheet can
ventilation is preferable. Normally, both cause more draught along the floor. In cases
mixing and displacement ventilation systems where the manufacturer cannot guarantee
require about the same air flow rates, in which performance figures, a full-scale laboratory
displacement ventilation usually gives a better mock-up of the specific room application
air quality for the same amount of air. should be built and tested.

3.2.2 Pollution layer height 4.3 Control and automation

The height of the pollution layer depends on During the heating season, supply air
the ventilation rate and the strength of temperature is kept constant (at its maximum
convective heat sources in the room. The value, e.g. 20°C), and thus is not regulated
supply flow rate should be designed to be according to the room thermostat.
sufficiently large that the pollution layer is
kept above occupied zone (Figure 1). These During the cooling season, the supply air
calculations are described in [1]. temperature should be controlled by the room
thermostat, but with the limitations that the
individual system sets. The supply
4 Design issues temperature must not go below its minimum
value, e.g. 18°C (see point 3.1.1). When a
4.1 Space heating chilled ceiling is present, the displacement
Displacement ventilation cannot be used in supply air is kept constant (under-temperature
cases where the room is heated primarily with not exceeding 6°C), whilst the ceiling’s
the ventilation air (i.e. where the supply air is cooling output is regulated to control the room
warmer than the room air). The air in the temperature. This minimizes draught-risk.
occupied zone would become stagnant because
the warm supply air would rise straight to the Displacement ventilation is well suited for
ceiling and be exhausted (short-circuiting). variable air volume (VAV) applications. The
ventilation rate is controlled according to the
It is suitable to use displacement ventilation in temperature in the occupied zone or according
combination with space heating by means of to the air quality. When the dominant pollutant
radiators (e.g. placed below windows, with a source is people, CO2 sensors are ideal for
large area), radiative ceiling heating, or floor controlling air quality. Compared to constant
heating. Ceiling heating is particularly air volume (CAV) systems, VAV systems have
complementary. Concentrated convective heat lower running-costs and lower draught risk
sources are not suitable. during periods of reduced ventilation rate.

Displacement ventilation diffusers must not be For more guidance on controls for
placed such that the supply air flows towards displacement ventilation, see [1] & [6].
heating devices.
4.3.1 Sensor location
4.2 Choice of diffuser For rooms with normal ceiling height, the
room air temperature sensor should be located
The likelihood of draught problems is greatly 0.2 ~ 0.5 m above the floor for rooms with
influenced by the choice of diffuser. One must floor-standing diffusers, or just above the floor
choose a diffuser with the right amount of in the case of under-floor ventilation systems.
mixing between the room air and supply air. This low location reduces swings in the supply
The air velocity near the diffuser may also air temperature and resulting draught
create problems if induction rates are high. It discomfort.
is recommended to use only diffusers from
manufacturers for which reliable

Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre 6 WWW.AIVC.ORG

For rooms with normal ceiling height, an air 6 References
quality sensor (e.g. CO2) should be located at
[1] Displacement ventilation in non-industrial
breathing height (or up to 20 cm below if
premises. Håkon Skistad (ed.). Brussels :
occupants are static), i.e. between 0.9 and 1.5
Federation of European Heating and Air-
m above the floor for rooms with
conditioning Associations (REHVA), 2002.
predominantly sitting or standing occupants. In
tall rooms, the air quality sensor is located at [2] S. Holmberg & Q. Chen. Air flow and
the highest likely point of the occupied zone. particle control with different ventilation
systems in a classroom. Indoor Air, 2003;
13; pp.200-204
5 Commissioning, operation [3] K. Fitzner. Displacement ventilation and
cooled ceilings, results of laboratory tests
& maintenance and practical installations. Proceedings
Indoor Air 1996, Nagoya. Japan, Vol.1, p.41-
5.1 Balancing / commissioning
50
The flow rates in the ventilation system must [4] Nordtest method: Air Terminal Devices:
be properly balanced before it is handed over Aerodynamic Testing and Rating at Low
to the user. The system must therefore be Velocity. Finland : Nordtest, 2003.
designed to enable flow measurement and Available at http://www.nordtest.org/
balancing of each individual diffuser. To
[5] T.H. Dokka & P.O. Tjelflaat. Simplified
prevent too many balancing points, it is
models for prediction of vertical contaminant
advantageous to build the duct system in
and temperature stratification in
symmetric groups (bifurcated). Balancing can
displacement ventilated rooms. Part 1 :
thus be done in groups, with one damper for
Derivation. 2000, Norwegian University of
each group.
Science & Technology.
The ventilation system must be cleaned before [6] CIBSE Guide H : Building control
it is handed over to the user. systems. London : Chartered Institution of
Building Services Engineers. 2000.
For more guidance on commissioning, see [7]. http://www.cibse.org/
[7] CIBSE commissioning codes (a series of
5.2 Operation & maintenance guidance documents). Chartered Institution
The ventilation system should be handed over of Building Services Engineers, London,
with a complete and straightforward manual http://www.cibse.org/
for maintenance and daily operation. Correct [8] ISO 7730. Moderate thermal
operation & maintenance requires regular environments – determination of the PMV
attendance, checks, and maintenance. and PPD indices and specification of the
conditions for thermal comfort.
[9] CEN CR-1752. Ventilation for buildings –
design criteria for the indoor environment
[10] A.K. Melikov & J.B. Nielsen Local
thermal discomfort due to draft and vertical
temperature difference in rooms with
displacement ventilation. ASHRAE
Transactions. 1989 pp 1050-1057.

V. I. P. n°5 7 June 2004

The Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre is operated under Annex V of the Energy Conservation
in Buildings and Community Systems implementing agreement of the International Energy Agency.
The primary objective of the AIVC is to provide a high quality international technical and information
forum covering the areas of ventilation and air infiltration in the built environment with respect to
efficient energy use, good indoor air quality and thermal comfort. The main drivers for this work will be
the national and international concerns in the areas of sustainable development, responses to climate
change impact and healthy buildings.

The Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre is funded by the following seven countries: Belgium,
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