Respiratory structures and their

Struktur respirasi dan

adaptations for gaseous exchange
penyesuaiannya dalam pertukaran gas
• The respiratory structure is the respiratory surface that enables
gaseous exchange to occur between respiring organism cells and
their outer environment
• The ratio of total surface area to volume (TSA/V) depends on the
size of the organism
• The bigger the size of the organism, the smaller the ratio of total
surface area to volume
• This means that for large and complex organisms, the volume of
the body that requires oxygen will increase more than its total
surface area.
• This explains why large and complex organisms cannot maintain
gaseous exchange by diffusion through body surface only.
• Large organisms require a special respiratory structure for
• the efficient exchange of gases

Adaptations of respiratory structures for efficient

exchange of gases in big organisms
• Large ratio of total surface area to volume (TSA/V) for the
efficient exchange of respiratory gases.
• A thin respiratory structure that is one cell thick, allows the
diffusion of respiratory gases to occur.
• The surface of the respiratory structure is always moist for
respiratory gases to dissolve in them.
• The respiratory structure is complete with a network of blood
capillaries (except for insects), that allows for the efficient
delivery of respiratory gases

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The insect respirasi
respiratory structure and its
Struktur dan
adaptations
penyesuaiannya dalam pertukaran gas
The breathing system of insects is the tracheal system

• There are small pores in the thorax and abdomen of insects

called spiracles.
• The spiracle allows the intake of air into the air tube system,
which is the tracheal system.
• the trachea branches out to form finer tubes called the
tracheole.
• Tracheole is the respiratory surface.
• The tracheole has the following characteristics that allow for
efficient respiratory gaseous exchange.

• A large number of tracheoles provides a large total surface area

for the exchange of gases.
• The tracheole wall is thin and moist. This allows oxygen gas to
diffuse into the cells while carbon dioxide quickly diffuses out of
the cells into the tracheole.
• Some insects have air sacs in their trachea system.
• This sac is filled with air to speed up the delivery of respiratory
gas during active body movements

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The fish respiratory structure and
Struktur respirasi dan
Its adaptations dalam pertukaran gas
penyesuaiannya

• The respiratory structure of fish is the gills .

• The gills are made up of a line of filament that is supported by
the gill arch.
• The following characteristics of filament enable the rapid
exchange of respiratory gases

• The filament has many thin and flat projections called lamella .
• A large number of filaments and lamellae gives a large total
surface area for an efficient gaseous exchange process
• The lamella membrane is thin and supplied with many
bloodcapillaries for easy absorption and transport of oxygen and
carbon dioxide

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The frog respiratory structure and its
Struktur respirasi dan
adaptations
penyesuaiannya dalam pertukaran gas
Skin
• In an inactive state, the frog uses its skin for gaseous exchange
• The skin is thin and highly permeable to respiratory gases.
• The moist skin allows respiratory gases to dissolve in it.
• Beneath the skin, there are many networks of blood capillaries to
transport respiratory gases

Lungs
• The surface of the lungs is folded to increase the total surface
area for the exchange of gases
• The thin lung membrane eases the diffusion of respiratory gases.
• The moist lung walls enable respiratory gases to dissolve in them.
• The lungs are also rich with a network of blood capillaries to
transport respiratory gases

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The human respiratory
Struktur respirasi danstructure and
its adaptations
penyesuaiannya dalam pertukaran gas
The human respiratory structure is the alveolus which has the
characteristics for efficient respiratory gaseous exchange
• A large number of alveoli provides a large total surface area for
the diffusion of respiratory gases.
• The alveolus wall is always moist. Oxygen and carbon dioxide can
dissolve easily, and diffuse through the walls into the blood
capillaries.
• The alveolus is surrounded by a large network of blood
capillaries to hasten the diffusion of respiratory gases.
• The thin alveolus wall, that is as thick as one cell, makes the
diffusion of gases much easier.

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Comparison and contrast
Struktur respirasi dan of respiratory
structures in humans andpertukaran
animals gas
penyesuaiannya dalam

similarities
• All respiratory structures have a large ratio of total
surface area to volume for an efficient exchange of
respiratory gases.
• All respiratory structures are thin and this makes the
diffusion of respiratory gases much faster.
• All respiratory structures are moist and this allows
respiratory gases to dissolve in them.
• The respiratory structure is complete with a network
of blood capillaries (except insects), that allows for
efficient transport of respiratory gases.

differences
character insect fish frog humans
istics
Respiratory Tracheole Filament and Skin and Alveolus
structure lamella lungs

How the Large Large number -The surface Large

large ratio of number of of filaments in the lungs number of
total surface tracheoles and lamellae is folded alveoli
area to -Overall skin
volume for surface
the
respiratory
structure is
achievedh

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• Humans and animals have different breathing mechanisms.
• Breathing refers to the repetitive inhalation and exhalation
process

Breathing
Mekanismemechanism of insects
pernafasan serangga
• Abdominal muscles that relax and contract enables air to go in and
out of the trachea

• When inhaling air, the • The abdominal muscles

abdominal muscles will will
relax. • contract when air is
• This will reduce the air exhaled. This
pressure in the trachea • will increase the air
and air enters into the pressure in the
trachea through the • trachea and subsequently
spiracle forces air
• out of the spiracle.
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Breathing
Mekanismemechanism of frogs
pernafasan katak
• Frogs breathe through the mouth and lungs while in an active
state

• When the frog breathes through the

nostrils, the mouth and glottis are
closed and the floor of the
buccopharyngeal cavity is lowered.
• The low air pressure in the mouth
cavity draws air into the
buccopharyngeal cavity through the
nostrils

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• When the glottis opens, the nostrils
close and the floor of the
buccopharyngeal cavity is raised.
• The increased air pressure pushes air
into the lungs

• When the lungs contract, air is

expelled from the lungs.
• This is helped by the abdominal
pressure and the elasticity of the
lungs.
• Some air is expelled through the
nostrils while the rest is mixed with
the air in the buccopharyngeal cavity
Mekanisme
Mekanismepernafasan
pernafasanikan
ikan

• The breathing mechanism of fish is aided by its mouth movement

and operculum.
• Ventilation takes place when the fish swims by opening and
closing its operculum.
• This pushes water into the mouth and subsequently through the
gills.
• The ventilation increases the flow of water in the respiratory
surface

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• When the mouth opens, the
floor of the buccal cavity is
lowered.
• At the same time, the
opercular cavity is enlarged
and the operculum opening is
closed.
• This reduces the pressure in
the buccal cavity.
• Water from the outside which
contains dissolved oxygen
enters the mouth
• When the mouth is closed, the
floor of the buccal cavity is
raised.
• Water enters through the gill
lamella and gaseous exchange
between blood and water
occurs through diffusion.
• At the same time, the
operculum muscle relaxes and
the opercular cavity becomes
smaller.
• The volume of the buccal
cavity is reduced and the
pressure in the buccal cavity
becomes higher than the
pressure outside.
• The high pressure causes
water to flow through the
operculum opening
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Breathing
Mekanismemechanism of humans
pernafasan manusia

• The external intercostal muscles

1 contract while the internal intercostal
muscles relax

• This action causes the ribcage to

2 move upwards and outwards

• At the same time, the diaphragm

muscles contract and the diaphragm
3 moves downwards to become flat and
horizontal.

• Both mechanisms cause the volume of

4 the thorax cavity to increase and the
pressure of the thorax cavity
decreases

• The higher atmospheric pressure from

5 outside forces air into the lungs
 • The external intercostal muscles relax while
1 the internal intercostal muscles contract

• This action causes the ribcage to move

2 downwards and inwards

• At the same time, the diaphragm muscles

3 relax and the diaphragm curves upwards to
form a dome

• Both movements cause the volume of the

4 thoracic cavity to reduce and the pressure
of the thorax cavity to increase

5 • Air is pushed out of the lungs.

Compare and contrast

Membanding breathing
dan membezakan
mechanisms in humans
antara mekanisme and
pernafasan
animals
dalam manusia dengan haiwan

• Humans and animals have special muscular structures to expand

and contract the respiratory cavity.
• The breathing mechanism involves changes in the volume and
pressure in the respiratory cavity.

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characteris insect fish frog humans
tics
Respiratory Spiracle Mouth and Nostrils Nostrils
aperture operculum

Structure Thorax, Operculum Muscular Diaphragm,

that abdomen and buccophary ribcage and
helps muscular ngeal intercostal
breathing floor of wall muscles
buccal
cavity
Breathing Assisted Assisted by Assisted by Assisted by
mechanism by the movements the rapid the
contraction of the floor movement of contraction
and of the buccal the and
relaxation of cavity and buccopharyn relaxation of
abdominal operculum geal cavity The
muscles floor and intercostal
elasticity of muscles and
the Lungs The
diaphragm
muscles as
well as the
movement
of the rib
cage upward
and outward,
and
downward
and Inward

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 Partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide
• Gas diffusion depends on the partial pressure difference between
two areas.
• The gas diffuses from an area where its partial pressure is higher to
an area where its partial pressure is lower, which is down a partial
pressure gradient

Gaseous exchange and the transport of respiratory

gases
• In the lungs, blood that enters the lung
capillaries contains a higher partial
pressure of carbon dioxide compared to
the alveolus.
• Carbon dioxide diffuses out from the
lung capillaries and into the alveolus
before it is expelled into the atmosphere
through the nose and mouth.
• The partial pressure of oxygen in the
alveolus is higher than the lung
capillaries.
• Oxygen diffuses into the lung capillaries.
• Oxygen combines with haemoglobin in
erythrocytes to form oxyhaemoglobin

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• Cellular respiration releases
carbon dioxide.
• The partial pressure of carbon
dioxide in cells is higher than
tissue capillaries.
• Carbon dioxide diffuses out
from the body cells into the
tissue capillaries and is
transported back to the lungs.
• When blood reaches the tissue
through the tissue capillaries,
the partial pressure of oxygen in
the blood is higher than that of
body cells because cellular
respiration uses oxygen.
• Oxyhaemoglobin breaks down
and oxygen diffuses from the
tissue capillaries to the body
cells.

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 Transport of carbon dioxide in the blood
circulatory system
• 70% is carried in the form of bicarbonate ion (HCO3 —)
• 23% carbon dioxide combines with haemoglobin to form
carbaminohaemoglobin
• 7% is dissolved and carried as carbonic acid (H2CO3)

The transport of carbon dioxide from body cells to

tissue capillaries
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) released by the body cells binds with water
(H2O) in the erythrocyte to form carbonic acid (H2CO3).
• The carbonic anhydrase enzyme in erythrocyte catalyses this
reaction.
• Carbonic acid (H2CO3) will break down into bicarbonate ion (HCO3 – )
and hydrogen ion (H+).
• Then HCO3 – diffuses into the blood plasma and is carried to the
lungs.

The transport of carbon dioxide from lung

Capillaries to the alveolus
• When the bicarbonate ion in blood plasma reaches the lung
capillaries, it diffuses back into the erythrocyte.
• The bicarbonate ion combines again with a hydrogen ion (H+ ) to form
carbonic acid (H2CO3).
• Carbonic acid ( H2CO3) then breaks down into carbon dioxide and
water.
• Carbon dioxide diffuses through the lung capillaries into the alveolus
and is expelled during exhalation

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 8.4
8.4 Health
Health Issues
Issues Related
Related to
to the
the
Human
Human Respiratory
Respiratory System
System
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) comprises asthma,
Chronic
• chronic Obstructive
bronchitis andPulmonary
emphysema. Disease (COPD) ialah
In emphysema, thepenyakit
alveolusyang
merangkumi
loses penyakit
its elasticity asma , bronkitis
and increases in size. kronik dan emfisema .
Dalam
• • The penyakit
alveolus wall isemfisema
damaged,, alveolus
the totalhilang kekenyalan
surface dan saiz
area of alveolus
bertambah
decreases and. Dinding alveolus
the gaseous rosak ,becomes
exchange jumlah luas
lesspermukaan
efficient.
alveolus berkurang dan pertukaran gas menjadi kurang efisien

• In chronic bronchitis, the bronchiole becomes inflamed, swollen

and blocked.
• This reduces the flow of air and causes difficulties in breathing.
• A large amount of mucus formed will cause continuous coughing.
• Damaged cilium causes difficulty in expelling mucus

• For an asthmatic patient, the bronchiole walls become swollen and

thick.
• The opening of the bronchiole tube becomes smaller and the air
passage becomes narrower.
• This condition leads to difficulties in breathing and causes
breathlessness..

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