Structural Steelwork Eurocodes

Development of
A Trans-national Approach
Course: Eurocode 3

Module 1 : Introduction to the design of structural steelwork in

accordance with the new Eurocodes

Lecture 2 : Introduction to EC1

Summary:
 EC1 provides detailed guidance on the calculation of actions to be used in the design of buildings.
 The principal sources are dead and imposed loads, snow, and wind.
 These are described in separate parts of EC1.
 Dead loads are calculated on the basis of material densities and construction details
 Imposed loads are related to building usage
 Snow loads are based on geographical location and roof shape
 Wind loads are based on location and exposure
 The distribution of wind pressures on walls and roof slopes depends on the geometry of the building
 Partial safety factors are used to account for uncertainties in load levels
 These are modified to account for different combinations of actions

Pre-requisites:
 None, but a general understanding of the nature of loadings would be useful

Notes for Tutors:

This material comprises one 60 minute lecture if presenting the material to designers familiar with
calculating design loads according to national codes of practice..

SSEDTA
Structural Steelwork Eurocodes –Development of a Trans-National Approach
Introduction to the Design of Structural Steelwork in Accordance with the New Eurocodes
Introduction to EC1

Objectives:
 To describe the structure of EC1 and identify those parts of particular relevance to the design of
buildings.
 To outline the principal terminology, symbols and notation used in EC1.
 To describe the procedures for determining design values for actions (dead, imposed, snow and wind
loads)
 To explain how combinations of actions are treated and to provide guidance for practical design
conditions.

References:
 EC1: ENV 1991-2-1: Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures: Part 2.1: Actions on
structures - densities, self-weight and imposed loads
 EC1: ENV 1991-2-2: Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures: Part 2.3: Actions on
structures - snow loads.
 EC1: ENV 1991-2-3: Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures: Part 2.4: Actions on
structures - wind loads

Contents:
1. Scope and structure of EC1
2. Definitions and notation
3. Eurocode 1 Part 2.1
3.1 Dead loads
3.2 Imposed loads
4. EC1 Part 2.3 Snow loads
4.1 Determination of snow loads
5. EC1 Part 2.4 Wind loads
5.1 Determination of wind loads
6. Load cases
6.1 Design values of loads
6.2 Combination values
6.3 Simplified treatments
7. Worked Examples
7.1 Dead loads
7.2 Imposed loads
7.3 Snow loads
7.4 Wind loads
7.5 Load combinations
7.5.1 3-span continuous beam (ULS for failure of structure)
7.5.2 2-storey building - single bay with balcony (ULS - loss of equilibrium)
8. Concluding Summary

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Introduction to EC1

1. Scope and structure of EC1

The Eurocodes require structures to be designed to resist the effect of ‘actions’. These are
principally loads (direct actions) but also include indirect actions such as imposed deformations
(for example foundation settlement) and temperature effects.
EC1 defines how actions on a structure should be determined. The principal exclusions relate to
execution (temporary works), appraisal, special (eg nuclear), and cases which involve very
large deformations.
The principal sources of actions on buildings are dead and imposed loads, wind loads and snow
loads. These are covered in different parts of EC1 as follows:
 EC1 Part 2.1 - dead and imposed loads
 EC1 Part 2.3 - snow loads
 EC1 Part 2.4 - wind loads

2. Definitions and notation

The principal terms and the equivalent symbols relating to actions are as follows:
A Accidental action
G, g Permanent action
Q, q Variable action
E Effect of actions
F Force
M Moment
N Axial force
V Shear force
 Partial safety factor applied to characteristic values of actions to establish
values to be used in design calculations
 Combination factors used to modify partial safety factors for actions used in
combination
EC1 also makes extensive use of subscripts. These can be used to clarify the precise meaning
of a symbol. Some common subscripts are as follows:
k characteristic
d design
sup superior (upper bound)
inf inferior (lower bound)
Specific notation is used for the parts of EC1 dealing with snow and wind loads as follows:
EC1-2-3: Snow loads
sk characteristic snow load at ground level
 snow load shape coefficient,
s characteristic snow load on the roof
EC1-2-4: Wind loads
vref, reference wind velocity
qref reference mean wind velocity pressure
 the density of air
ce(z) exposure coefficient, which takes account of terrain roughness, topography
and height above ground
we external wind pressure
wi internal pressure
Three different types of action are considered in relation to time:
 Permanent actions (G) dead loads
 Variable actions (Q) eg imposed, wind, snow* loads
 Accidental actions (A) eg fire, impact
*in some locations snow may be regarded as an accidental action
Actions may also be classified in relation to:
 Spatial variation fixed (dead loads); free (imposed, snow, wind)

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Introduction to EC1

 Nature static; dynamic

Characteristic values, denoted by the subscript 'k', for different actions can be determined from
appropriate parts of EC1. The subscript 'd' is used to denote design values. These are obtained
by multiplying the characteristic values by a partial safety factor, 
For some cases in which more than one source of loads or actions is considered, the appropriate
design loads are combined, using combination factors, , to model the probability of such
conditions arising in practice.
Subscripts inf and sup are sometimes used to qualify partial safety factors.
The subscript inf is used to denote lower bound values, and should be used where the action has
a favourable effect, for example in considering the downwards permanent loads in a wind uplift
case.
The subscript sup is used to denote upper bound values, and should be used where the action
has an unfavourable effect. This would be the normal condition.

3. Eurocode 1 Part 2.1 EC1-2-1

EC1-2-1 provides detailed guidance on dead and imposed loads, and includes comprehensive
data relating to material densities for both construction and stored materials. As with other
Eurocodes it is organised in Chapters as follows:
Chapter1 General
This outlines the scope, defines specific terms, and provides a notation list
Chapter 2 Classification of actions
Provides brief guidance on permanent/variable and fixed/free actions
Chapter 3 Design situations
Provides broad comment on some relatively minor aspects of design
Chapter 4 Densities of building materials and stored materials
Tabulates detailed information relating to densities of common materials
Chapter 5 Self weight of construction elements
Provides detailed guidance for calculating self weight.
Chapter 6 Imposed loads on buildings
Provides detailed guidance for determining values of imposed loading for different
types of building, including reduction factors for elements supporting large floor
areas.

3.1 Dead loads

Dead loads are referred to as ‘self weight’ and are classified as permanent, fixed actions. They
are calculated on the basis of material densities (see Table 1) and nominal dimensions.

Table 1. Densities of selected construction materials Table 4.1

Materials Density
[kN/m3]
concrete (see ENV 206)
Lightweight (varies with density class) 9 - 20
normal weight *24
heavyweight >28
reinforced and prestressed concrete; unhardened concrete +1
mortar
cement mortar 19 - 23
gypsum mortar; lime mortar 12 - 18
lime-cement mortar 18 - 20
masonry units (see prEN 771)
dense limestone 20 - 29
granite 27 - 30

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sandstone 21 - 27
glass blocks, hollow 8
terra cotta, solid 21
Densities are not quoted for concrete, aerated concrete, calcium silicate, clay, or
manufactured stone.
Metals
aluminium 27
copper 87
steel 77
zinc 71
wood
timber (depending on strength class C14 - C70; see prEN 338) 2,9 - 9,0
plywood:
raw plywood (softwood and birch) 6
laminboard and block board 4
particleboards:
chipboard 8
cement-boarded particleboard 12
fibre building board:
hardboard, standard and tempered 10
medium density fibreboard 8
softboard 4
other materials
glass, in sheets 25
plastics:
acrylic sheet 12
polystyrene, expanded, granules 0,25
slate 29

The weight of fixed machinery, equipment and fittings should be considered as self weight, as cl. 5.1
may earth and ballast.
Note that additional items may need to be included to allow for services and other similar
elements which may not be clearly located at structural design stage. Although such loads are
not strictly uniformly distributed, it is sufficiently accurate to model them as such. The
magnitude of these allowances as equivalent uniformly distributed loads is best estimated on the
basis of experience. The weight of fixed partitions may be considered as self weight and
represented as an equivalent uniformly distributed load. No guidance is given as to the required
magnitude of such an equivalent load intensity, and the designer should use a reasonable
approach in making such an estimate. However a minimum value of 1,0 kN/m2 is typically used
for offices with normal weight partitions and storey heights. A higher value may be appropriate
for heavier and/or taller forms.
The sequence shown in figure 1 details the procedures for assessment of the self weight of
individual elements of construction such as walls, floors etc. The procedure will be familiar to
most practising design engineers, and is based on calculating unit weights per square metre of
construction.

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Introduction to EC1

Itemise indiv idual

components
contributing to the self
weight of the element

Determine materials
density for each
component (Table 1)

Calculate weight per

square metre (=density
 thickness) for each
component

Sum the unit weights

for all co mponents to
determine total self
2
weight (kN/ m )

Fig. 1 Flow chart for determining dead loads

3.2 Imposed loads

Imposed loads on a building are those arising from occupancy and are principally modelled as
uniformly distributed loads. Characteristic values for these are tabulated in relation to building cl. 6.1
use. In special cases concentrated loads may be relevant, and these are also specified.
Imposed loads are generally classified as variable and free.
Loads due to moveable partitions and services which may be repositioned are treated as
imposed loads.
The characteristic values of imposed loads are composed of long-term, medium-term, and
short-term components. In practice there is often no need to distinguish between these except
where materials are sensitive to time-dependent actions. For example, concrete is subject to
creep, and load duration may therefore need to be considered in some aspects of the design of
composite structures.
Building occupancy is defined in five categories (A-E) with some sub-divisions as shown in Table 6.1
Table 2 and corresponding characteristic imposed floor loadings are specified. These are Table 6.2
identified in Table 3. In general, roofs with access should be designed for the same level of cl. 6.3.2
imposed load as for floors, but garage and vehicle traffic areas are treated separately

Sum the unit weights

for all components to
determine total self
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Introduction to EC1

Table 2 Building occupancy categories Table 6.1

A Residential (including hospital wards, hotel bedrooms etc)

B Office areas
C Assembly areas (subdivided into 5 sections depending on likely density of
occupation and crowding)
D Shopping
E Storage areas

Table 6.2
Table 3 Characteristic imposed floor loadings

Loaded areas qk Qk
[kN/m2] [kN]

Category A - general 2,0 2,0

- stairs 3,0 2,0
- balconies 4,0 2,0

Category B 3,0 2,0

Category C - C1 3,0 4,0

- C2 4,0 4,0
- C3 5,0 4,0
- C4 5,0 7,0
- C5 5,0 4,0

Category D - D1 5,0 4,0

- D2 5,0 7,0

Category E 6,0 7,0

Provision is made for reducing imposed loads on structural elements which are supporting large
floor areas. The reductions are applied through a factor, , applied according to simple
formulae related to the area supported by a beam, or the number of storeys supported by a
column. cl. 6.3.1.2(3)
For beams: A = 5o/7 + 10/A
where A is the loaded area supported by the beam (m2)
For columns: n = {2 + (n –2)0 }/ n
where n is the number of storeys supported
In both cases 0 is determined from EN1-1 and described in section 6.2 below.
Figure 2 shows a flow chart for determining imposed load intensities

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Introduction to EC1

Define the category of

building and specific use
according to Table 2.

Fro m Tab le 3 determine the appropriate

value of imposed load intensity q k
2
(kN/ m ). Note that the alternative
concentrated load (Qk ) is intended only
for use in assessing structural
performance over a very s mall area.

Determine the area supported

by individual beams or the
number of storeys supported
by individual colu mns.

Determine imposed
load reduction factors
as appropriate.

In calculat ing the characteristic

imposed load on individual
elements, mu ltip ly by the
corresponding reduction factor if
it is less than 1,0.

Fig. 2 Flow chart for determining imposed load intensities

4. EC1 Part 2.3 Snow loads EC1-2-3

EC1-2-3 provides detailed guidance on the calculation of roof loads due to snow, but excludes
the following: cl. 1.1.2
 sites over 1500m altitude
 impact loads associated with snow falling from a higher roof.
 additional wind loads due to ice accretion
 sites where snow is present all year
 lateral loads due to snow drifting
 the effect of heavy rain falling on snow
As with other Eurocodes it is organised in Chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 General
This outlines the scope, defines specific terms, and provides a notation list
Chapter 2 Classification of actions
. Provides brief guidance on snow as a variable, free action, and in some cases an
accidental action

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Chapter 3 Design situations

Provides broad comment of a rather general nature
Chapter 4 Representation of actions
Provides broad comment on idealisation of snow as a uniformly distributed load
Chapter 5 Load arrangements
Provides detailed guidance for calculating snow load intensities in relation to
the snow load on the ground (Chapter 6) and the shape of the roof (Chapter 7).
Chapter 6 Snow load on the ground
Provides the basis for determining snow load on the ground with reference to
snow maps contained in Annex A.
Chapter 7 Snow load shape coefficients
Provides detailed guidance on modifications to the uniform snow load
applicable to roofs of different shapes.
Annex A Provides detailed guidance on characteristic snow loads on the ground for
(Informative different geographical locations. Where appropriate, methods of adjusting these
) values for altitude are given.

4.1 Determination of snow loads

Snow loads, s, are calculated on the basis of a characteristic load, sk, corresponding to a uniform cl. 4.2
depth of snow accumulated under calm conditions on flat ground. This is modified to account
for the shape of the roof and the effect of wind on the distribution of snow. (Note the value of s
may be reduced by exposure and thermal coefficients which account for more severe wind
conditions, and reduced thermal insulation in the roof but these are generally taken as 1,0). The cl. 6
characteristic values are based on snow maps for individual member states, and relate sk directly Fig. A2
to geographical location. A typical snow map is shown in Figure 3.

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Introduction to EC1

2,5kN/m2

2,5-3
,0 kN/m 2

3,0kN/m2

2
2
/m /m
N
0k 5 kN
2, - 2,
2 ,0
/m 2
kN

2,5kN/m2
3,0
-
2,5

Fig.A2
Fig. 3 Snow map for Finland

The influence of roof geometry is accounted for by a snow load shape coefficient, , related to cl. 7
the roof pitch Conventional pitched roofs, monopitch, multi-pitch and cylindrical roofs are
treated separately.
A typical chart giving values of snow load shape coefficient in relation to roof slope is shown in Fig. 7.3
Figure 4 and Table 4. Note that for monopitch roofs two load cases should be considered, one Table 7.2
in which the full snow load is applied over the full extent of the roof, and a second in which
half the snow load intensity is applied over the most unfavourable half of the roof. The second
load case will rarely be critical.

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 2.1  1.2
(i)

(ii) 0.5 1.1

 2.2
(iii)  1.1

(iv) 0.5 1.

 2

Fig. 7.3

Fig. 4. Snow load shape coefficient in relation to slope for duopitch

roofs.

Table 7.2
Table 4 Snow load shape coefficient in relation to slope for
duopitch roofs.
Angle of pitch of 0°    15° 15°    30° 30°    60°   60°
roof,
Shape coefficient 0,8 0,8 0,8(60 - )/ 30 0,0
1
Shape coefficient 0,8 0,8 + 0,6(-15)/30 1,1(60-)/30 0,0
2

Roofs with abrupt changes in height must account for the possibility of snow sliding from an cl. 7.4
upper level, and this is done by a further shape coefficient
Rules are given to enable the effect of snow overhanging the edge of a roof to be accounted for. cl. 5.2
These apply to those parts of a roof cantilevered out beyond the walls, but the magnitude of the
allowance is independent of the length of overhang.
A flow chart for determining snow loads on roofs is shown in figure 5

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Introduction to EC1

Determine the characteristic

value of snow on the ground
according to geographic location,
including appropriate allowance
for altitude {Annex A}.

Determine snow load

shape coefficient, i ,
according to the type
of roof and its pitch

Calculate the
characteristic snow
load on the roof:
s = sk i

Figure 5 Flow chart for determining snow loads on roofs

5. EC1 Part 2.4 Wind loads EC1-2-4

EC1-2-4 provides detailed guidance on the calculation of wind loads
As with other Eurocodes it is organised in Chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 General
This outlines the scope, defines specific terms, and provides a notation list
Chapter 2 Classification of actions
Defines wind as a variable, free action.
Chapter 3 Design situations
Provides broad comment of a rather general nature
Chapter 4 Representation of actions
Provides broad comment on idealisation of wind as a uniform pressure acting
normal to the surface of a building
Chapter 5 Wind pressure on the surface
Provides detailed guidance for calculating wind pressures on building surfaces.
Chapter 6 Wind forces
Relates wind pressures to global forces
Chapter 7 Reference wind
Provides detailed guidance on calculation of basic wind pressure by reference to
Annex A.
Chapter 8 Wind parameters
Provides detailed guidance on modifications to reference wind for special
conditions
Chapter 9 Choice of procedures
Defines the conditions for using the simple procedure
Chapter 10 Aerodynamic coefficients
Provides more detailed procedures for calculating wind pressures on special

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structures.
Annex A Provides detailed guidance on reference wind speeds for different geographical
(Informative locations.
)
Annex B Provides detailed procedures for assessing the dynamic behaviour of structures
(Informative
)
Annex C Provides detailed rules for vortex excitation and other aeroelastic effects
(Informative
)

5.1 Determination of wind loads

Two approaches are presented in ENV 1991-2-4. The simple method is applicable where cl. 9.1
structures are unlikely to be susceptible to dynamic excitation. In practice, steel framed
buildings less than 200m tall should satisfy this condition, but for very slender or unusual
structures, more detailed calculations may be required to justify this. This section covers only
the simplified approach and applies to ‘permanent’ structures. In general temporary structures
may be designed for lower wind pressures.
Wind loads are treated as quasi-static pressures acting normal to the surface of the building
(except in special circumstances such as tangential friction forces due to wind blowing over
large flat surfaces). The characteristic wind pressure is the reference mean wind velocity cl. 7.1
pressure, qref, derived from the corresponding velocity (vref,0). The reference wind velocity
(vref,0) is determined from wind maps for each member state. These are detailed in Annex A of Annex A
the code..
Exceptionally, the value of vref,0 may need to be modified to account for altitude or wind
direction for some countries.
Indicative values of the reference wind velocity for all of Europe are shown in Figure 6.

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Introduction to EC1

22
20

20

25 26
24 23
23 22
23
27 23
30
23 32
30 22
21
30 28
27 20
29 28 24
28
26
30 25
28 24 24

26
31
26 25
27 28 28
24 29
30 8
30
28 27 28 30 27

26 28 30
31
28 30
28
36

Special regulation

Fig. 7.2
Fig. 6. European wind map (indicative values only).
The reference wind pressure is then determined directly: cl. 7.1
qref = 0,5  vref2
where  is the density of air, taken as 1,25kg/m3 unless otherwise specified.
This is modified by an exposure coefficient ce(z), which takes account of terrain roughness cl.8.5
according to Table 5, topography and height above ground. For ‘flat’ terrain the exposure Table 8.1
coefficient ce(z) can be determined from Figure 7 which relates height and terrain category. Fig. 8.3
Terrain is generally considered ‘flat’ except for locations close to isolated hills and

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escarpments.

Table 8.1
Table 5. Terrain categories and related parameters

Terrain Category kr zo[m] zmin[m  

]
I Rough open sea, lakes with at least 5km
0,17 0,01 2 [0,13]
fetch upwind and smooth flat country
without obstacles
11 Farmland with boundary hedges,
0,19 0.05 4 [0,26]
occasional small farm structures, houses
or trees
111 Suburban or industrial areas and
0,22 0,3 8 [0,37]
permanent forests
IV Urban areas in which at least 15% of the
0,24 1 16 [0,46]
surface is covered with buildings and
their average height exceeds 15m
Note: The parameters of this table are calibrated to obtain the best fit of available data. The 8.2
values kr, zo and zmin are used in 8.2, the value  is used in Annex B (Section 3).

z (m)
Special
advice

200

100
IV III II I
50

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 ce (z)

Figure 8.3
Fig. 7. Exposure coefficient ce(z) as a function of height z above
ground and terrain categories I to IV for ‘flat’ terrain. - c1=1

Note that tall buildings may be considered in sections with appropriate height ranges, and wind
pressures calculated for each section according to the corresponding ‘reference height’, as
shown in fig. 8. Fig. 10.2.2

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b: crosswind width h > 2b

ze = h

b < h < 2b ze = h - b
ze = z
ze = h
h<b

ze = h ze = b ze = b

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 8. Reference height ze as a function of the breadth and actual Fig. 10.2.2
building height. Wind pressure may be considered separately
within the separate zones.
Wind pressure distribution
The net pressure on a surface is the algebraic sum of the internal and external pressures. This is cl. 5.4
indicated in fig. 9. Fig. 5.1

neg neg neg neg

Positive Negative
pos internal neg pos internal neg
pressure pressure

(a) (b)

pos neg pos neg

We1 We2 We1 We2

(c) (d)

Fig. 5.1
Fig. 9 Pressure on surfaces of buildings
Wind pressure coefficients cpe and cpi are applied to determine the distribution of external and cl. 10
internal pressures respectively.
Values are tabulated for
 vertical walls of rectangular buildings Table 10.2.1
 flat roofs Table 10.2.2
 monopitch roofs Table 10.2.3
 duopitch roofs Table 10.2.4
 hipped roofs Table 10.2.5
A typical chart is shown in Fig. 10.and Table 6.

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ELEVATION

case d>e

PLAN e/5

d
wind A B C h

case d<e
wind D E b
e/5

wind A B h

A B C
A B
e=b or 2h
whichever is smaller
Key for vertical walls.

Fig 10.2.3
Fig. 10 External pressure coefficients for vertical walls of
rectangular plan buildings.
Table 10.2.1
Table 6 External pressure coefficients for vertical walls of
rectangular plan buildings.

Zone A B, B* C D E
d/h Cpe,10 Cpe,1 Cpe,10 Cpe,1 Cpe,10 Cpe,1 Cpe,1 Cpe,1 Cpe,10 Cpe,1
0
1 -1,0 -1,3 -0,8 -1,0 -0,5 +0,8 +1,0 -0,3
4 -1,0 -1,3 -0,8 -1,0 -0,5 +0,6 +1,0 -0,3

For buildings without internal partitions internal pressure coefficients are related to the opening cl. 10.2.9
ratio, , which is defined as: Fig. 10.2.11
= Total area of openings at the leeward and wind parallel sides
Total area of openings at the windward, leeward and wind parallel sides
For an homogeneous distribution of openings for an approximately square building, cpi may be
taken as -0,25.
For closed buildings with internal partitions, the worst case may be assumed:
cpi = 0,8, or cpi = -0,5
Special consideration is given to canopy roofs, buildings with more than one skin, solid
boundary walls, fences and signboards, and special structures.
The process for determining wind loads on a building is summarised in fig. 11.

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Mean wind velocity: v ref – (wind ‘maps’)

– exceptionally mod ified for alt itude or
direction

Mean pressure q ref =

2
0,5  v ref ( = 1,25)

Reference height z

Pressure coefficients
External pressure: cpe – Tables 10.2.1-5 for walls and
roofs of various shapes

Internal pressure: cpi calculated in relat ion to  rat io

and distribution of openings

Repeat for alternative wind directions

Terrain category I-IV

Exposure
coefficient ce(ze )

External pressure
we = q ref ce (ze ) cpe

Internal pressure wi
= q ref ce (zi ) cpi

Net pressure on
surface = we +/- wi

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cl. 9.2
Fig. 11. Flow chart for calculating wind pressures (for buildings not
susceptible to dynamic excitation - in practice this applies to
'normal buildings less than 200m high).

6. Load cases

6.1 Design values of loads

Design values are obtained from characteristic values multiplied by appropriate partial safety
factors. These account for accidental overloading and inevitable inaccuracies in the analysis.
They also implicitly incorporate the global factor of safety necessary in structural design. The
magnitude of the partial safety factor depends on the limit state under consideration and the
particular type of action. These are detailed in Table 7 which includes three 'classes' for
consideration. Class A refers to loss of static equilibrium and should be used, for example,
where consideration of overall stability is considered. Class B refers to failure of structure or
structural elements and is the condition most likely to apply. Class C refers to cases associated
with failure of the ground.
The basic values of partial safety factors to be used in design for Class B - failure of structure or
structural elements are summarised in Table 7 for both ultimate (Class B) and serviceability
limit states..

Table 7. Basic values of partial safety factors - Class B (failure of

structure or structural elements)

ULS SLS Table 9.2

Q G Q G
Unfavourable 1,5 (1,35)* 1,35 1,0 (0,9)* 1,0
effect
Favourable effect 0,0 1,0 - -

*Note that two values are quoted for variable loads. The appropriate value depends on whether
a single variable load, or a combination of, for example, imposed and wind loads, is considered,
and the simplified method for dealing with load combinations is adopted. This is discussed in
more detail below. Note also that the characteristic values of all permanent actions from one
source are multiplied by 1,35 if the total effect is unfavourable or by 1,0 if it is favourable.
This implies, for example, that for a continuous beam the self weight of the floor should be
factored by the same factor for all spans, with no allowance for pattern loading due to
permanent actions.
For consideration of Class A (loss of equilibrium) the following partial safety factors apply:
Unfavourable
Permanent  = 1,1
Variable  = 1,5
Favourable
Permanent  = 0,9
Variable  = 0,0

6.2 Combination values

When a load combination includes more than one variable load (for example imposed loads and
wind loads) the partial safety factors relating to the variable load components change, and each
variable load, except the one which has the greatest effect, is multiplied by a combination
factor, . If it is not clear which variable load has the greatest effect, all combinations should
be considered.

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The value of the the combination factor to use depends on the circumstances, the load type, and
the use of the building. For 'normal' circumstances (other than those concerning accidental or
seismic situations), the appropriate factor is designated 0. The values of 0 are as follows:
Imposed loads for all buildings except 0,7
storage:
Imposed loads for storage buildings 1,0
Snow loads 0,6
Wind loads 0,6
Potentially this gives rise to a very large number of possible load combinations, each of which
would require separate consideration and analysis. Fortunately, a simplified approach is
allowed for conditions known from previous experience to be critical, and this should be
satisfactory for most building designs.. The simplified approach is described below.

6.3 Simplified treatments

EC1 includes a simplified treatment for building structures in normal design situations. This
eliminates the use of the combination () factors and uses modified partial load factors. These
expressions imply a single permanent action, generally comprising the dead load, Gk. The dead
load will be combined with appropriate variable actions, typically those due to imposed, snow
and wind loads. For simple floor and roof structures the predominant actions are gravity loads
(dead and imposed for floors; dead and snow for roofs), but for framed structures the additional
influence of wind loads must of course be considered in combination. Thus typical load
combinations for cases where the actions are all detrimental are as follows:
Serviceability Limit State (for Class B - failure of structure or structural elements):
Dead + imposed (or snow): Gk + Q k
Dead + imposed (or snow) + wind: Gk + 0,9  Qk
Ultimate Limit State (for Class B - failure of structure or structural elements)
Dead + imposed (or snow): 1,35 Gk + 1,5 Qk
Dead + imposed (or snow) + wind: 1,35 Gk + 1,35  Qk
In some circumstances, certain actions may have a beneficial effect. For example dead loads
may assist in resisting wind or overturning, and imposed loads on the central span of a
continuous beam can relieve bending in the adjacent spans. Under these circumstances the
lower value (inferior) of the partial safety factor should be applied to the beneficial action. In
practice, for Class B conditions, imposed loads which are beneficial are simply ignored (inf =
0), whilst for dead loads resisting wind effects, a partial factor of 1,0 should be used.

7. Worked Examples

7.1 Dead loads

The floor construction of a commercial office building consists of:
50mm sand/cement screed
150mm normal weight reinforced concrete slab
12mm plaster (gypsum mortar) ceiling
Densities for each of these materials can be found from EC1-2-1 Table 4.1. These can be used
to determine the dead load intensity (kN/m2) as indicated in Table below.

Component Density Thickness (m) Load intensity= density 

(kN/m3) thickness (kN/m2)
Screed 20 (19 - 23) 0,05 20  0,05 = 1,0
Slab 24 0,15 24  0,15 = 3,6
Plaster 15 (12 - 18) 0,012 15  0,012 = 0,2

Including allowances for partitions and services the calculations may be set out as follows:
Screed 20  0,05 = 1,0 kN/m2

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Slab 24  0,15 = 3,6

Plaster 15  0,012 = 0,2
Partitions = 1,0
Services = 0,3
Total charachteristic load = 6,1 kN/m2

7.2 Imposed loads

Consider the case of a commercial office building. From EC1-2-1 Table 6.1, the occupancy
relates to category B (offices) and from Table 6.2 the corresponding imposed floor load
intensity is 3,0 kN/m2.
For beams and columns attracting load from wide areas, this value can be reduced.
Consider a main floor beam spanning 10m and supporting secondary beams which span 8m.
The total area, A, supported by the main beam is therefore:
A = 10,0  8,0 = 80 m2
The corresponding reduction factor  is then given by:
A = 5o/7 + 10/A
For imposed floor loads (excluding storage areas) o = 0,7
A = 5  0,7 /7 + 10 / 80 = 0,5 + 0,125 = 0,625
The imposed load to the beam can be reduced by this factor.
If the beam is subject to the dead load intensity specified in 7.1 above the total beam load is as
follows:
Dead load 6,1  8,0  10,0 = 488 kN
Imposed load 0,625  3,0  8,0  10,0 = 150 kN
For typical ultimate limit state calculations these would be combined using appropriate partial
safety factors (1,35 for dead loads and 1,5 for imposed loads)
Design load to beam (ULS) = 1,35  488 + 1,5  150 = 659 + 225 = 884 kN
For typical serviceability limit state calculations these would be combined using appropriate
partial safety factors (1,0 for dead loads and 1,0 for imposed loads)
Design load to beam (SLS) = 488 + 150 = 638 kN
For columns: n = {2 + (n –2)0 }/ n
where n is the number of storeys supported
Thus for a column supporing 4 storeys:
n = {2 + (4 –2)  0,7}/ 4 = 0,85
If the column supports two of the beams detailed in the previous example at each storey, the
total dead and imposed column loads are as follows:
Dead load = 4  488 = 1952 kN
Imposed load = 4  0,85  3,0  8,0  = 816 kN
10,0
For typical ultimate limit state calculations these would be combined using appropriate partial
safety factors (1,35 for dead loads and 1,5 for imposed loads)
Design load to column (ULS) = 1,35  1952 + 1,5  816 = 2635 + 1224 = 3859 kN

7.3 Snow loads EC1-2-3

W1 W2

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A building in Helsinki has a 24 duo pitched roof.

The characteristic snow load on the ground sk, is 2,5 kN/m2 Figure A2
The snow load shape coefficients for the roof are:
1 = 0,8; 2 = 0,8 + 0,6 (24 - 15) / 30 Figure 7.3
= 0,8 + 5,4 / 30 Table 7.2
= 0,8 + 0,18
= 0,98
Possible load arrangements:
W1 = 0,98  2,5 = 2,45 W2 = 0,8  = 2,0
2,5
W1 = 0,5  0,8  = 1,0 W2 =0
2,5
Consider the same roof as above but with unequal slopes of 24 and 36.
136 = 0,8 (60 - 36) / 30 124 = 0,8
= 0,64
236 = 1,1 (60 - 36) / 30 224 = 0,98
= 0,88
Possible load arrangements:
W1 = 0,88  2,5 W2 = 0,8  2,5
= 2,2 = 2,0
W1 = 0,5  0,64  2,5 W2 =0
= 0,8
W1 = 0,64  2,5 W2 = 0,98  2,5
= 1,6 = 2,45
W1 =0 W2 = 0,5  0,8  2,5
=1,0
Notes:
Even for a flat roof there is a reduction factor of 0,8.
In most cases it may be conservatively assumed that maximum snow load intensity is applied
uniformly across the full width of the roof.

7.4 Wind loads

Consider a building in suburban Athens, 30m high and with plan dimensions 20m  20m. The
building is 'closed' with internal partitions.
Mean wind velocity vref = 36 m/s
Mean wind pressure qref = 0,5  1,25  362 = 0,81 kN/m2
Reference height: consider the building in two zones ze = 20m and ze = 30m.
Terrain category III (kt = 0,22; ze(m) =0,3; zmin(m) = 8; e = 0,37)
Exposure coefficients
ce(20) = 2,25; ce(30) = 2,55
Pressure coefficients:
Internal pressure coefficient cpi = 0,8 or -0,5
External pressure coefficients:
d/h = 20 / 30 = 0,67
e = smaller of b (= 20) and 2h (= 60), so e = 20
d = e so consider wind pressure on side walls of building as uniform (ie pressures in zones B,
B* and C are all equal) - except for leading corner (zone A).

A B/B* D E
Cpe10 -1,0 -0,6 +0,8 -0,3
Cpe1 -1,0 -1,0 +1,0 -0,3

External wind pressure:

Up to 20m:
A: we(20) = 0,81  2,25  (-1,0) = -1,82 kN/m2

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B:: we(20) = 0,81  2,25  (-0,8) = -1,46 kN/m2

D we(20) = 0,81  2,25  (+0,8) = +1,46 kN/m2
E: we(20) = 0,81  2,25  (-0,3) = -0,55 kN/m2
From 20m to 30m
A: we(30) = 0,81  2,55  (-1,0) = -2,07 kN/m2
B: we(30) = 0,81  2,55  (-0,8) = -1,65 kN/m2
D: we(30) = 0,81  2,55  (+0,8) = +1,65 kN/m2
E: we(30) = 0,81  2,55  (-0,3) = -0,62 kN/m2
Internal wind pressure
Up to 20m:
Positive (pressure): wi(20) = 0,81  2,25  (+0,8) = +1,46 kN/m2
Negative (suction): wi(20) = 0,81  2,25  (-0,3) = -0,55 kN/m2
From 20m to 30m
Positive (pressure): wi(30) = 0,81  2,55  (+0,8) = +1,65 kN/m2
Negative (suction): wi(30) = 0,81  2,55  (-0,3) = -0,62 kN/m2
Net wind loads are calculated by combining the internal and external wind pressures
algebraically. In doing so it is important to be consistent in relation to wind direction, and
direction of internal pressure
Note that for rectangular (not square) buildings it will be necessary to consider wind in two
orthogonal directions.

7.5 Load combinations

7.5.1 3-span continuous beam (ULS for failure of structure)

W1 W2 W3

For consideration of failure of structural elements partial safety fators are determined from
Table 9.2. For a three span continuous beam, a number of conditions must be considered.
These correspond to different combinations of loading on the three spans. If these are
designated W1, W2 and W3 and the beams each span 10m, are at 8m centres, and are subject to
loadings as calculated in 7.1-2 above) the load combinations to be considered are as follows:
Maximum bending in span 1:
W1 = 1,35 Gk + 1,5 Qk; W2 = 1,35 Gk; W3 = 1,35 Gk + 1,5 Qk
W1 = W3 = 884 kN
W2 = 1,35  488 = 659 kN
Maximum bending in span 2:
W1 = 1,35 Gk; W2 = 1,35 Gk+ 1,5 Qk; W3 = 1,35 Gk
W1 = W3 = 659 kN
W2 = 884 kN
For maximum loads in the supporting internal columns, the maximum load would be considered
for all spans, ie W1 = W2 = W3 = 884 kN

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Introduction to EC1

7.5.2 2-storey building - single bay with balcony (ULS - loss of

equilibrium)

Wr1 Wr2
Wh

Wf1 Wf2
Wh

For consideration of loss of equilibrium partial safety factors are determined from Table 9.1.
For a 2-storey single bay building with cantilever, a number of conditions must be considered.
These correspond to different combinations of dead, imposed and wind loading, including
different patterns of vertical load on the span and cantilever at first floor and roof. If the loads
are designated Wr1, Wr2 (for the roof span and cantilever), Wf1, Wf2 (for the floor span and
cantilever), and Wh is the horizontal load due to wind, the load combinations to be considered
are as follows:
0 = 0,6 (snow load); 0 = 0,6 (wind loads); 0 = 0,7 (floor imposed loads)
Wr2 = 1,35 Gkr + 1,35 Qkr
Wf1 = 1,0 Gkf
Wf2 = 1,35 Gkf
Considering imposed roof loads dominant:
Wr1 = 1,0 Gkr
Wr2 = 1,35 Gkr + 1,5 Qkr
Wf1 = 1,0 Gkf
Wf2 = 1,35 Gkf + 0 (floor) (1,50 Qkf)
= 1,35 Gkf + 0,7 × 1,50 Qkf
= 1,35 Gkf + 1,05 Qkf
Wh = 0 (wind) (1,5 Wk)
= 0,6 × 1,5 Wk
= 0,9 Wk

Considering imposed floor loads dominant:

Wr1 = 1,0 Gkr
Wr2 = 1,35 Gkr + 0 (snow) (1,50 Qkr)
= 1,35 Gkf + 0,6 × 1,50 Qkr
= 1,35 Gkf + 0,9 Qkr
Wf1 = 1,0 Gkf
Wf2 = 1,35 Gkf + 1,5 Qkf
Wh = 0 (wind) (1,5 Wk)
= 0,6 × 1,5 Wk

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= 0,9 Wk

Considering wind loads dominant

Wr1 = 1,0 Gkr
Wr2 = 1,35 Gkr + 0 (snow) (1,50 Qkr)
= 1,35 Gkf + 0,6 × 1,50 Qkr
= 1,35 Gkf + 0,9 Qkr
Wf1 = 1,0 Gkf
Wf2 = 1,35 Gkf + 0 (floor) (1,50 Qkf)
= 1,35 Gkf + 0,7 × 1,50 Qkf
= 1,35 Gkf + 1,05 Qkf
Wh = 1, 5 Wk

Considering all variable loads in combination using the simplified approach:

Wr1 = 1,0 Gkr
Wr2 = 1,35 Gkr + 1,35 Qkr
Wf1 = 1,0 Gkf
Wf2 = 1,35 Gkf + 1,35 Qkf
Wh = 1,35 Gk

8. Concluding Summary
 The principal actions to be considered in the design of buildings are dead and imposed
loads, snow, and wind. .
 Dead loads are calculated on the basis of material densities specified in EC1-2-1 and
construction details
 Imposed loads are defined in EC1-2-1 in relation to building usage, classified as
residential, office, assembly (subdivided according to likely density of occupation), shopping ,
and storage.
 Calculation procedures for snow loads are detailed in EC1-2-2 and are based on
geographical location and roof shape.
 Calculation procedures for wind loads are detailed in EC1-2-3 and are based on
 For most buildings wind loads can be assumed to be determined from quasi-static pressures
determined according to location, exposure and building height.
 Internal wind pressures depend on the distribution of openings in walls.
 The distribution of external wind pressures on walls and roof slopes depends on the
geometry of the building
 Partial safety factors are used to account for uncertainties in load levels; values depend on
load type, the limit state considered, and the design condition (structural failure, loss of
equilibrium or failure of the ground)
 Partial safety factors are modified to account for different combinations of actions, but a
simplified approach can be adopted.

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