cellular may 156 Unit 2 Present simple or present continuous? We use the present simple: * or habits or repeated actions or events He drives to work every day ‘+ with adverbs of frequency (always, usually, never, rarely, sometimes, often, et.) to show how often something happens. The adverbs usually go before the main verb or after the modal/auxliany verb. ‘My brother always sings inthe shower * for facts that ar always tue, It gets dark at night * for events/situations that are permanently tre, or true at the time of speaking. Pop groups make records, * for fixed timetables. ‘Our plane leaves in 5 minutes * intime clauses with a future meaning, ‘.phone you when | arrive. * in film/book reviews, when summarising a plot. The hero runs in and rescues the gi We use the present continuous ‘* for actions that are happening at the moment of speaking, He's driving o work now. ‘+ with alvays to show that something which happens often is annoying or suprising ‘My brother's always complaining! * for situations/states that are changing, Our-clmate is getting hte: + for situations that are temporary true only fra limited time]. ‘McFly are making a record at the moment. * for fixed plans and arrangements inthe future ‘Tm meeting my fiends tonight. ‘* something that is happening in the present, around now, but ‘not atthe exact moment of speaking. ‘Mobile phones are getting cheaper. Notice the spelling changes sit> sitting: make > making > Present continuous for future see Unit 3 State verbs State verbs desorive a state, not an activity They cannot ‘normally be used in the continuous form. They include: ‘© verbs of thinking e.g. agree, believe, disagree, doubt, expect”, forget”, know, remember", suppose, think", tnderstand ‘© verbs describing attitudes e.g. dislike, hate, like, lave, need, ‘refer, want wish * verbs of sense/percention e.g. hear’, see, smell, taste* + verbs describing appearance, qualities &.g. appear, ook (-seem), seem, sound * verbs of being and possession e.g. be*, belong ta, contain, have", own, possess * other verbs e.. cost. ft. mean, owe, weigh We use some state verbs in the continuous when we describe actions. These are marked with an asterisk (*), J think (= believe) you're right. 'm thinking about (considering) it 1 sae (= understand) what you mean. 'm seeing him tomorrow. ‘We can use fee! and Jookin the continuous with no change in meaning. ‘eel/am feeling il. You look/are looking tired. ‘We often use can with sense/perception verbs. can't hear you. | cam see something ‘See and hear are stative verbs but loakand listen describe actions, Can you see it? (m looking at the photos. ‘ican hear voices next door. 'm listening to the musi. eeting) Adverbs of frequency We use adverbs of frequency: to say haw often something happens. always vsily frementoten someinesecasionaly ¥v rarely/hardly ever v never ‘Adverbs of frequency come: © before main verbs 1 always have English lessons on Monday + after bo in hardly ever late for English lessons. © after auxiliary verbs 1've never been to England. «© after modal verbs 1/can usually understand my English pen friend Past simple We use the past simple to talk about: * actions which are completed We all worked hard. ‘a sequence of past actions. Everyone sat down and the lesson began. (= everyone sat down, and then the lesson began) * habitin the past. We went othe cinema every week Notice the spelling changes ‘1y> ied, move > moved, clap > clappedPresent perfect simple ~¥ Present perfact forms, see Unit 4. We use the present perfecttto talk about: ‘© recently completed single actions. We don’t say when they happened, because we're more interested inthe present result. I've bought a new CD. (| have it now). ‘things that have happened in our lives up to now. ve been to lots of pop concerts. ‘© an event that started in the past and continues up to the present, especially with forand since. ‘She's known Simon for three years. He's lived in London since 2006. ‘a period of time that is stil continuing, with expressions like today, this week, this year, etc. We ve learnt two new songs today (and its still only 3pm. ‘Notice the difference between have/has been and have/has gone He's beem to London. (He went to London inthe past but he's back now) ‘He's gone to London. (He's in London now.) Present perfect with adverbs We use just for very recent events We've just heard the news ‘We use yet when we are expecting something to happen. Yet is normally used for questions and negatives and goes at the end ofthe clause Have you seen the new James Band fim yet? Wo use already when something has happened before now. I've already sent hin an ereil, ‘We use since when we refer to the starting point in time. since [was tweive/2004/the beginning of term ‘We use forwhen we refer tothe period of time, for about a yeat/a long time/three minutes, We use eve in questions and statements to tak about whether an event or experiance has/hasn't happened at some ‘ime in the past. ‘We use never for something that hasn't happened, and for a negative answer. Have you ever played The Sims’? No, ve mever played it We can use everand never with the comparative and superlative This i the best film I've ever seen. I've never seen a better fil. Present perfect continuous Past Now -<10-years> ¥, We've been frends for ten years. 1've known my frend for ten years. Past (Age 4) Now —t!_ _—__——1 | ‘She's been learning English since she was four years old ‘She's been working too hard (= She looks tired) We use the present perfect continuous to talk about: ‘ an action that started inthe past and continues upto now. ‘She's been learning English since she was four years old. + An action that started inte past and fnished recently but the results are evident inthe present. She's been working toc hard. (= She looks tired) 4 We use these expressions with the present perfect continuous: since, for, how iong?, all day/allnight/all momning. Present perfect simple or past simple? We use the present perfect simple: ‘© for actions that happened at an unspecified time. He's won a talent show. ‘© for actions and situations that began in the past and are still continuing ‘She's been a dancer for two years. + to talk about things that have happened in our ives upto now. Shayne's toured al ound the void We use the past simple: * for actions that happened at definite past time He won talent show when he was ust sixteen. + for actions or situations that finished inthe past. ‘She was a dancer fortwo years but she doesnt dance.any more * to give more details about our experiences or ask questions about it He gave a concert in London last manth and last week he was in Uverpodl Where did he visit fist? Did he enjoy it? Present perfect simple or continuous? Compare the present perfect continuous with the present perfect simple. Present perfect continuous He's been writing a new song (The action is not complete) {ts been raining fortwo hours! focus on how tong) Tim hot because I've been running, (focus on a recent action) ‘She's been living in Spain for a wile but she’s leaving next week: (temporary situation)er Tilia) Present perfect simple He's written @ nev song. (The action is complete) Is rained twice this week {focus on how often/how many) I've rum ail the way here! Now I'm extausted! (focus on the present result of @ rent action} She's With work teach, study and fv, we can use the present perfect simple or continuous + for/snce with no change in meaning; ve worked/'ve been working here for yosrs. We use the present perfec simple with state verbs I've Anoven hin since 2007, Past simple > past simple forms, see Unit 1. Past continuous We use the past continuous to talk about: * something which was in progress ata particular time inthe past I was watching TV at 8 o'clock last night. © to ‘set the scene’ in a story, The sky was grey and it was snowing hard. * an action in progress inthe past whichis interrupted by ‘another short action. We use whan before the action in the past simple and while/when before the action in the past continuous When | arrived, they were playing my favourite song. I played the song while/when we were driving into town, + something we were planning or expected to happen. We were planning to goto France but went io Spain instead. Used to/would ‘We use used to or would + infinitive to tak about habits or repeated actions inthe past. 1 used to go jogging every day until hurt my knee He would stay up al night when he was younger ‘We use used to (not would) to talk about past states. She used to have long hair | i’ use to like pop msi. Where did they use to lve? Past perfect simple ‘We use the past perfect simple to describe a that happened before another action in the past. The parrot had escaped from its cage when we arrived home. [= fist the parrot escaped, then we arrived home. Past Now +~—______—__ The ship had sailed when they arrived at the port ction or event in Spain al her life. (permanent situation) We use many of the same time expressions that we use with the present perfect withthe past perfect when, after, by, by the time, before, a soon as, until, already just, ever, never, the day/week/month before. ‘She didn’t come to the zoo with us, because she had already visited it The tourists had just started the safari when they saw a lion. Jim had never been on a wildlife holiday before we went to Africa. By the time they got home, they had spent ai! their money. Past perfect continuous We use the past perfect continuous for: a past action that continued over a period of time uni another action interrupted it. We'd been sailing for a few hours when the storm broke. a past action that continued aver a period of time but stopped before another action happened or before a specific time. Td been looking forward to the trio but it was cancelled at the last minute. when her mother ealled her for cinner ‘We use these time expressions with the past perfect continuous: for since, all day/night/week/year She'd been watching for two hours whem the elephant appeared. He'd been studying Biology since he was ten, They'd been walking through the jungle all day. Past tenses in narratives Compare these narrative tenses. Past simple * For the main events, to say what happened next. aul jumped out of bed, opened the window. and looked out. Past continuot ‘For background actions that continued while the main events happened, The sun was shining. Past perfect «© To refer to something that happened earlier His father had already left for work Articles ‘We use the definite article the: '* when there is only one of something in existence The Earth ‘is,ound. ‘* when we have mentioned a person or thing before We saw tiger and a lon. The tiger was sleeping but the lion was wide awake.‘when itis clear who or what we are refering to Look! The guide is calling us to go. ‘with superiative-adjectives The cheetah isthe fastest animal in the word ‘with adjectives the poor, the elderly ‘© with some countries the USA, the UK; before national groups the Italians, before nationalities ending in sh, -ch, ‘r -e5¢ or plural groups the Chinese ‘with plural names of countries, rivers, seas, oceans, groups of mountain ranges, deserts, and areas the USA, the Pacife, the Andes, the Seychelles, the Sahara, the southwest of Spain. «with some places of entertainment and important buildings We went to the cinema, The Houses of Farfiament. ‘© with musical instruments /lay the guitar © with newspapers the Times © with inventions Bell invented the telephone. « with parts of the body after preposition The dog bit him on the eg We use the indefinite article a/an: * before single countable nouns when we talk abut a thing or person, but we don’t say which thing or person we mean "ve just seen a snake! She's a dentist ‘© when we are referring to people and things in general A lawyer eams more than a car mechanic. «when we are referring to.a person or thing which we are mentioning forthe fist time / want to buy a car * for singular obs and other groups that people belong to He's a teacher. She a wildlife enthusiast. © to mean ‘one’ before fractions and large numbers @ ‘hundred dollars, two and a half cuptls. * to mean ‘each’ or ‘per’ 10 kilometres an hour, once a day * before some illnesses, especially ones that are not serious ‘ve got fu. BUT I've got @ cold/a headache, * before certain fixed expressions i a hurry, at am alarming rate * with expressions of quantity @ couple and of frequency once amonth We use no article when we are talking in general: * before plural, countable nouns Goria are beautiful animals! + before uncountable nouns Pollution is a prablem. * before some illnesses, especially serious ones /'ve got measles, * before sports, games, school subjects and languages ike foottall. | love Biology * before meals /aven t had dinner yet * before certain institutions like hospitals and prisons / broke ‘my leg and had 0 go to hospital BUT we use the definite article the) to refer just tothe building. We hada look round the new hospital. ‘And with these expressions and prepositional phrases: * to/at from school, university, college, work * info class, church * to/in/into/out of bed, hospital, prison * go home ‘* by car, bus, plane, boat, taxi, ferry, bicycle; by accident/ ‘mistake * on fooyholiday/business/time/TV We also use no article with the names of: * continents, and most countries, cities/towns, mountains Asia, Australia, Paris, the Himalayas * individual mountains and lakes Mount Everest, Lake Geneva © mnames of streets/roads, squares and parks Regent Street Piccadilly Square ‘+ most shops and restaurants McDonald's Countable/uncountable nouns * Countable nouns have singuiar and plural forms a.game, games; a child, children; a foot, feet ‘© Uncountable nouns have no plural form. We use some before them, not a/an, We always use singular verbs. with them. Cur teacher gave us some homework. The homework is easy. The following common nouns are usually uncountable: accommodation, advice, behaviour funiture, fod, information, knowledge, luggage. money, news, progress, success, traffic, _ travel, trouble, water, work. ‘Some nouns can be either countable or uncountable, ‘depending onthe meaning. {'ve got a roam of my own i our fat. Is there enough room on the sofa for me to sit down? Unit 3 The future will We use will ‘© to make general predictions about the future. ‘It will rain tomorrow In thirty yeas’ time, Ife won't be the samme as now. © We often use ! think, sure, probably, definitely etc. to show haw certain we feel think hel do welt in his exams. Tm sure we'll win. * for decisions we make atthe time we are speaking, They re looking for teenage TV presenters. think apply! © for offers and promises. M give you a hand. FI pay you ‘back soon. going to Weuse going to: * to make general predictions about the future. Be going fois mora informal than wills going to be really hot tomorrow. * for things we expect to happen because of what we know or can see now, Look out! You're going to drop those books! * forintentions and plans, when we've already decided to do something, (7 going to stay in today. I've got to write my ‘application. Present simp ‘We use the present simple for events inthe future that are part of a timetable, Our train leaves at ten o'clock. The library closes at six this evening. 159Cele Taira Present continuous We use the present continuous (not the present simple) to talk about future events that we have planned and arranged. The time reference must be clear or stated from the context. Wee hhaving a party next week. Are you doing anything this evening? Tm meeting Sarah at eight o'clock. We use wil (not the present simple) for decisions we make at the time of speaking, o for offers and promises Wait. come with you (not Feome-with-yeu) I meet you atthe cinema. Inot treet poets | > will n conditional forms see Unit 6. Future continuous We use the future continuous: * to talk about an action that willbe in progress at a particular time in the future. ‘Can we meet at seven tomorrow?" ‘No, Ml be doing my homework then.’f='M start doing homework earlier than seven and continue later than seven.) Compare the future with will and the future continuous. Come at seven thirty. We'll wath a film at sx (= We'll start ‘watching at six} Don't come at six. We ll be watching a fm. {© We'll be inthe middle of watching ) * to talk about future arrangements wich are already planned. Mf be going into town tomorrow. Do you went me to get you anything? Future perfect simple ‘We use the future perfect simple to talk about an action or situation that wil be finished before a particular time in the futur. can phone you at seven tomorrow. My lesson will ‘have finished by ther. = it will nish some time before then.) ‘We often use the future perfect with by or by the time + present simple. We'll have finished cur breakfast by eight. By the time we arrive, he'l have gone cut Compare the future with willand the future perfect. Wet {go at nine o'clock = Nine o'clock is the time we'l go.) We ‘have gone by nine o'clock. = We'll go before nine o'clock} shall ‘We usually use shall to make a suggestion or an offer. n both ‘cases we use the question form, Shall we go out tonight? Shall | cary your books for you? Future in the past ‘We use was/were going to + infinitive to talk about a planned action in the past that didn’t happen. / was going to meet her, but | ditt have time. (= it was my intention to phone her, but | didn't.) Future time clauses Notice the tense forms used to refer to the futur aftr linking ‘words suchas after before, wien, while, as soon as, until, ‘once and next time. ‘We use the present simple to refer toa future action. phone ‘him when | get home (not when Fit get heme.) ‘We use the present continuous to refer toan action that will be in progress inthe future. cream about this holiday while 'm sitting in a hot, stuffy classroom. (nat white tbe. tying) ‘We use the present perfect to refer to an action that will be complete in the future Call me after you've seen him. (Not «after you will have seen him) We use te future perfect continuous with forto emphasise the duration of a state or action which will probably continue ater the time mentioned Wel have been earning English for six years next September Unit 4 Modal verbs Abi can, could We use canto talk about general ability and possiblity in the present. / cam play the guitar Be able tois more formal and ‘ot as common, We are not able to attend the ceremony. We use could and was/were able to for general ability in the past. He could swim from the age of four We use was/were able to infinitive (not could) to talk about the ability to do something on a single occasion in the past. He ‘was able to swim to the shore, We use willbe able tofor a general ability or possibility to do ‘something in the future. When we get home, we'l be able to tell our friends about what happened. Probability should (be//ought to (be) We use should (be) and ought to (be) to say that we think somethings likely now or in the future, but we aren't sure They should ought to be at home by now (=| think they are athome) Possibility may (be)/might (be)/could (be) ‘We use may (be)/might (be//could (be) to say that something ‘is possible now or in the future. The order of certainty from hhighest to lowest is may > might > could. We use may (bel/might (be)/could ibe) + infinitive o talk about the present or the future, It may/might/could be hormone changes that make teenagers sleepy in the moming. Obligation must/have to/needn't ‘We use must and have to for present obligation. We use must: ‘© when the speaker feels that an action is necessary | must finish my homework before | go out. We use have to: ‘© when an action is necessary because someone else requires itor because ofa law or rule. My parents say I have to finish my homework before | go aut. We have to take our shoes off in the gym.« to talk about obligation inthe past or future. She will have to go to the dentist if she got toothache. (Future) / didn’t {go out lastnight because | had to look after my brother (Past simple) Paula has had to walk home because she ‘missed the bus. Present perfect) * with adverbs of frequency always, often, sometimes, et. I mever have to clean my own room, She sometimes has ‘0 work inthe evenings. ‘We use don't/doesn't or di/didh't have to/eed to or needh't: + wien there is ng obligation. You don't have to.90 if you don't want to ts okay ~ you needn't worry! Advice and recommendation We use should/shouldn tor ought (nat to give advice or say that something is or isnt good idea. You should tak to your parents. He shouldn't miss school. We ought to work harder 1 ‘ought nat to arque with my sister We use had better nat) + infinitive to give strong advice ora waming, You'd better go home now! You'd better not tel your ‘mum! We use sould/shouldin’tor ought (not/+ have + past participle to express criticism of someone's behaviour in the past. She shouldn't have shouted at you Permission and requests We use: + can/can'tpresent), could/eculdnt\past) and (not) be allowed tall tenses) to tak about permission of lack of permission. You ean go homie now. You ean’ talk n exams. ‘My parents were strict and | wasm't allowed to stay out late at right. * allowed to (not could, to speak about a particular occasion We were allowed to leave school early yesterday. ‘can, could (more polite or may formal) to ask for permission and make requests. Can / do it? Could / borrow your phone? May sit here? Speculating about the past We use: ‘© may/might/could + have + past participle when we th possible that something happened. He may have had an ‘argument with his dod ‘+ may/might nots have+ past participle (but not couldn’ ‘when we think it’s possible that something didnt happen. They might not have seen us. * could have + past patciple for a past action which did't happen, although the opportunity existed. / could have gone fora swim, but I did't Necessity and lack of necessity * Needis a main verb with present, past, future and participle forms, followed by tornfnitive /meed io see you. She didn’t need to pey t0.g0 in ‘+ Need can also be 2 modal verb, followed by infinitive ‘without to. This form is mainly used in negatives You ‘needn't wor (=Itisn't necessary) _ Sait ‘Compare these uses of need wen talking about the past. We didn't need to run tothe station because we had plenty of time. = We d’t run because it wasn't necessary, We needn't have run tothe station because ‘our train was delayed. = We ran, but ittumed out wasn't necessary) > Must/can t/couldn't+ have + past participle see Unit 11. Unit 5 _ ae Adjectives and adverb: comparative structures ‘We add -er and -est to form the comparative and superlative of regular one-syllable adjectives, two-sylable adjectives ending in- and adverbs with the same form as adjectives. Watch out for spelling changes! Mac is hotter than London in summer. Athens is the busiest city | have ever seen. . We use more and most to form the comparative and superlative of regular adjectives with two or more syllables. We also use more and mast with most adverbs ending in ly Here are some imegular adjectives and adverbs: Adjective comparative __ superlative good better the best bad worse the worst far further the farthest Tittle less the least ‘muchimany | more the most Advert comparative superlative well better the best badly | worse the worst late later the last ‘mucha lot ‘more the mast ite ‘ess the least We use as+ adjactive/adverb + as to compare two things that are equal. John is (not) as tall as his father We use (not) as+ adjective/adverb + as to mean ‘ess... thant He not as tall as me. (= He's less tal than me.) We use as (nat) as + much/many + noun + as to compare ‘quantities | don't do nearly as much homework as him. To qualify statements, we use a bt/alitle/even/rather/ lightly/rather/far/a lot. Exams were a lat harder in the past We use + comparative ... + comparative ... to showea trend, or that one situation depends on another. The bigger schools ge, the less friendly they become. We can also use these expressions to compare things * the same (as) Clare's watch is the nearly/exacty) same as mine: © ‘similar to Your trainers are (quite/very) similar to John's. © lifferent from My jeans area bt/completely lifferent from thoseGrammar File too, enough, very Too means more than you need. Enough means as much as you ‘need. We use them in these patterns: © Too+ adjective/adverb This watch is too old. It stops too often. + (not/adjective/adverb + enough Are you comfortable ‘enough? Did she speak sfowly enough? These jeans aren't big enough! ‘© too + adjective/adverb + infinitive /'m too tired to go to the party * (not/adjective/adverb + enough+ infinitive They aren't fast ‘enough to win the race * 100+ adjective/adverb + forsomebody + to infritive OR not + adjective/adverb + enaugh + for somebody + ro-infinitive, This box is too heavy for him to lift. (= The box is very heavy sohe can‘tlifti), The questions were easy enough for aura to answer (= The questions were very easy so Laura could answer them.) So... that, such (a/an) ... that We use so/such to emphasise adjectives, adverbs and ‘quantities. © 80+ adjective/adverb My teacher's so kind! John speaks so fast! ‘© such + adjective + uncountable/plural noun We had such ‘good fun! We had such interesting lessons! + such a/an+ adjective +singuiar noun (had such 2 shock! + s0-+ much/many ve got so many fiends to el! We use so... that/such (a/an)... thatto describe cause and effect. ! was so happy that jumped in the air It was such awful weather that we stayed indoors. There were sa many children at the party that the noise was deafening! Determiners -+single + + plural + plural countable uncountable countable countable/ ‘noun noun ‘noun uncountable noun each, every afew (ofl, | some, alot/ severe), ots of, plenty ‘many, most, | of no, a few, few, a number of, all | ‘We use some in positive sentences and in requests or offers. I've got some new games. Shll I bring some CDS? ‘We use anyin negative sentences and questions. They did't sive us any advice, Have they got any mobile phones? We Can use na instead of nat any, witha positive verb. ve got no time. (= Vaven't got any time.) ‘We use much with uncountable nouns and many with countable nouns in negative sentences and questions. haven't got much money. How many books do we need? A little and a few(= some) have a positive meaning, lke some Miltake a little time. ve got a few new COs. Little and few have a negative meaning (=almast none). He had very litte time to escape. We've got very few biscuits left. Plenty of and enough mean ‘as much aS we need. You've gor plenty of chips. Have you got enough money? Too mach and to9 many mean ‘more than we need. There’ too ‘much ol inthis food! You've brought too many books. We can use some/any/none + ofbefore pronouns end possessives. Some of thom don't eet meat Uni Conditionals Zero conditional We use the zero conditional f/When + present simple, + present simple) to talk about things that are always or generally tue. if eat too much chocolate, | feel sick First conditional We use the first conditional (i+ present simple, + wil/can/ ccould/may/might * to tak about possible actions in the future. We can use an imperative in the main clause instead of wil. |! see her, if tell her your news. Ifyou need help, tell me! We can also use the present continuous or the present perfect. ‘The ifclause can come atthe beginning of the sentence or after the main clause. When it comes atthe beginning, we put a comma after it. If! see her I tel! her tell her if see her ‘We use uniessin frst conditional sentences to mean if not 1''go for a walk unless it rains. Unless Tina arrives soon, we'l be too late for the cinema. ‘We use provided/providing (that) or as long asto mean ‘fot ‘on conditon that” lend you my bike on condition that/as Jong as you bring it back tonight. We use n case when we are thinking about something that might happen. !'m going to buy 2 sandwich fn case | get hungry later. Second conditional We use the second conditional (i+ past simple + would/ ‘could/might} + to talk about imaginary or impossibe situations in the present. If] were a pop star I would buy a big house in the county ‘to talk about unlikely present or future situations. /f] won the lottery, I'd buy a racing car * to give advice or make suggestions. ///were you, I'd buy those trainers We can use could or mightin the main clause instead of would. | had lessons, could play the guitar better We can use unless instead of if / wouldn't fend anyone my phone unless I knew them We can use Suppase/suppasing to mean what i? Suppose you wen a free holiday, where wauld you go?Third conditional We use the third conditional i+ past perfect, + would have/ could have/might have + past participle) to talk about possible events in the past that didn’t happen. IF wd saved up, we could have bought tickets for tne match. ‘We can use the continuous tense in the ifclause or inthe main sentence. he hadn't been driving fast, he wouldn't hhave crashed. I Pau! hadht proposed, Jessice wouldn't have ‘been feeling so happy Mixed conditionals ‘We use a mixed conditional to show a past event has an effect on the present. The ifclause refers tothe past (third conditional) and the main clause refers tothe present or future {second conditional). /f/ hadn't broken my leg, 'd be able to play football now. The passive We form the passive with the correct tense of be + past participle. The object of an active sentence becomes the subject of a passive sentence. Somebody stole the pantin The painting was stolen. We use the passive when: ‘© we want to focus on the action, not on the person or ting responsible forthe action. The computers been repaired. Great! ‘* we don't now or care who does the action. The museum was opened in 2005. (i's not important wh opened it) ‘+ we want to make the important information stand out. Tickets are being sold over the Intemet ‘© When we want to emphasise the importance ofthe person ‘doing the action, e.. if someone has done a special ‘well-known job. In this case we use by+ person. Fomeo and Juliet was written by Shakespeare |fwe want to mention the doer of the action, we use by + person/thing, The Earth was hit by @ meteor The passive is more common in formal writing than in speech. Itis especially used in reports and newspapers. Some verbs only havea passive form. Bart Simpson was born in Sprngfel. In signs and notices, the verb be may be left out Ia verb has two objects and one i a person, the person is Usually the subject of the passive sentence, In the passive, et becomes be allowed to. In the passive, make someone lo becomes be made + to-+ infinitive ‘We can use get something done to say that we do something ‘ourselves. It suggests that there is lot to be done or that itis difficult but that we manage to finish i. | got all my homework finished yesterday Forms of the passive Present simple uncreds of mobi, week, Present continuous //2 sesearc’ is laboratory. Past simple The fist fim was shown in used in 2 digital camera Past continuous The obots were beifig, play football. Future One cay, human footballers will be beaten by Present perfect simple Tie gone has been tested Past perfect simple 7/2 window had been broken Have/get something done We use the causative form (subject + have+ object + past participle) when we don't do something ourselves, but arrange for someone else to doit for us. Al tenses are possible. James had his ear cleaned (= He arranged for someone else to doit or her) We're having our flat decorated We can use get something done in similar way, especially in informal English. ! must get my eyes tested But we don't Usually use getin the present perfect tense. We can use have something done but not get something done) when something unpleasant happens tous. ad my wallet ‘stolen on my way home from school Unit 8 Gerunds ‘We use -ing forms: + as a noun, when the verb is the subject or the object ofthe sentence. Learning to be a DJs hard work, Her favourite sport is sailing. «© after certain verbs, e.g. avoid, begin, continue, hate, imagine, keep, like, ove, prefer practise, recommend, remember, star, stop, suggest. J enjoy cooking for friends + afterall prepositions and phrases that end with prepositions, e.g. interested in, good at, bad a, bored with, fd up with, fond of, tired of He’ really good at making decisions. ‘after certain expressions looking forward to, mind, can't stand, its no good/us, its nat worth, there no point, ts waste of time, spend time. I don't mind living in the city. « after verbs of perception &g. see, hear, etc. when the action ‘after the verb is continuous. saw him swimming inthe poo « after spend/waste time I've spent ages making dinnerrammar Fi Infinitives We use to-infinitives « after certain verbs e.. advise, agree, allow, appear, ask begin, choose, continue, decide, expect, fore, forget, hate, ‘help, hope, learn, like. manage, offer, order plan, pater prepare, promise, refuse, seem, start, stop, want, would Tike, would love. Hes forgotten to bring his books. The waiter ordered them to leave. «after adjectives that describe feelings, e.0. happy, possible, sony, pleased. She was happy o help. Vim gladto be here. * after adjectives such as difficult easy exiting, expansive, fun hard, impossible and interesting, to describe an action or activity. We can also use i+ be + adjective (+ for somebody) + t0-ifnitive, This book is easy to read. « after certain verbs and phrases. These include: agree afford. appear, arrange, ask. attempt, choose, decide, expect, fil help, hesitate, hope, intend, lea, manage, offer, plan, prepare, pretend, promise, propose, refuse, seem, threaten, want, wish, would hate, would love/like, would prefer Some verbs must have an objec before the toinfntve. He ‘advised us to wait. (Not He-advised-to-wet) These include allow, ask, encourage, expect forbid, force, get. help, instrct, intend, invite, leave, like, mean, need, oblige, oder, permit, persuade, prefer, recommend, request, remind, teach, tell, tempt, want, warn. ‘We use object + infinitive without fo: «after make and let ‘He made her cry Let me hejo! {BUT in the passive we use to after mate. He was made to pay back the money. « after certain phrases e.g rather. You'd better . rather not go. You'd better listen to your mum! ‘We use (in order) to + infinitive to say wivy we do something, He went tothe shops ta buy some sweets -ing form or to-infinitive? ‘We can use -ing forms or infinitives without changing the meaning after some vetbs, eg. begin, continue, hate, ite Jove, prefer, start. ove going to parties/| love to go to parties. But using ing forms or infinitives completely changes the meaning of some verbs. Compare: Tremember doing it (=Vdid | [mmust remember todo it (= itand lean remember it) _| must not forget to do it) ‘He stopped drinking ‘He stopped to drink a cup of ‘was drinking and thenhe | coffee. (= He stopped what stopped.) he was doing in order to clink) Tilnever forget meeting | I forgot to meet him. (= ‘im. =I met him and | won't_| went out of my mind, so forget it) didn’t meet him.) Try leaving home earierif | [ltr to leave home earlier you're always late far school. | tomorrow because I've got (Leave ealier and see ifit__| an important exam (=I helps.) make an effort to leave earlier) Being a professional {didn't mean to kick you! = ‘sportsman means training ‘aver day. (= involves) twasn't my intention) Tregret telling him the Tregret to tell you that secret. (=m sorry for what | James has had an accident. I did.) (I'm sorry 'm going to have to tell you this) Unit 9 Reported speech We use reported speech to tell somebody else what a person said earlier. After a past tense reporting verb (€9. said, tod) the orginal verbs usually shift back one tense into the past, and the pronouns and possessive adjectives change direct speech reported speech (actual words) eyo present simple past simple present continuous past continuous past simple past perfect simple past continuous past perfect continuous present perfect simple past perfct simple present perfect continuous | past perfect continuous past perfect simple/ no change continuous am/is going was/were going to will would ccanveould could may might must/have to rad to should/could/might/ought | no change to/would ‘When the reporting verb is in the present tense, we don't change any tenses in reported speech. Sally‘! excited.’ Sally says (that) she’s realy excited.5 et Expressions of time and place ‘These words/phrases often change in reported speech: Direct speech Reported speech ow [then today, tonight | that day, that night tomorrow | the next day/the following day/ | the day after yesterday the day before/the previous day. tonight that night next week/manth/year_| the following week/month/year lest week/month/year _| the previous week/month/year a month/week ago _| the previous month/week here there thisfthat the these those Reporting verbs Themstconmon poring vrs for stoners ar ayer aaa leaving. She told him/her (that) We can also use other reporting verbs lke those below. The verbs marked * can be followed by more than one structure. Verb + to-infnitive Agree*, decide", offer, promise", propose", refuse, threaten Verb + object + to-infinitive Advise, beg. encourage, invite, order permit persuade”, tell, wamn™ Verb + -ing Admit*, deny*, recommend”, suggest Verb + (object) + preposition + ing ‘accuse somebody of, advise* somebody against, agree” with somebody on/about, apologise for, blame somebody for, ‘boast about. complain” (to somebody) about, congratulate ‘somebody on, insist on, warn” (somebody) against/about Verb + that clau Admit*, announce, agree™, believe, complain, decide, demand, deny*, explain, inform, insist, promise™, state, suggest*, threaten Verb + object + thatclause Jnform, persuade*,promise*, remind, warn* Reported questions Reported questions have the same tense and word changes ‘as reported statements, The word order is the same as in statements and we don't use a question mark ‘When we report a yes/no question, we use if/whether after the reporting verb, ‘Can | buy this jacket?” she asked (= She asked it whether she ‘could buy the jacket.) ‘When we report wh- questions, we use the same question word. ‘Where are you going?’ Katy asked. =Katy wanted to ‘now where | was going, The word order in reported questions is the same as in statements and there is no do/does/did auxiliary ‘Where are ‘you going?’ = She asked (me) where | was going Reported requests and orders ‘When we are telling or asking somebody to do something, we se verb + t0+ infinitive We use asi/wantto report requests. Can you help me please. Simon? = | asked Sinon to help. ‘We use tell or order to report commands. ‘Don't shout!” She told him nat to shout. Indirect questions In indirect questions, the word order is the same as in statements. ‘What's the time?” ‘Could you tell me what the 4 time is please?” Unit 10 Wishes and regrets ‘We use wistf only + past simple or past continuous: + to express dissatisfaction wth a present situation. if only is more emphatic than wish and is less common. We often Use / wish + could We can use were instead of was. ! wish J eould drive but {can't He wishes he had a dog. I wish | was/were lying on a beach! We use wist/ifonly+ would + infinitive without to ‘* express dissatisfaction and annayance about something that we would like to be different but thet probably won't happen or that we can't control. / wish the bus would ‘come! She wishes somebody would give he job. We use could, not wouldatter / wish Vive wet could g0 swimming! * to show we're annoyed or initated about something happening inthe present. / wish you would listen to me!) wish you wouldn't shout! We use wistif only + past perfect to talk about something in the past that we would like to be diferent. fFoniyis more ‘emphatic than / wish, ‘wish (had worked harder for iy exam We use regret + ing verb to talk about something we are/ were sorry about that happened in the past. | egret pulling ber hair He regretted having a tattoo. We use should have /shouldh’t have + past participle to ‘express regret about something that happened in the past that can't be changed now. / shou/d't have shouted at my dad yesterdayCee Tila ad Linking words and structures Contrast ‘These words and phrases have @ similar meaning to but and link two opposite or contrasting ideas: * although, though, even though emphatic), introduce a clause. This clause can come before or after the main clause. Journalists printed the story even though it was untrue. ‘© whereas/whle ae often used in formal writing, While the company accepted blame forthe accident, they refused to ‘pay compensation. '* We use on the one hand ... on the other hand ta introduce ‘wo contrasting facts or opinions. On the one hand, the bus is cheap. On the other hand, you could argue that the train is more comfortable. '* We can also use however and nevertheless to show contrast. Howevercan come atthe beginning in the middle rat the end ofa sentence. Nevertheless usvally comes at ‘the beginning of a sentence. / would have loved to come tothe party However il be on holiday then. The weather was terble. Nevertheless, we set of forthe picnic. ‘© Inspite of/Despite + noun/oronoun and in spite of/despite this can come at the beginning or inthe middle ofa sentence. He went cut fora walk inspite ofthe rain ‘+ We use expressions lke in addition, more overand furthermore to ad information or arguments. These expressions are quite formal and we use them mainly in ‘writing. They are usvally followed by a comma. The price is good. Moreover, te location is perfec. Reason, cause, purpose, result To say why something happened we can use because/Since/as + clause. The clause can come before or after the main clause /m going to bed early as Fm a bit tired. We can also use because of, on account of, or due to+noun to introduce a reason or cause. The football match was cancelled due to the bad weather To introduce a purpose (to say what we want to achieve), we can use in order (not to formal) or so as (not) to+ infinitive \when the subject isthe same in both parts ofthe sentence. / ‘phoned the doctor (in order} to make an appointment. We can use in oder that {very formal), so, o so that + clause when the subject of each verb is diferent, Dad bought me a racquet s0/so that | could learn to play tennis. To introduce a result or consequence, we use so + clause. / was exhausted so I went to bed. Therefore, asa regult, consequently and for this reason have a similar meaning to So. The players were very nervous. As a result they lost the match, We use in case + present simple to talk about avoiding a possible problem in the future. Take an umbrella im case it rains. We use in case + past simple to talk about precautions that were taken in the past She took her mobile phone in ease she needed to call someone. Modals, speculating about the present We use must be/can't be o say we are sure about something ‘now; must be = positive, can‘t be= negative. This must be John’ bite, (=m certain its John’s bike.) Itean'tbe Jessica’ jacket, it's too small [=m certain it isn't Jessica’ jacket) We use could/might/may + infinitive fora present or future situation that we believe is possible. /7e may never know the answer. Modals, speculating about the past We use mustor can'tcouldn't+ past participle when we feel certain about something inthe past. He must have won the race because everyone's cheering. must have been playing music when you rang because | didn't hear the phone You can't have seen her n school because she was il in be. We use could/might/may + past participle when we think it's possible something happened in the past. He might have told a lie, We use may/might+ not + past participle (but not couldnt) when we think its possible something didn’t happen He might not have done i Reporting verbs in the passive ‘We can use the passive with verbs like believe, claim, expect, fea, know, report, say, rumour, suppose, think and understand. ‘We can use passive reporting verbs in the following ways: © It is said/thought/betieved etc. + that clause. It is feared that polar bears will become extinct. It’ said that alligators a living under the streets of New Yor. tis reported that @ tornado has hit the coast. It's believed that two men robbed the bank. * said/thoughv/believed ec. + toinnitive The temperature is expected to rise next week. © said/thought/believed etc. + to be + -ing Alligators are said to be living under the streets of New York © said/thought/believed etc. + perfect infinitive A rocket is reported to have landed on Mars. Terrorists are supposed to have been planning the stick for months.Unit 12 Defining relative clauses The spy | who doves me. The band | which/that | mistening to is very good. The man | whose son isa doctor The place _| where was bom. The time | when ‘had a bad accident. We use defining relative clauses to give more information about a person or thing and make it clear which one we are talking about. We don‘ use commas in defining relative clauses, We use these relative pronouns: © whoor that for people * whicty/that for things/animals ‘© whase for possession where for a place © when for atime ‘© why for a reason ‘Arelative pronoun can be the subject or object ofa relative clause. The girl who loves me lves in this house. (The girl loves me. = subject) The girl who | love lives in this house, (love the girl = ‘object. We can omit the relative pronaun when itis the object. The gir lave lives in this house, ‘When a verb is followed by a preposition, we usually put the ‘preposition at the end of the relative clause. Is this the wallet you were look for? We can use a present or past participle clause instead ofa full relative clause. They sell bags (wtetrare) made of leather. We saw lots of people fwehe-were) swimming. The boy fwheris) sitting over there is famous. Non-defining relative clause: We use non-dfining relative clauses to give extra information about something or somebody. We use commas to separate ron-defning relative clauses from the resto the sentence, We don’t use thatin non-defining relative clauses. We can't leave out the relative pronoun. The concert, which was held last week, was a great success. ‘We can use which but nat thatto refer back to the whole previous clause, We visited Pars, which was 2 wonderful experience > Sears Present participles: verb(-ing) We often use participial phrases instead of clauses in written language. They are quite formal. A participle must have the ‘same subject as the verb in the main clause, We can use present participles, * instead of clauses of time, after certain time conjunctions including after before, winen, when, while, despite, on. She {got into college despite failing one exam. We had pizza ‘before going tothe cinema : ‘instead of clauses of reason in the present simple, present continuous, past simple or past continuous with as, because and since. Being inured, he couldn't continue the ‘match (= Because he was injured, he couldn't continue the match). '* we use a perfect particle instead of a clause of reason in the present perfect or past perfect: Having lost her ticket, ‘he couldn't get into the concert (= As she had lost her ticket, she couldn't get into the concert.) ‘© when one action i the result of another, of when two. ‘actions by the same subject happen atthe same time ‘or just after each other or. The action that comes first is written first. Parking the car he ran into the building. He stayed in the park, watching what was happening