Unit 3

3.1 Basic Power System Structure

Electricity is generated at central power stations and then transferred to loads (i.e,
Domestic, Commercial and Industrial) through the transmission and distribution
system. A combination of all these systems is collectively known as an Electric
Power System.

A power system is a combination of central generating stations, electric power

transmission system, Distribution and utilization system. Each one of these
systems is explained in detail in the next sections.

Fig. 1: Basic Structure of an Electric Power System (Energy Supply System)

An electric supply system consists of three principal components viz., the power
station, the transmission lines and the distribution system. Electric power is
produced at the power stations which are located at favourable places, generally
quite away from the consumers. It is then transmitted over large distances to load
centres with the help of conductors known as transmission lines. Finally, it is
distributed to a large number of small and big consumers through a distribution
network, supply system can be broadly classified into (i) d.c. or a.c. system (ii)
overhead or underground system.

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Nowadays, 3-phase, 3-wire AC system is universally adopted for generation and
transmission of electric power as an economical proposition. However, distribution
of electric power is done by 3-phase, 4-wire a.c. system. The underground system is
more expensive than the overhead system. Therefore, the overhead system is mostly
adopted for transmission and distribution of electric power.

Generation Sector

Energy is generated (transformed from one to another) at the generating stations.

Generating stations are of different type, for example, thermal, hydel, solar power
sations, nuclear. The generated electricity is stepped up through the transformer and
then transferred over transmission lines to the load centres.

Transmission Sector

 Primary transmission: The electric power at 132 kV is transmitted by 3-phase,

3-wire overhead system to the outskirts of the city. This forms the primary
transmission.
 Secondary transmission: The primary transmission line terminates at the
receiving station (RS) which usually lies at the outskirts of the city. At the
receiving station, the voltage is reduced to 33kV by step-down transformers.
From this station, electric power is transmitted at 33kV by 3-phase, 3-wire
overhead system to various sub-stations (SS) located at the strategic points in
the city. This forms the secondary transmission.

Distribution Sector

 Primary distribution: The secondary transmission line terminates at the sub-

station (SS) where voltage is reduced from 33 kV to 11kV, 3-phase, 3-wire. The
11 kV lines run along the important road sides of the city. This forms the
primary distribution. It may be noted that big consumers (having demand
more than 50 kW) are generally supplied power at 11 kV for further handling
with their own sub-stations.

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  Secondary distribution: In the last stage in a Power System, the electric
power from primary distribution line (11 kV) is delivered to distribution sub-
stations (DS) or Distribution Transformer. A typical pole mounted
distribution transformer is shown in Fig. 5. These sub-stations are located
near the consumers’ localities and step down the voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-
wire for secondary distribution. The voltage between any two phases is 400 V
and between any phase and neutral is 230 V. The single-phase residential
lighting load is connected between any one phase and neutral, whereas 3-
phase, 400 V motor load is connected across 3-phase lines directly. It may be
worthwhile to mention here that secondary distribution system consists of
feeders, distributors and service mains.

3.2 Construction details of alternators

An alternator has 3,-phase winding on the stator and a d.c. field winding on the
rotor.

 Stator: It is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of silicon steel
laminations having slots on its inner periphery. A 3-phase winding is placed
in these slots and serves as the armature winding of the alternator. The
armature winding is always connected in star and the neutral is connected to
ground.
 Rotor: The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current
through two slip rings by a separate d.c. source. This d.c. source (called
exciter) is generally a small d.c. shunt or compound generator mounted on
the shaft of the alternator.

Rotor construction is of two types, namely;

1. Salient (or projecting) pole type

2. Non-salient (or cylindrical) pole type

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 Fig. 1. Basic structure of alternator/ synchronous machine

Salient pole type

In this type, salient or projecting poles are mounted on a large circular steel frame
which is fixed to the shaft of the alternator as shown in Fig. (2). The individual field
pole windings are connected in series in such a way that when the field winding is
energized by the d.c. exciter, adjacent poles have opposite polarities.

Low and medium-speed alternators (120-400 r.p.m.) such as those driven by diesel
engines or water turbines have salient pole type rotors due to the following reasons:

a) The salient field poles would cause an excessive windage loss if driven at high
speed and would tend to produce noise.
b) Salient-pole construction cannot be made strong enough to withstand the
mechanical stresses to which they may be subjected at higher speeds. Since a
frequency of 50 Hz is required, we must use a large number of poles on the

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 rotor of slow-speed alternators (Used in hydro turbines and Diesel Engines).
Low- speed rotors always possess a large diameter to provide the necessary
spate for the poles. Consequently, salient-pole type rotors have large
diameters and short axial lengths.

Non-salient pole type

In this type, the rotor is made of smooth solid forged-steel radial cylinder having a
number of slots along the outer periphery. The field windings are embedded in these
slots and are connected in series to the slip rings through which they are energized
by the d.c. exciter. The regions forming the poles are usually left unslotted as shown
in Fig. (3). It is clear that the poles formed are non-salient i.e., they do not project out
from the rotor surface.

High-speed alternators (1500 or 3000 r.p.m.) are driven by steam turbines and use
non-salient type rotors due to the following reasons:

a) This type of construction has mechanical robustness and gives noiseless

operation at high speeds.
b) The flux distribution around the periphery is nearly a sine wave and hence a
better e.m.f. waveform is obtained than in the case of salient-pole type.

Since steam turbines run at high speed and a frequency of 50 Hz is required, we

need a small number of poles on the rotor of high speed alternators (also called
turbo-alternators) (Used with steam turbines).

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3.3 Working Principle o
of Three Phase Alternator

It works on the principle of faradays law of electromagnetic Induction. Any rotating

machine when rotated in the magnetic flux works according to this principle.
Armature winding is a collection of coils placed in the magnetic field. The coil when
rotated in the magnetic field by a prime move
mover,
r, it cuts the magnetic lines of forces
thus, generating an induced emf. This generated induced emf is according to the
principle of faradays law of electromagnetic Induction. The induced emf develops
current to flow in the armature winding. The direction of the armature current is
found by using the Flemings right
right-hand rule.

The induced emf will be zero when the coil is in the alignment of magnets and is
maximum when the coil is perpendicular. As the coil is rotated the current changes
continuously which can be observed in a galvanometer. The current is passed
through the slip rings and then to the brushes. The slip rings are used for the
smoother operation of the machine and brushes are used to collect the current from
the slip rings and deliver to the lo
load.
ad. The coil movement in the magnetic field at
different points is shown in the figure below.

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3.4 EMF Equation by Alternator

The generator which runs at a synchronous speed is known as the synchronous

generator. The synchronous generator converts the mechanical power into electrical
energy for the grid. The Derivation of EMF Equation of a synchronous generator is
given below.

Let,

 P be the number of poles

  is Flux per pole in Webers
 N is the speed in revolution per minute (r.p.m)
 f be the frequency in Hertz

 Z ph is the number of conductors connected in series per phase

 Tph is the number of turns connected in series per phase

 kc is the coil span factor

 kd is the distribution factor

Flux cut by each conductor during one revolution is given as P Weber.

60
Time taken to complete one revolution is given by sec
N

Average EMF induced per conductor will be given by the equation shown below:

d P P N
EMF    Volts
dt 60 60
N

Average EMF induced per phase will be given by the equation shown below:

120 f
Ns  and Z ph  2Tph
p

 120 f 
P   
 P
EMF 
60
 ph 
  2T  4 fT
ph

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The average EMF equation is derived with the following assumptions given below.

Coils have got the full pitch. All the conductors are concentrated in one stator slot.
Root mean square (R.M.S) value of the EMF induced per phase is given by the
equation shown below:

E ph = Average value x form factor

Therefore,

E ph  1.11 4Tph  4.44 fTph Volts

If the coil span factor kc and the distribution factor kd , are taken into consideration

then the Actual EMF induced per phase is given as:

E ph  4.44kc kd  fTph Volts (1)

Equation (1) shown above is the EMF equation of the Synchronous Generator.

Coil Span Factor: The Coil Span Factor is defined as the ratio of the induced emf in a
coil when the winding is short-pitched to the induced emf in the same coil when the
winding is full pitched.

Distribution Factor: The distribution factor is defined as the ratio of induced EMF in
the coil group when the winding is distributed in a number of slots to the induced
EMF in the coil group when the winding is concentrated in one slot.

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3.5 Single Phase Transformer

The transformer is a static device which converts the magnetic energy into electrical
energy. It consists of two or more than two stationary circuits interlinked by a
common magnetic circuit; the energy transfer takes place through this circuit
without having any change in frequency from one circuit to another.

A transformer is a widely used device in the electrical and electronics domain. It is

an electromagnetic device which follows the basic principle of electromagnetism
discovered by Michael Faraday.

The transformer consists of two windings. The winding which is connected with the
supply a.c. voltage is called the primary winding, and the winding which is
connected to load and delivers the energy to load is called secondary winding.

3.6 Operational Principle of Transformer:

As earlier mentioned, the transformer consists of two coils; the primary and the
secondary coils. The primary coil always represents the input to the transformer
while the secondary coil, the output from the transformer.

Two main effects define the operation of the transformer:

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The first is that, a current flowing through a wire sets up a magnetic field around the
wire. The magnitude of the resulting magnetic field is always directly proportional
to the amount of current passing through the wire. The magnitude of the magnetic
field is increased, if the wire is wound into a coil-like form. This is the principle with
which magnetism is induced by the primary coil. By applying a voltage to the
primary coil, it induces a magnetic field around the core of the transformer.

The second effect which when combined with the first explains the operational
principle of the transformer which is based on the fact that, if a conductor is wound
around a piece of magnet and the magnetic field changes, the change in magnetic
field will induce a current in the conductor, the magnitude of which will be
determined by the number of turns of the conductor coil. This is the principle with
which the secondary coil gets energized.

When a voltage is applied to the primary coil, it creates a magnetic field around the
core the strength depends on the applied current. The created magnetic field thus
induces a current in the secondary coil which is a function of the magnitude of the
magnetic field and the numbers of turns of the secondary coil.

This operational principle of the transformer also explains why the AC had to be
invented because the transformer will only work when there is an alternation in the
applied voltage or current as only then will the electromagnetic induction principles
work. Thus the transformer couldn’t be used for DC then.

3.7 Construction of the Transformer

Basically, a transformer is made up of two parts which include; two inductive coils
and a laminated steel core. The coils are insulated from each other and also
insulated to prevent contact with the core.

The construction of the transformer will thus be examined under the coil and core
construction.

Transformer’s Core:

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The core of the transformer is always constructed by stacking laminated sheets of
steel together, ensuring a minimum air-gap exists between them. The transformers
core in recent times is always made up of laminated steel core instead of iron cores to
reduce losses due to eddy current.

There are three major shapes of the laminated steel sheets to choose from, which are
E, I, and L.

When stacking the lamination together to form the core, they are always stacked in
such a way that the sides of the joint are alternated. For example, of the sheets are
assembled as front faced during the first assembly, they will be back faced for the
next assembly as shown in the image below. This is done to prevent high reluctance
at the joints.

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Coil:

When constructing a transformer, it becomes very important to specify the type of

transformer as either step up or step down as this determines the number of turns
that will exist in the primary or secondary coil.

There are two basic types of transformer constru

constructions:

 construction: In the core type transformer, the magnetic circuit

Core type construction
consists of two vertical legs or limbs with two horizontal sections, called
yokes. To minimize the leakage flux, half of each winding is placed on each
leg of the core. The low voltage winding is placed next to the core, and the
high voltage winding is placed around the low voltage winding to reduce the
insulating material required. Thus, the two winding are arranged as
concentric
ic coils. Such type of winding is called as concentric winding or
cylindrical winding.

Shell type Construction:: In the shell type transformer, both the primary and
secondary winding are wo
wounded
unded on the central limb, and the low reluctance path is
completed by the outer limbs. Each winding is subdivided into sections. Low voltage
(lv) and High voltage (hv) subsections are alternatively placed in the form of
sandwich that is why this winding iiss also called sandwich or disc winding.

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The core is made up of two types of laminations. The laminations for the core type
are U, and I shaped. Firstly the U
U- shaped laminations are stacked together for the
required length. Half of the prewound low voltage coil is placed around the limbs.
The lv coil is further provided with insulation. Then half of the prewound hv coil is
placed around the lv coil. The core is then closed by the II-shaped
shaped laminations at the
top.

3.8 Types of Transformers:

Majorly there are three types of voltage transformers

transformers;

1. Step Down Transformers

2. Step Up Transformers
3. Isolation Transformers

The step-down
down transformers are transformers which give a reduced value of the
voltage applied to the primary coil at the secondary coil, whi
while for a step up
transformer,, the transformer gives an increased value of the voltage applied to the
primary coil, at the secondary coil.

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Isolation transformers are transformers which gives the same voltage applied to the
primary at the secondary and thus basically used to isolate electrical circuits.

From the above explanation, creating a particular type of transformer can only be
achieved by designing the number of turns in each of the primary and secondary
coils to give the required output, this can thus be determined by the turns ratio.

3.9 Transformer Turns Ratio and EMF Equation

The transformer turns ratio(n) is given by the equation:

N s N2
k  (1)
N p N1

where k = turns ratio

N p or N1 = Number of turns in primary coil

N s or N 2 = Number of turns in secondary coil

V p or V1 = Voltage applied to the primary

Vs or V2 = Voltage at the secondary

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These relationship described above can be used to calculate each of the parameters
in the equation. The formula above is known as the transformers voltage action.

Since we said the power remains the same after transformation then;

V1  I1  V2  I 2 (2)

I1 V2
 (3)
I 2 V1

I1 V2 N 2
k   (4)
I 2 V1 N1

This formula above is referred to as the transformer's current action. This serves as
proof that the transformer not only transforms voltage but also transforms current.

3.10 Transformer EMF Equation:

The number of turns of the coil of either of the primary or secondary coil determines
the amount of current it induces or is induced by it. When the current applied to the
primary is reduced, the strength of the magnetic field is reduced and the same for
the current induced in the secondary winding.

E = N (dΦ/dt)

The Amount of voltage induced in the secondary winding is given by the equation:

Where N is the number of turns in the secondary winding.

As the flux varies sinusoidally, the magnetic flux Φ = Φmax sinwt

Thus,

E = N*w*Φmax*cos(wt)

Emax = NwΦmax

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The root mean square value of the Induced Emf is gotten by dividing the maximum
value of the emf by √2

This equation is known as the transformers EMF equation.

Where: N is the number of turns in coil winding

f is the flux frequency in hertz

Φ is the magnetic flux density in Weber

with all these values determined, the transformer can thus be constructed.

3.11 Ideal Transformer

An Ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which has the following

properties:

1. Its primary and secondary winding resistances are negligible.

2. The core has infinite permeability (µ) so that negligible mmf is required to
establish the flux in the core.

3. Its leakage flux and leakage inductances are zero. The entire flux is confined
to the core and links both windings.

4. There are no losses due to resistance, hysteresis and eddy currents. Thus, the
efficiency is 100 percent.

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Ideal iron-core
core transformer No-load
load Phasor diagram

The transformer that has zero prim

primary
ary and zero secondary impedance, is called an
ideal transformer. The applied voltage V1 in the primary is equal to the induced
voltage E1. Similarly, the induced voltage E2 is equal to the output voltage V2 of the
secondary.

For an ideal transformer, if a = transformation ratio = turn ratio

Then,

The equation-22 states that the demagnetizing, ampere

ampere-turns
turns of the secondary are
equal and opposite to the magnetizing mmf of the primary of an Ideal transformer.

Problems

1. A single phase 230/115 V, 50 Hz transformer has 1

120
0 secondary turns.
Determine, (i) transformation ratio, (ii) primary turns. Also, prove that
induced voltage/turn on primary and secondary is same.

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