Statistics & Probability

The mean of a random variable 𝑥 with discrete probability distribution is denoted by.
It is obtained by multiplying the value of the random variable x by its probability
distribution 𝑃(𝑥) and adding all the results. That is

Moreover, the mean of the random variable 𝑥 is also called expected value.
Properties of the Normal Distribution (Bell Curve)
1. The normal curve is bell shaped.
2. The peak of a normal curve is at the center where the three measures of central
tendency such as mean, mode, and median are equal to each other.
3. The curve is symmetric at the center (i.e. around the mean, μ).
4. The tails are plotted on both directions of the normal curve and are asymptotic with
the horizontal axis. Asymptote means a graph is approaching to the specific line but
without touching it.
5. The total area of the normal curve is 1. The area that corresponds to the right of 0 is
0.5 and to the left of 0 is 0.5 and their sum is 1.
When the normal probability distribution has a mean μ = 0 and standard deviation ơ =
1, it is called as Standard Normal Distribution.
The above diagram shows the representation of 68% - 95% - 99.7% Rule. The
68% -95% - 99.7% Rule is better known as Empirical Rule. This Rule states that
the data in the distribution lies within the 1, 2, and 3 standard deviations from the
mean. Specifically, the above diagram tells the estimation of the following percentage:
68% of data lies within the 1 standard deviation from the mean.
95% of data lies within the 2 standard deviation from the mean.
from the mean

We can easily identify the area of the regions under normal curve by using the
Table of Areas under the Normal Curve which is also known as Z-Table. This table
gives an area to any value of z from -3.99 to 3.99. The value from this table will
describe the area of the specific region of the curve to the left of the given z-value.
Given any value of x from a normal distribution with mean 𝜇 and standard deviation 𝜎,
to convert x to a z-score (standard normal score), you need to:
(a) Subtract the mean 𝜇 from x.
(b) Divide this quantity, x, by the standard deviation 𝜎.
Example 1.
Suppose IQ scores are normally distributed with a mean of 100 and standard deviation
of 10. If your IQ is 85, what is your z-score?

The heights of teachers in Don Manuel A. Javellana National High School are normally
distributed with a mean of 150 cm and standard deviation of 15 cm. The height of Sir
Victor has a z-score of 3.25. What is the actual height of Sir Victor?

In finding probabilities, the following notations will be used:

(a) P(Z < z) – Probability at the left of z.
(b) P(Z > z) – Probability at the right of z
(c) P(a < z < b) – Probability of z that is in between two other z values a and b.

Central Limit Theorem

When the sample size n that is randomly drawn from a population gets bigger, the
sampling distribution of the mean approaches the normal distribution. We call this event
Central Limit Theorem (n>30).
Sampling techniques that involve units obtained using chance mechanism and requires
the use of sampling frames is called probability (random) sampling. Types of probability
sampling includes the following:
a. Simple random sampling wherein each set of elements in the population has an
equal chance of being selected. Example of this is the drawing of lots of names written
on a small piece of paper which are then mixed and drawn out randomly to become the
samples.
b. Systematic sampling, where samples are drawn by first selecting a fixed starting
point in the larger population and then obtaining subsequent observations by using
constant interval between samples taken. To get the interval, divide the population size
by the sample size. For example, consider the population of 45 students, and if the
sample size is 5, then every 9th student in the list thereafter will be chosen.
c. Stratified random sampling, where samples are chosen in such a way that the
population is divided into several subgroups, called strata, with random samples drawn
from each stratum. An example for this type of sampling is a researcher randomly
selects students from every grade level to be included in his survey.
d. Cluster sampling is when an entire group or clusters are chosen at random. For
example, instead of getting simple random samples of household from your entire
barangay, clusters of dwellings can be selected from different puroks so that the cost of
data collection can be minimized.
Based on our example above, the population mean is equal to the mean of the
sampling distribution of the sample mean. Observe also that the population
variance is greater than the variance of the sampling distribution of the sample means.

The t-distribution
The t-distribution is a probability distribution used to estimate population
parameters with small sample sizes, that is sample size is less than 30, or the
population variance is unknown. It was developed by William Sealy Gosset in 1908
who published a paper describing the distribution.
Consider this problem:
A study is to be conducted involving a sample size of 18. Give the t-value to be used in
estimating the population parameter using 95% level of confidence, two-tailed.
The following steps will guide you on how to find the t-value using the t-table
1. Identify the sample size.
In the problem, the given sample size n = 18.
2. Find the degrees of freedom. (The degrees of freedom df can be found by
subtracting 1 from n.
df = n – 1 = 18 – 1 = 17
3. Identify the confidence level and level of significance.
In the problem, the given confidence level is 95%. This means that the level of
significance is α = .05.
4. Find the t-value.
The first rows of the t-table give the levels of significance. The problem gave us a=.05
using two-tailed test. So, looking at the row for two-tailed we find 0.05. Note that on
the first column, we could see the values for the degrees of freedom. Looking at the
df=17 and moving to the numbers on its right, find the number in column with a=.05.
Identifying the Length of a Confidence Interval
A confidence level refers to the rate of all possible samples that can be anticipated to
include the true population parameter. Below are the most common levels of confidence
and their corresponding coefficients or critical values.

The formula for the lower limit is 𝑳𝑳= 𝒙̅−𝑬, and 𝑼𝑳= 𝒙̅+𝑬 for the upper limit where 𝒙̅ is
the sample mean and E is the margin of error.
The margin of error can be obtained by using the formula:
The length of the confidence interval (L) can be obtained by using the formula
𝑳=𝑼𝑳−𝑳𝑳 where, UL is the upper limit and
LL is the lower limit
Computing Appropriate Sample Size
Sample size refers to the number of participants included in the study.
Determining the correct sample size is essential in a research study to derive an
accurate insight from the study or a valid conclusion. According to Fitzpatrick (2015), a
study having a sample size that is too small may produce inconclusive results and could
also be considered unethical while too large will waste scarce resources and expose
more participants than necessary.
The formula for determining the minimum sample size for the estimation of the
population mean is given by:
Dear my students,
As my time as your student teacher comes to a close, I wanted to take a moment to
say goodbye and express my appreciation for all of you. It has been an absolute
pleasure teaching and getting to know each and every one of you.
I feel so grateful to have had the opportunity to work with you and be a part of your
academic journey. Watching you learn and grow has been one of the most rewarding
experiences of my life. Miskan mga sabaan ug kiat kaymo.
I hope that the lessons we’ve covered together have been both valuable and enjoyable.
I hope that I’ve been able to make a difference in your life in some way, even if it’s just
by helping you understand a particularly tricky concept or providing encouragement
when you needed it most.
Before I end this letter, I encourage you to continue pursuing your passions and
working towards your goals. Remember that the learning never stops, and it is up to
you to continue growing and expanding your knowledge.
I also want to remind you to take care of yourselves both physically and mentally.
Prioritize your well-being and seek support when you need it. Remember that you are
capable of achieving anything you set your mind to, but it is important to take care of
yourself along the way.
I will miss our time together, but I am excited to see where life takes you all. Please
know that I am always here to offer my support and encouragement, and I wish you all
the best in your future endeavors.
Thank you for allowing me to be a part of your journey. I will never forget the time we
spent together, and I will always be here to support and encourage you.
Sincerely yours,
Cedric Jade G. Arendain