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Engineering/ME802(A)

Automobile Engineering/ME 802(A)

Class Notes
Unit II- Steering System
Introduction:
In any car and other four or six-wheeled vehicles, steering is the main component. A properly designed
steering system works well and ensures the vehicle moves incorrect direction. Mainly steering is linked to the
front axle with a gear train mechanism. Wheels are mounted on the front axle, and the driver can turn the
vehicle in right, left, or straight directions with the help of the steering wheel.
The function of the steering mechanism is clearly explained in this unit. In this unit, we also elaborated
on the front axle and its types.
The principle of steering, steering geometry, steering gearbox, and working of steering systems have
been clearly explained.
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to
understand about front axle and steering,
define the function of front axle and steering,
explain the principle of the steering mechanism,
describe the linking mechanism of the front axle and steering wheel, and
Understand the steering geometry.
Front axle:
The front wheels of the vehicle are mounted on front axles. Functions of the front axle are listed below:
(a) It absorbs torque applied to it due to the braking of the vehicle.
(b) It absorbs shocks that are transmitted due to road surface irregularities.
(c) It facilitates steering.
(d) It supports the weight of the front part of the vehicle.
Construction and Operation:
In the middle portion, the front axle is made of I-section and at the ends, it is made circular or elliptical section.
The special x-section of the axle makes it able to withstand bending loads due to the weight of the vehicle and
torque applied due to braking. One kind of front axle is shown in Figure 2.1 which consists of the main beam,
stub axle, and swivel pin, etc. The wheels are mounted on stub axles.

Fig. 2.1- Front Live Axle In Four Wheel Drive

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Types of front axles:

There are two types of front axles:
(a) Dead front axle, and
(b) Live front axle.
Dead Front Axle
Dead axles do not rotate. These axles have sufficient strength and rigidity to take the weight. The ends
of the front axle are properly designed to take stub axles.

Fig. 2.2 – Dead Front Axle

Live front axle: Live axles are used to transmit power from the gearbox to the front wheels. Line front axles
although, front wheels. Line front axles although resemble rear axles but they are different at the ends where
wheels are mounted. Maruti-800 has a line front axle.

Fig. 2.3- Front Live Axle In Four Wheel Drive

Stub axle:
Stub axles are attached to the front axle using kingpins. Front wheels are mounted on stub axles
arrangement for steering is connected to stub axles. The stub axle turns on kingpins. Kingpin is fitted in the
front axle beam eye and is located and locked there by a taper cotter pin. Stub axles are of four types:
(a) Elliot
(b) Reversed Elliot
(c) Lamoine
(d) Reversed Lamoine
All differ from each other in the manner in which they are connected to the front axle. Elliot type stub axle is
shown in Figure 2.4

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Fig.2.4-Axle-beam and stub-axle assembly

Steering:
A vehicle must have a good steering mechanism for directional stability. Steering of the four-wheel
vehicle is designed in a manner so that it will not permit lateral slip of front wheels during steering. The wheels
must correctly roll at the time of steering. The front wheels are mounted on front axles to allow their left and
right swings for steering the vehicle. Suitable gearing and linkages are used between the front wheels and
steering wheels. A simplified diagram of a steering system has been shown in Figure 2.5

Fig. 2.5 – Simple Steering System

Ackerman’s principle of steering:
This mechanism is based on the principle of Ackerman’s steering. It consists of a link BC connected to
short axles AL and DM of front wheels through arms AB and CD. These form the bell crank levers LAB and
MDC. In the case of straight motion of automobiles, the cross-link BC remains parallel to AD and short links AB
and CD both make angle α from the horizontal axis of the chassis.

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Fig. 2.6-Ackerman’s Steering Mechanism (Principle)

The fundamental equation of steering is satisfied when the links AB and BC are proportioned suitably
and angle θ is selected suitably. The condition for correct steering is :
cot θ-cotɸ= a/l
The angles θ and ɸ are shown in Figure 2.6 and distances ‘a’ and ‘l’ are shown in Figure 2.6. The value of a/l
lies between 0.4 and 0.5. It is generally taken as 0.455. The mechanism used for automatically adjusting the
values of θ and ɸ for correct steering is known as Ackerman’s steering gear mechanism.
There are three values of angle ɸ for correct steering corresponding to three cases:
(a) When the vehicle is running straight,
(b) When the vehicle is turning to the right, and
(c) When the vehicle is turning to the left.
Steering geometry:
When a four-wheeler (car) takes a turn, all its four wheels should roll without slipping laterally. It is
possible when the axes of all wheels intersect at one point. This point is the center about which the vehicle
turns at that instant. At this instant, the rear rotates long two circles, where the center of two circles is at ‘O’.
The front wheels have their different axes. These wheels also rotate along with two other circles with the same
center‘ O’. Figure 2.7 shows the steering geometry of all four wheels of the vehicle. For perfect steering, the
center of the wheels of the rear axles and the center of the front wheels must intersect at the same point.

Fig. 2.7 - Steering Geometry of Four Wheels

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Camber angle:
It is the angle between the imaginary vertical line and the centerline of the tire when viewed from the
front of the vehicle. Camber angle is positive when this is outward. This happens when wheels are further
apart at the top than at the bottom. On the other hand, the camber angle is negative when it is inward. This
happens when wheels are kept further apart at the bottom than at the top. The camber should not be more
than 2o, because this causes uneven or more tire wear on one side than on the other side.
A positive camber angle is given at the front wheels. It is done to avoid tilting of top of wheels inward due to
excessive load or play in the kingpin and bearing. The load brings the wheels to the vertical position.
Excessive camber is not good because it prevents proper wheel contact with the road. Unequal camber
causes the vehicle to in that direction in which the camber is more. This disturbs the directional stability.
Camber angle is shown in Figure 2.8

Fig. 2.8 - Camber Angle (Positive & negative)

Kingpin inclination:
It is the angle between the kingpin center line and vertical line when seen from the front of the vehicle.
It is also called steering axle inclination. KPI and caster are used to increase the directional stability in cars.
Because of this wheel attain their straight-ahead position after the vehicle completes any turn (due to steering
left or right). KPI is also used to minimize steering effort when steering a

Fig. 2.9 - Kingpin Inclination

stationary vehicle In addition to this, it reduces tyre wear. This inclination varies from 4 to 8 o in modern cars.
The kingpin inclination is shown in Figure 2.9. It should be equal on both sides, i.e. on both front wheels.
Caster angle:
Caster angle is the inclination of the kingpin centerline towards the front of the back from the vertical
line. It is the angle between the vertical line and kingpin center line in the p wheel plane when looked at from
the side. It is shown in Figure 2.10.

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Fig. 2.10 - Caster Angle

It is positive when the top of the kingpin is backward and negative when the top of the kingpin is
forward. The value of this angle in vehicles ranges from 2 0 to 8o. It improves directional stability to the vehicle
by making wheels follow in the direction of movement of the vehicle. When the caser angle of both front
wheels is positive the vehicle tends to roll out at turns but it tends to back or lean in on turns when caster
angles are negative. A positive caster angle increases the steering effort and tends to keep the wheels straight.
A negative caster is provided in HCVs to minimize steering effort.
Toe-in and toe-out:
The front wheels are slightly tilted at the front side so that the distance between wheels at the front (A)
is a little less than the distance at back (B) when seen from the top. This difference in distance is called to-in. It
is shown in Figure 2.11. The distance B is greater than A by 3 to 5 mm.

Fig. 2.11 – Toe In & Toe Out

Purpose of Toe-in
(a) Parallel rolling of the wheels.
(b) Prevents slipping towards the side.
(c) Avoid excessive tyre wear.
(d) To minimize the effect of small deflections in the wheel assembly system.
The wheels are set with to-in but they move parallel when the car moves forward. Toe-out is the
difference in the angles between the two front wheels and the frame of the vehicle during turns. While taking
the turn, the inside wheel makes a larger angle than the outer wheel to satisfy the condition of correct
steering. The toe-out is shown in Figure 2.11.
At turns, inner wheels make an angle that is more than the angle of the outer wheel. Toe-out is set by
keeping proper relation between the knuckle arm, tie rods, and pitman's arm.
Steering gearbox:
Steering gears minimize the steering effort and convert the rotational motion of the steering wheel into
linear motion of linkage. Thus, the steering gear gives a mechanical advantage also for easy steering. Steering
gears are put inside the steering gearbox. The steering shaft and steering linkages are connected by the
Steering gearbox.

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Types of steering gears used in different vehicles are listed below:

(a) Worm and sector type,
(b) Worm and worm wheel type,
(c) Worm and roller type,
(d) Rack and pinion type, and
(e) Cam and roller type.
Worm and Sector Type Steering Gear:
In this type of steering gear, a worm is connected at the end of the steering shaft which is in mesh with
a sector provided on a sector shaft. When the worm is rotated, the sector turns which moves the linkages for
steering the vehicle. The sector shaft is also called pitman arm shaft, roller shaft, or cross shaft. This is shown
in Figure 2.12

Fig. 2.12 - Worm and Sector Type Steering Gear

Worm and Worm Wheel Type Steering Gear:
In the worm and work wheel system, square threads are provided on the worm on the steering shaft.
The worm meshes with the worm wheel which is mounted on a shaft. A drop arm is also mounted on the same
shaft as shown in Figure 2.13. The steering shaft rotates the worm and worm wheel. This rotates the drop arm
by 60o to 90o. This moves the steering linkages. This type of gearbox is used in tractors.

Fig. 2.13 - Worm and Worm Wheel Type Steering Gear

Worm and Roller Type Steering Gear:
In this type of steering gear, a roller with teeth meshes with the teeth on the roller. This type of system
was commonly used in American passenger cars.

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Fig. 2.13 - Worm and Roller Type Steering Gear

Rack and Pinion Steering Gear:
A pinion is attached at the end of the steering shaft. A rack meshes with the pinion. The rotational
motion of the steering moves the pinion which gives motion to the rack. The movement of the rack is
responsible for turning the wheels through steering linkages.

Fig. 2.14 - Rack and Pinion Steering Gear

Constructional details, working principles, and operation of the Power steering Systems, e.g. Rack and
Pinion Power Steering System:
The use of electronics in steering systems makes much more sophisticated control to be achieved. The
electric steering is more economical to run, and easier to package and install than conventional hydraulic
power steering systems. Electrically operated hydraulic steering, or EPHS, replaces the drive belts and pulleys
with a brushless motor that drives a high-efficiency hydraulic power steering pump in a traditional rack and
pinion steering system. Pump speed is regulated by an electric controller to vary pump pressure and flow. This
provides steering efforts tailored for different driving situations. During straight-ahead driving, the pump can
be run at lower speeds for energy saving. An EPHS system can deliver an 80 percent improvement in fuel
economy when compared to standard hydraulic steering systems. The EAS is the power-assisted system that
omits the connection between the engine and steering system. EAS or direct electric power steering takes the
technology a step further by eliminating hydraulic fluid and the accompanying hardware from the system,
becoming a full “electronic power steering system” or EPS. This steering system uses an electric motor that is
connected to the steering rack via a gear and torque sensor. A microprocessor or electronic control unit, and
diagnostic software control steering dynamics and driver effort. Inputs include vehicle speed and steering,
wheel torque, angular position, and turning rate.
There are four primary types of electric power-assist steering systems:
1. Column-assist type. In this system, the power assist unit, controller, and torque sensor are attached to the
steering column.

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2. Pinion-assist type. In this type, the power unit is connected to the steering gear shaft. The unit sits outside
the vehicle passenger compartment, allowing assist torque to be increased greatly without raising interior
compartment noise.
3. Rack-assist type. In this type, the power unit is connected to the steering gear rack.
4. Direct-drive type. In this system, the steering gear rack and power assist unit form a single unit. The steering
system is compact and fits easily into the engine compartment layout. The direct assistance to the rack gives
low friction and inertia, which gives an ideal steering feel.

Fig. 2.15 - Power Steering

Slip Angle:
In-vehicle dynamics slip angle or sideslip angle is the angle between a rolling wheel's actual direction of
travel and the direction towards which it is pointing. In this type for a free-rolling of the wheel, the slip angle
results in a parallel force to the axle and the component of the force perpendicular to the wheel’s direction of
travel is the power unit is connected to the steering gear rack. the cornering force. This force increases linearly
for the first few degrees of slip angle, then increases non-linearly to a maximum before starting to decrease.

Fig. 2.16 – Slip Angle

Causes:
A non-zero slip angle arises because of deformation in the tire carcass and tread. If a side-slip velocity u
is introduced, the contact path will be deformed. As a tread element moves in the contact patch the friction
between road and tyre means that the tread element remains stationary, yet the tire continues to move
laterally. This means that the tread element will be ‘deflected’ sideways. In reality, it is the tire/wheel that is
being deflected away from the stationary tread element, but the convention is for the co-ordinate system to be
fixed around the wheel mid-plane.
This deflection gives rise to the slip angle and the cornering force. The rate of the cornering force is

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defined by the relaxation length.

Effects
The ratios of the slip angles of the front axle and rear axle (a function of the slip angles of the front and
rear tires respectively) will determine the behavior of the vehicle in a given turn. If the ratio of front to rear slip
angles is greater than 1:1, the vehicle will tend to understeer, while a ratio of less than 1:1 will produce
oversteer. The slip angles depend on many factors, like the condition of the road surface, but a vehicle's
suspension can be designed to promote specific dynamic characteristics. A means of adjusting developed slip
angles is by altering the relative roll couple (the rate at which weight transfers from the inside to the outside
wheel in a turn) front to rear by changing the amount of front and rear load transfer. It is achieved by
modifying the height of the roll centers, or by adjusting roll stiffness, either through suspension changes or the
addition of an anti-roll bar.
Cornering Power:
Cornering power and handling are terms that are often, but wrongly, interchanged. Handling is a blend
of steering feel, ride, transitional response, slip angles, tire sounds, nimbleness, and overall balance which lead
to a confident, competent, enjoyable experience. A car may produce only modest cornering power yet be a
favorite of many drivers for its overall handling. Focusing on cornering power let’s see what it means and how
to achieve it.

Fig. 2.17 – Cornering Power

Cornering power or lateral acceleration is measured in terms of the earth’s gravitational force, in a unit
simply called the "g". A g-force of 0.50g is a force equal to 50% of the earth’s gravitational force (0.70g is 70%,
etc.). The lateral acceleration may be the function of applying the highest friction contact patches to the road
surface, keeping all four in contact with the surface (springs and shocks allow the tires to do their job), and
balancing the forces of the four tires to the point where all lose lateral traction at the same point (weight
distribution and anti-roll bars). This limit is influenced by the tire design, the height, and location of the center
of gravity, suspension compliance, and suspension geometry (including alignment). A vehicle may have all the
elements to produce large lateral acceleration yet subjectively seem numb, heavy, and unresponsive. This is
one of the reasons for lowering the car may result in greater cornering speeds but a very unsatisfactory driving
experience.
Understeer and oversteer:
Understeer and oversteer are the terms related to vehicle dynamics and are used to describe the
response of a vehicle to steering. Oversteer is what occurs when a car turns by more than the amount
commanded by the driver. On the other hand, understeer is what occurs when a car steers less than the
amount commanded by the driver.
These terms are also defined based on changes in steering angle associated with changes in lateral
acceleration over a sequence of steady-state circular turning tests. Car and motorsport enthusiasts often use
the terminology more generally in magazines and blogs to describe vehicle response to steering in all kinds of

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maneuvers.

Fig. 2.18 – Under Steer & Over Steer

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