Electromagnetic Spectrum:

● X-Rays:
X-rays are known as electronic transitions—it is also ionizing radiation that is harmful
after long exposure. Used for medical purposes.

● Gamma:
Gamma rays are ionizing radiation generated from nuclear processes such as decay.
They are also used for medical purposes as well as sterilization of foods and seeds.

● UV:
UV rays are not ionizing, but can still break chemical bonds causing sunburn and even
potentially skin cancer. Some UV rays in the middle of the range also have a strong
potential to cause mutation. Most damaging UV rays emitted by the sun are absorbed by
the atmosphere, being blocked by the ozone layer or being absorbed by oxygen or
nitrogen in the air.

● Visible:
Visible light occupies a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Different
visible colors are the result of differing electromagnetic wavelengths, with red having the
longest wavelength and purple the shortest. Electromagnetic radiation between 400–790
terahertz (THz) is visible to the human eye, but sometimes infrared and ultraviolet rays
can be referred to as light.
● Infrared:
Television remotes transmit signals using infrared light, which is why if the front of the
remote is blocked the signal will not be received. Some infrared light can also be
detected by photographic film.

● Microwave:
Microwaves and radio waves have the lowest frequency of the electromagnetic
spectrum, and are most well known for their use in microwave ovens. They can also be
used in industrial heating and radar systems, as well as transmitting information.
However, at that intensity microwaves do not have the same heating effects.

● Radio:
WiFi is transmitted over radio waves. Radio waves are transmitted and received by
antennas and are widely used to transmit information. They are also used for GPS
systems and locating distant objects with radars. To generate radio waves, a transmitter
generates an AC current which is applied to the antenna and generates an electric and
magnetic field.

WiFi is most commonly transmitted over the 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz bands which are
divided into multiple channels. These channels can be shared by multiple networks,
making WiFi much more vulnerable to attack than wired connections. Security protocols
have been created so that WiFi access is as secure as possible, including the WEP and
WPA protocols.
Antennas
An antenna is an instrument that can be used for transmitting and/or receiving electromagnetic
waves (usually radio waves). Transmission antennas work by emitting energy as electromagnetic
radiation. Reception antennas absorb energy and use it to generate an electric current.

Radiation Patterns
An antenna's radiation pattern is a plot that represents the strength of radiation output or input in
any direction.
 Image of a cardioid antenna radiation pattern
Radiation patterns like the one above are usually graphed in polar (2-dimensional) or spherical
(3-dimensional) coordinates. This allows one to define the strength of the emission in terms of
the direction (angle). Polar coordinates are plotted in terms of radius r (distance from the origin)
and angle θ (theta, angle from the usual x-axis, known as the polar axis). Spherical coordinates
are plotted in terms of radius r (distance from the origin), azimuthal angle ɸ (phi, angle from the
usual x-axis), and polar angle (theta, angle from the usual z-axis).

One significant property that all antennas have is that their transmission and reception radiation
patterns are always the same. This fact is known as reciprocity. Reciprocity can be extended to
all other properties of antennas as well, meaning there is no need to design and manufacture
separate transmission and reception antennas. However, this does not necessarily mean that
the same antenna should always be used for transmission and reception. Depending on the
application, a transmission antenna with a certain pattern may be desired whereas a reception
pattern with a different pattern may be optimal. For example, in a many-to-one network where
multiple transmitters in different locations communicate to a single receiver, the transmission
antennas can have their power output focused in a single direction whereas the reception
antenna has to accept radiation from all directions equally.

In the radiation pattern above, the power intensity varies from 1-5 units (unspecified). However,
radiation patterns are often shown with normalized power intensity, where all values are divided
by the maximum power intensity. This has the effect of scaling, or normalizing, the graph from 0
to 1, where angles with the maximum power intensity have a value of 1. Normalized radiation
patterns make it easier to estimate/calculate and compare the patterns and directivities of
multiple antennas without having to take relative intensity into account.
Directivity
An antenna's directivity describes how concentrated the power output of the antenna is in any
direction. An isotropic antenna, one that has a perfectly spherical radiation pattern, radiates
equally in all directions (since the radius is the same in all directions), so it would have a
directivity of 1. Although directivity is technically a function that outputs the directivity at any
given angle, it is commonly defined as a constant in terms of the direction of greatest radiation
(which is the definition used in this page).

Radio Wave Propagation

There are three main ways in which radio waves can be sent from a transmitter to a receiver.
The simplest method is line-of-sight (LOS) propagation. LOS propagation occurs when the
signal is sent straight from the transmitter to the receiver through the shortest possible straight
line path. This method is primarily used for shorter distances as the signal can be affected by
any obstacles in the way and can only be used when the transmitter and receiver are in view of
each other. A slightly better method is ground wave propagation, where the signal travels in a
curved path around the Earth, allowing it to travel farther. Sky wave propagation is the final
method, which utilizes a layer of the atmosphere known as the ionosphere to bounce the signal
to the receiver. The signal is sent up to the ionosphere, where it is reflected, hits the ground,
and continues this cycle until it reaches the destination. Sky wave propagation is more difficult to
conduct and can only be used within the frequency range from 2 to 30 MHz.

Types of Antennas

Dipole: The dipole is the simplest type of antenna from a theoretical point of view.
Most commonly it consists of two conductors of equal length oriented end-to-end with
the feedline connected between them. Dipoles are frequently used as resonant
antennas.

Slot: A slot antenna consists of a metal surface, usually a flat plate, with one or more
holes or slots cut out. When the plate is driven as an antenna by an applied radio
frequency current, the slot radiates electromagnetic waves in a way similar to a dipole
antenna
Yagi Uda: A Yagi–Uda antenna or simply Yagi antenna, is a directional antenna
consisting of two or more parallel resonant antenna elements in an end-fire array; these
elements are most often metal rods acting as half-wave dipoles

Monopole: The monopole is often used as a resonant antenna; the rod functions as
an open resonator for radio waves, oscillating with standing waves of voltage and
current along its length. Therefore the length of the antenna is determined by the
wavelength of the radio waves it is used with.
Delta Loop antenna: The Delta Loop is not only a great transmitting antenna but a
low noise receiving antenna. The direction of fire is broadside to the antenna. This
means that if the base wire of the antenna goes from north to south, the direction of
gain will be east and west.

Inverted L antenna: In the Inverted-L configuration, the first portion of the wire rises
vertically from the feedpoint, and at some height is bent roughly 90 degrees, and then
extends horizontally to the unterminated end.
 bMonopole or Dipole antennas were used on Voyager 2 and Cassini and other similar
missions in space to detect nano to micron size dust?

Microstrip patch antennas are preferred in 5G technology, because of light weight, small
size, low profile, low cost, having good mechanical strength, a wide frequency band,
high efficiency, high gain, high adaptability to surroundings, little radiation damage to the
human body, and wide frequency coverage.

You are in a situation where you can see the cell tower that you are trying to connect to,
the directional type of antenna would work best.

A rectenna and how does it differ from a standard antenna? It rectifies incoming
electromagnetic waves into DC current.

AM - Amplitude Modulation
FM - Frequency Modulation

US Department that regulates radio - FCC; The Federal Communications Commission

regulates interstate and international communications by radio, television, wire, satellite
and cable in all 50 states, the District of Columbia and U.S. territories.
During skywave propagation, AM radio waves reflect off of something, what do they
reflect off of? - Ionosphere

This term is commonly used to describe the outward movement of a wave from its
source. - Propagation

This word is commonly used to describe the matter a wave moves through. - Medium

This frequency range defines VHF, give the range and the correct units. - 30-300 MHz

In the most basic sense, the source of all EM waves is a result of this. - A vibrating
charge

In the United States, what is the frequency range of FM radio? - 88.0-108.0 MHz
This occurs when two waves are in phase with each other and are at the same place at
the same time, leading to an increased amplitude. - constructive interference

Equations

Wave Propagation
𝑐
λ
= ν
𝑐
ν
= λ

c = speed of light constant (3.00*108 m/s) / (299,792,458 m/s)

λ = wavelength (m)

𝛎 = frequency (Hz)

Planck Relation
𝐸 = ℎν
E = energy of a photon (J)

h = Planck constant (6.626*10-34 J*s) / (6.62607015×10-34 J*s)

𝛎 = frequency (Hz)