ANATOMY AND PATHOLOGY

WEEK#5
SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Consists: bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments.
• Organ system that provides an internal framework for the human
body.

FUNCTIONS
SUPPORT For bearing weight.
Major supporting tissue of the body.
PROTECTION Bone is hard and protects the organs it surrounds.
MOVEMENT Joints – 2 or more bones come together, allow
movement between bones.
Ligaments – allow some movement between bones
but prevent excessive movement.
STORAGE Calcium, Phosphorus, Lipids.
Bones store and release minerals as needed by the
body.
BLOOD CELL Blood cells and platelets.
PRODUCTION Bone marrow gives rise to blood cells and platelets.
BONE
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX Collagen Ropelike Flexible strength
• Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments are connective tissues. Minerals Calcium Bone compression (weight-bearing) strength.
• Consists: Phosphate Calcium Phosphate:
o Collagen • Predominant form
o Proteoglycan • Other name: Hydroxyapatite
o Organic molecules
o Water GENERAL FEATURES OF BONE
o Minerals • There are four categories of bone: long, short, flat, and irregular.
COLLAGEN A tough, ropelike protein LONG Enhances their function in Upper and lower
Effects: BONES movement of appendages. limbs
Cartilage = Tough Cylindrical bones that are longer
Water-filled proteoglycans = Smooth and resilient than they are wide.
PROTEOGLYCANS • Consists: Polysaccharides attaching to and SHORT Helps transfer force between long Bones of the
encircling core proteins. BONES bones. wrist and ankle
• Forms large aggregate. As long as they are wide.
• Attract and retain large amounts of water Almost cuboidal shape.
between the polysaccharides. FLAT BONES Strong barrier around soft organs Skull bones, ribs,
TENDONS Strong bands of connective tissue, attach skeletal such as the brain and heart. the scapulae,
muscles to bones. Arise when bone tissue invades and sternum
Contains: Collagen fibers hardens fibrous membranes.
LIGAMENTS Characteristic: Very tough, like ropes or cables Sheetlike in shape usually curved
structures. rather than absolutely flat.
Strong bands of fibrous connective tissue that IRREGULAR Protection while allowing bending Vertebrae and
attach to bones and hold them together. BONES and flexing of certain body regions facial bones
CARTILAGE • Provides firm yet flexible support within such as the spine.
certain structures, such as nose, external ear, Complexed shape.
thoracic cage and trachea.
• Component: Collagen STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE
o Function: Tough
• Consists:
• Rigid, springs back to its original shape after o Diaphysis (shaft)
being bent or slightly compressed. § Medullary Cavity
• Excellent shock absorber. ü Bone marrow
o Epiphyses (ends)
o Epiphyseal (growth) plates
Articular Covers the ends of the epiphyses where the bone
Cartilage articulates (joints) with other bones.
Semi-rigid connective tissue found on the skeleton in
areas where flexibility and smooth surfaces support
movement.

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 Diaphysis Shaft of a long bone
Epiphysis “heads” or end of a long bone
Epiphyseal Site at which bone growth in length occurs.
plate Other name: Growth plate
Epiphyseal Dense plate of bone tissue in a bone that is no longer
line growing, indicating the former site of the epiphyseal
plate.
Marrow Fills the spaces of bone cavities.
Red Bone Marrow Yellow Bone Marrow
Red Yellow
MAJOR TYPES OF BONE TISSUE
Blood Cells Adipose Tissue (Fat)
COMPACT BONE SPONGY BONE
Newborns Adults
Solid matrix and cells Lacy network of bone with
Ligament Dense connective tissue that connects one whole bone
marrow-filled spaces.
to another whole bone.
More matrix and denser Open, latticelike structure
Periosteum Peri – Around; Osteon – Bone
Sheet of irregular, dense fibrous connective tissue. Fewer pores More open space
Function: Covers the entire surface of a bone except the
articular surface. COMPACT BONE
Endosteum Thin connective tissue • Other name: Cortical bone
Function: Lines the surface of the medullary cavity/ • Function:
o Forms the perimeter of the diaphysis of a long bone.
o Thinner surfaces of all other bones.
• Found mainly in the hard outer shell of a bone organ.
• Osteon: Structural unit of bone.
o Other name: Haversian System
§ Central Canal
§ Lacunae
§ Lamellae

SPONGY BONE
• Location:
o Epiphyses of long bones
o Lines the medullary cavity of long bones.
• Consists: Trabeculae
• Trabeculae
o Delicate interconnecting rods or plates of bone.
o Function: Add strength to a bone

HISTOLOGY
BONE CELLS
OSTEOBLASTS OSTEOCLASTS
Bone forming cells Bone destroying cells
Blasts = Bubuo Clasts = Csira
Deposits Calcium into Bone Removes Calcium from Bone
Blood Calcium = ß Blood Calcium = Ý
Osteocytes Bone resorption
• Osteoblast surrounded by • Repair and remodeling by
matrix. removing existing bone.
• Bone cells located between thin
sheets of extracellular matrix BONE OSSIFICATION
called lamellae. • Formation of bone by osteoblasts.
INTRAMEMBRANOUS ENDOCHONDRAL
Lamellae Thin sheets of extracellular matrix When: osteoblasts begin to Occurs inside hyaline cartilage
Lacunae Hollow space of the bone produce bone
Canaliculi Tiny canal where cell processes extend from the Where: within connective tissue
osteocytes across the extracellular matrix of lamellae. membranes
Primarily in the bones of the skull. Ý Cartilage cells or Chrondrocytes
Release: Matrix Vesicles
Formation: Hydroxyapatite Crystals

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• Ossification center - Osteoblasts line up on the surface of
connective tissue fibers and begin depositing bone matrix to form BONE AND CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
trabeculae. CELLS
OSTEOCLASTS Removes Calcium from Blood Calcium = Ý
bone
OSTEOBLASTS Deposits Calcium into Blood Calcium = ß
bone
HORMONES
PARATHYROID Secreted when blood Bone Breakdown = Ý
HORMONE calcium levels are too
low.
CALCITONIN Secreted when blood Bone Breakdown = ß
calcium levels are too
high.
VITAMIN D Secreted when blood
calcium levels are too
low.
• Bone: Major storage site of Calcium
• Calcium - critical for normal muscle and nervous system function.

BONE GROWTH
• Deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone or other
connective tissue.
• Bone elongation occurs at the epiphyseal plate as chondrocytes
proliferate, enlarge, die, and are replaced by bone.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF BONE ANATOMY

• There are 206 bones in the average adult skeleton.

BONE REMODELING
• Consists: Removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and deposition
of new bone by osteoblasts.
• Functions:
o Responsible for changes in bone shape
o Adjustment of bone to stress
o Bone repair
o Calcium ion regulation in the body fluids

BONE REPAIR
• Cells move into the damaged area and form a callus, which is
replaced by bone.

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 Forms floor and lateral wall of each eye orbit.
Lacrimal bones Medial surfaces of eye orbits.
Nasal bones Form bridge of nose
Vomer In midline of nasal cavity.
Forms nasal septum with the ethmoid bone.
Inferior nasal Attached to lateral walls of nasal cavity.
conchae
Mandible Lower jawbone, only movable.

AXIAL SKELETON
• Composition:
o Skull
o Vertebral column
o Thoracic cage
SKULL
• Consists: 22 bones
o 8 = Braincase
o 14 = Facial Bones
o Associate with skull:
§ Hyoid bone
§ 6 = Auditory ossicles
BRAINCASE FACIAL BONES AUDITORY OSSICLES PARANASAL SINUSES
NEUROCRANIUM VISCEROCRANIUM • Several of the bones associated with the nasal cavity have large
8 14 6 cavities within them, called the sinuses, which open into the nasal
Immediately surround cavity.
and protect the brain • The sinuses decrease the weight of the skull and act as resonating
• Lateral view: Parietal, temporal, and sphenoid bones chambers during voice production.
• Frontal view: Orbits, nasal cavity, associated bones, frontal bone, • Paranasal sinuses are:
zygomatic bone, maxilla, and mandible. o Frontal
• Squamous suture - joint uniting bones of the skull. o Ethmoid
o Sphenoid
Frontal bone Anterior part of cranium
o Maxillary
Parietal bones Sides and roof of cranium
Occipital bones Posterior portion and floor of cranium
Temporal Inferior to parietal bones on each side of the cranium
bones Temporomandibular joint
Sphenoid bone Forms part of cranium floor, lateral posterior portions
of eye orbits, lateral portions of cranium anterior to
temporal bones
Sella turcica
Ethmoid bone Anterior portion of cranium, including medial surface
of eye orbit and roof of nasal cavity
Nasal conchae

FACIAL BONES
Maxillae Form upper jaw, anterior portion of hard palate, part
of lateral walls of nasal cavity, floors of eye orbits
Maxillary sinus.
Palatine Form posterior portion of hard palate, lateral wall of
nasal cavity.
Zygomatic Cheek bones.

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 HYOID BONE
• Unpaired, U-shaped bone
• Not part of the skull no direct bony attachment to the skull or any
other bones.
• Function: It provides an attachment for some tongue muscles,
and it is an attachment point for important neck muscles that
elevate the larynx.

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
• Contains: 26 bones
o 7 – cervical
o 12 – thoracic
o 5 - lumbar vertebrae
o 1 - sacral bone
o 1 - coccyx bone
• Functions:
o Supports the weight of the head and trunk.
o Protects the spinal cord.
o Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord.
o Provides a site for muscle attachment.
o Permits movement of the head and trunk.
• Vertebra
o Consists: Body, Arch, Processes
o 4 Major curvatures:
§ Cervical Region curves anteriorly
§ Thoracic Region curves posteriorly
§ Lumbar Region curves anteriorly
§ Sacral and Coccygeal Regions curves
posteriorly

ABNORMAL VETEBRAL CURVATURES

Abnormality Region Result
KYPHOSIS Poterior curvature Upper Hunchback
thoracic condition
LORDOSIS Anterior curvature Lumbar Swayback
Condition
RIB CAGE
SCOLIOSIS Lateral curvature
• Function: Protects the vital organs within the thorax and prevents
the collapse of the thorax during respiration.
Atlas: Axis:
• Consists:
• 1st vertebra • 2nd vertebra
o Thoracic vertebrae
• holds head • rotates head
o Ribs with their associated cartilages
• 7 cervical vertebra
o Sternum
• 12 thoracic vertebra
• 5 lumbar vertebra
• 1 sacrum RIBS AND COSTAL CARTILAGES
• 1 coccyx • The 12 pairs of ribs can be divided into true ribs and false ribs.
TRUE RIBS FALSE RIBS
1-7 8-12 Do not attach directly to
the sternum.
Attach directly to the sternum by 8-10 Attach to the sternum by
means of costal cartilages. a common cartilage.
11-12 Do not attach at all to the
sternum and are called
floating ribs.
• Sternum:
o Divided into 3 parts:
§ Manubrium - Handle
§ Body
§ Xiphoid Process – Sword
o Jugular Notch: depression at the superior end of the
sternum

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 o Sternal Angle • Epicondyles
§ Slight elevation o On the distal end of the humerus.
§ Can be felt at the junction of the o Provides attachment sites for forearm muscles.
manubrium and the body of the sternum. FOAREARM • 2 bones:
§ Function: Important landmark because it o Ulna - medial side
identifies the location of the second rib. § Proximal ends forms a trochlear
o Xiphoid Process notch
§ Function: Important landmark of the § Extension of ulna is olecranon
sternum. o Radius – lateral side
WRIST • Relative short regions between the forearm and hand
APPENDICULAR SKELETON • Composition: 8 carpal bones
• Consists: Bones of the upper and lower limbs and their girdles. o Scaphoid
o Lunate
o Triquetrum
o Pisiform
o Trapezium
o Trapezoid
o Capitate
o Hamate
HAND • Composition: 5 metacarpal bones

PERCTORAL GIRDLE
• Other name: Shoulder girdle
• Consists:
o 4 bones
o 2 scapulae
o 2 clavicles
Scapula Shoulder Flat, triangular bone with three large fossae
Blade where muscles extending to the arm are
attached.
Clavicle Collar Articulates with the scapula at the acromion
Bone process. The clavicle is the first bone to begin
ossification in the fetus.

PELVIC GIRDLE
• Place where the lower limbs attach to the body.
• 1 pelvic girdle
o 2 hip bones: Each Hipbone consists
Ilium Most superior region
Ischium Inferior and posterior region
Pubis Inferior and anterior
• Pelvis:
o Hip Bones
o Sacrum
o Coccyx
• Acetabulum
o hip socket (joint)
UPPER LIMB
• Consists: Bones of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand.
o Humerus - upper limb
o Ulna – Forearm
o Radius- Forearm
o Carpals -Wrist
o Metacarpals- hand
ARM • Region between shoulder and the elbow.
• Deltoid tuberosity – approximately 1/3 of the way
down the shaft of the humerus.

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 o The patella is a uniquely shaped bone, called a
sesamoid bone.

LEG
• Region between the knee and the ankle,
• Consists: 2 bones
o Tibia: Medial
§ Larger of the 2
§ Weight bearing
o Fibula: Lateral

ANKLE
• Consist: Distal ends of the tibia and fibula = partial socket
• Partial socket – articulates with a bone of the foot.

FOOT
• 7 Tarsal bones:
o Talus
o Calcaneus
o Cuboid
o Navicular
o Medial cuneiforms
o Intermediate cuneiforms
o Lateral cuneiforms
• Metatarsal bones – somewhat longer that the metacarpal bones.
• Phalanges – foot are considerably shorter than those of the hand.
• 3 primary arches in the foot
o Formed by the positions of the tarsal and metatarsal
bones and held in place by ligaments.
o 2 longitudinal arches:
§ Extend from the heel to the ball of the foot
§ Transverse arch extends across the foot
o Functions:
§ Support the body in its upright position
both while standing and in forward
movement during walking.
§ Push the body forward during walking and
LOWER LIMB to absorb the shock when the foot contacts
• Consists: Bones of the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot. the ground.
FEMUR Thigh
PATELLA Knee cap
TIBIA Large lower leg
FIBULA Small lower leg
TARSALS Ankle
METATARSALS Foot
PHALANGES Toes and Fingers

THIGH
• Region between the hip and the knee.
• Femur – single bone
o Head – articulates with the acetabulum of the hip
bone.
o Condyles – articulates with the tibia.
o Epicondyles – points of ligament attachment.
• Patella
o Other name: Kneecap
o Location: within the major tendon of the anterior thigh
muscles.
o Function: Enables the tendon to bend over the knee.

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 JOINTS SYNOVIAL Joined by a fluid cavity Most joints of the
• Other name: Articulations appendicular Skeleton
• Classified: SYNARTHROSIS Non-movable joint Skull bone articulations
Structural Functional AMPHIARTHROSIS Slightly movable joint Between Vertebrae
Fibrous Degree of Motion DIARTHROSIS Freely movable joint Knee, Elbow, Wrist
Cartilaginous Synarthroses Non-movable Articulations
Synovial Amphiarthroses Slightly
movable TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Diarthroses Freely movable • Classified according to the shape of the adjoining articular
• Fibrous Joints: surfaces:
o Articulating surfaces of 2 bones united by fibrous PLANE • Gliding joints
connective tissue. JOINTS • Consist: 2 opposed flat surfaces that glide over each
o No joint cavity other.
o Little or no movement SADDLE • 2 saddle-shaped articulating surfaces oriented at righr
o Subdivided: JOINTS angles to each other.
§ Sutures HINGE • Permit movement in one plane only.
§ Syndesmoses JOINTS • Consist of a convex cylinder of one bone applied to a
§ Gomphoses corresponding concavity of the other bone.
Sutures • Fibrous joints between the bones of the skull. PIVOT • Restrict movement to rotation around a single axis.
• Fontanels JOINTS • Consist: Cylindrical bony process that rotates within a ring
o Other name: Soft spots composed partly of bone and partly of ligament.
o Newborn BALL and • Ball (head) at the end of one bone and a socket in an
o Allow flexibility in the skull during the birth SOCKET adjacent bone into which a portion of the ball fits.
process. JOINTS • Allows wide range of movement in almost all direction.
o Growth of the head after birth.
ELLIPSOID • Other name: Condyloid joints
Syndesmoses • Fibrous joints in which the bones are separated by JOINTS • Elongated ball and socket joints
some distance and held together by ligaments.
• Example: Joint between occipital condyles of the skull
• Example: Fibrous Membrane
and the atlas of the vertebral columns.
Gomphoses • Consist: Pegs fitted into sockets and held in place by
ligaments.
• Example: Joint between tooth and its socket.

CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
• Consist: Bones united by cartilage, and they exhibit slight
movement.
• Examples:
o Synchondroses – joints containing hyaline cartilage
o Symphyses – joints containing Fribrocartilage

SYNOVIAL JOINTS
• Freely moveable joints that contain fluid in a cavity surrounding
the ends of articulating bones.
• Most joins of the appendicular skeleton
• Articular cartilage
o Covers the articular surfaces of bones within synovial
joints.
o Provides a smooth surface where the bones meet.
• Joint Cavity:
o Fluid filled which encloses the articular surfaces.
o Joint Capsule: Helps the bone hold together while still
allowing movement.

FIBROUS JOINTS United by Fibrous Subclasses:

Connective Tissue Sutures
Syndesmosis
Gomphoses
CARTILANIGOUS United by Cartilage Subclasses:
Synchondroses
Symphysis

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 TYPES OF MOVEMENT PRACTICE QUESTIONS
FLEXION Bending 1.) Rare disorder caused by any one of a number by any one of a
EXTENSION Straightening number of faulty genes that results in either too little collagen
ABDUCTION Movement away from Midline formation, or poor-quality collagen. As a result, the bone matrix
ADDUCTION Movement toward the Midline has decreased flexibility and is more easily broken than normal
PRONATION Rotation of the forearm with palms down bone.
SUPINATION Rotation of the forearm with palms up ANSWER: Brittle bone disease, or osteogenesis imperfecta
EVERSION Turning the foot, Plantar surface faces laterally 2.) First bone to begin ossification in the fetus: CLAVICLE
INVERSION Turning the foot, Plantar surface faces medially 3.) Effect of collagen to cartilage: TOUGH
4.) Effect of water-filled proteoglycans: SMOOTH and RESILIENT
ROTATION Movement of a structure about the long axis
5.) Hormones released when blood calcium is too low? Vitamin D
CIRCUMDUCTION Traces a cone
and PTH
6.) Adult vertebral column has _____ major curvatures.
FLEXION AND EXTENSION
• Common opposing movements.
o Flexion - ß the ⊾ of the joint to bring the articulating
bones closer together.
§ Plantar Flexion
ü Movement of the foot toward
the plantar surface
ü Standing on toes
§ Dorsiflexion
ü Walking on the heels
o Extension - Ý the ⊾ of the joint to extend the
articulating bones.
§ Hyperextension:
ü Extension beyond 180°
ü Can be a normal movement

EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE SKELETAL SYSTEM AND JOINTS

1. Bone matrix becomes more brittle and decreases in total amount during
aging.
2. Joints lose articular cartilage and become less flexible with age.
3. Prevention measures include exercise and calcium and vitamin D
supplements.

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References:

Seeley, R. R., Stephens, T. D., & Tate, P. (2020). In Essentials of anatomy &
physiology (pp. 42–69). essay, McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Tortora, G. J., Derrickson, B., & Tortora, G. J. (2018). Essentials of anatomy

and physiology. Wiley.

Putton, K. T. (2019). Anatomy and Physiology Laboratory Manual (10th ed.).

ELSEVIER.

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