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EG-154 Conceptual Design Section 9

This document provides an overview of masonry structures, including sustainability aspects, design according to Eurocode 6, and preliminary design of unreinforced masonry walls. It discusses types of masonry units and mortars, normalized compressive strength calculations, exposure classes, and determination of characteristic material strengths for design. The document is from a conceptual design course and presents information on masonry in a technical yet accessible manner.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
33 views27 pages

EG-154 Conceptual Design Section 9

This document provides an overview of masonry structures, including sustainability aspects, design according to Eurocode 6, and preliminary design of unreinforced masonry walls. It discusses types of masonry units and mortars, normalized compressive strength calculations, exposure classes, and determination of characteristic material strengths for design. The document is from a conceptual design course and presents information on masonry in a technical yet accessible manner.

Uploaded by

kelvin
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Module EG-154

Conceptual Design and


Analysis

Section 9:
Sustainability
of masonry &
preliminary design of
masonry structures

Dr Will Bennett
Faculty of Science and Engineering
Swansea University
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Introduction to masonry
 Structural masonry was once very widely used in civil and structural engineering
works for monumental constructions.
 It has also long been used for more typical uses such as tunnels, bridges, loadbearing
and retaining walls, drainage and sewerage systems etc..

 Normally only used to carry simple compressive forces as masonry and the mortar
used to fill gaps between elements are both weak in tension.
 The superior strength and cost characteristics of steel and concrete have resulted in a
decline in the use of traditional stone and brick masonry for loadbearing elements
such as walls and floors in large-scale constructions. However, concrete masonry is
very often used in modern large-scale construction and comes in a variety of forms.
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Sustainability of masonry
 Masonry is highly durable and requires little
maintenance. At its end-of-life masonry can be
recycled into new masonry materials or aggregates.
 Masonry buildings are highly adaptable, with entire
structures or the core structure being fit for re-
purpose
 Masonry can often be manufactured locally,
reducing transportation requirements.
 Masonry has high thermal mass, meaning that a
building can stay warmer or cooler for longer,
significantly reducing the energy usage of a
building. Masonry also possesses good acoustic, air
quality and fire resistance properties, reducing the
need for other materials to be used.
 Construction requirements for masonry are
minimal. Large equipment is not necessary for
delivery or placement, and staging areas need not
be large, reducing the impact that masonry
construction has on the environment.
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Sustainable masonry manufacture


 Bricks, blocks and mortar produced in the UK are subject to legal requirements
and market imperatives that ensure that they are produced in a sustainable
manner.
 The Mineral Products Association (MPA) is the trade
association for aggregates, asphalt, cement, concrete,
dimension stone, lime, mortar and silica sand industries.
 Members of the Concrete Block Association and Aircrete Product Association are
signatures of the British Precast sustainability charter, which includes a
requirement for annual company 3rd party sustainability audits. They are also
part of the Concrete Industry Sustainability Strategy, which comprises all
constituents (e.g. cement, aggregates, fly ash) and end products (e.g. mortar,
aircrete blocks, aggregate blocks). The clay brick industry has similar initiatives led
by the Brick Development Association.
 Significant volumes of by-product materials such as ground granulated
blastfurnace slag (GGBS) and fly ash can act as part of the cementitious binder in
concrete and masonry. Secondary aggregates (by-products from other processes)
can also be incorporated into masonry.
 The recycled content for aircrete and aggregate blocks is approximately 31%
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Design of masonry
 The design of masonry structures is carried out in accordance with Eurocode 6
and the corresponding UK National Annex document.
 Just like the Eurocodes for concrete, steel and timber, Eurocode 6 is a Limit State
design code.
 The two principal categories of limit state relevant to the design of masonry
structures are durability and strength.
 Design for durability is discussed in Chapter 4 of EC6 and largely related to the
selection of masonry units and mortars for particular structure types and
exposure classes.
 The design rules dealing with ultimate limit states are given in Chapter 6 of EC6.
 In EG-154 we will consider the design of unreinforced masonry walls subject to
vertical loads.
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Types of masonry unit


 Currently there is a great variety of masonry units used in construction throughout
Europe, differing in appearance, size, strength, etc. Mortar composition and
strength is also highly variable.
 To harmonise the various European design approaches, Eurocode 6 sets out six
types of material from which masonry units may be constructed:
 Clay
 Calcium silicate
 Aggregate concrete
 Autoclaved aerated concrete
 Manufactured stone
 Dimensioned natural stone
 The Eurocodes do not set out the characteristic strengths of masonry, but instead
specify how manufacturers ought to test the strength of their various masonry
products.
 The engineer is therefore dependent upon the characteristic strength values
provided by the manufacturer.
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Exposure classes for masonry


EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Exposure classes for masonry (continued)


EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Shapes of masonry unit: “brick”


 The typical “brick” masonry unit is typically made of clay, lime and sand/flint,
concrete or natural stone – clay is most common in the UK.
 Clay masonry units can be classed as Low Density (LD) or high density (HD)
 Common Low Density (LD) clay masonry unit forms are shown below.
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Shapes of masonry unit: “brick”


 Common High Density (HD) clay masonry unit forms are shown below. These are
more typical in the UK than the Low Density forms on the previous page.
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Shapes of masonry unit: “block”


 The typical “block” masonry unit can be made from either aerated concrete (mix of
sand, pulverised fuel ash, cement, aluminium powder) or aggregate concrete (sand,
coarse and fine aggregate, cement).
 Common aggregate concrete masonry units include:

 Facing and exposed aggregate concrete masonry units:

 Accessory aggregate concrete masonry units:


EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Typical masonry sizes


 In design we refer to the coordinating size and work size of masonry units.
 For example in a wall made with typical “brick” units the typical work size (actual
size) is 215x102.5x65mm and the coordinating size (brick plus 10mm mortar) is
225x112.5x75mm.

65

215
102.5
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Typical work sizes of concrete blocks


EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Normalised compressive strength of masonry units fb


 Procedures for the testing of masonry units are outlined in EN 772-1, but have
typically varied widely throughout Europe.
 Therefore, Eurocodes specify the use of a normalised value of compressive strength
fb, which takes into account the test specimen’s condition and shape as well as the
measured mean compressive strength from the manufacturer’s testing.
 Normalised compressive strength:
fb = Conditioning factor  Shape factor  Declared mean compressive strength
 Eurocode 6 advises a conditioning factor for air-dried units of 1.0.
 However, masonry units manufactured to British Standards are quoted in terms of
wet strengths and the recommended conditioning factor for these units is 1.2.
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Normalised compressive strength of masonry units fb


 The shape factor  takes into account the effect that the masonry unit size can have
on the tested strength
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Mortar strength classes and mix proportions


 Mortar is specified by its compressive strength in N/mm2 at 28 days, ranging from
M2 (weakest) to M12 (strongest)
 Mortar for masonry is made of a mixture of cement, lime and sand in the following
ratios by volume:

 Mortar is generally designed to be weaker than the masonry units that it is


connecting. This is so that any cracking that may occur due to settlement, thermal
or moisture movements will occur in the mortar rather than the masonry units.
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Compressive strength of masonry (the combined masonry unit and mortar)


 Characteristic compressive strength of masonry (considering both masonry unit
and mortar), fk :
The characteristic compressive strength of masonry constructed using general
purpose mortar is given by the formula

fk  K.fb0.7 .fm0.3 (from Eq.3.1 of Eurocode 6)

where K is a constant (measure of % voids, mortar and masonry type), determined


from Table NA.4 overleaf
fb is the normalised compressive strength of the masonry units
fm is the compressive strength of the general-purpose mortar (not exceeding
12N/mm2).
 Design compressive strength of masonry, fd :
Design compressive strength of masonry fd is given by:
fk
fd 
M
where the material partial safety factor M is a function of the masonry unit
manufacturing execution category and the relevant construction control class.
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

National Annex constant K


 Masonry with less than 25% voids is classified as Group 1 (20% for frogged bricks).
 Masonry with 25% - 55% voids is classified as Group 2.
 Masonry groups 3 and 4 are not typically used in the UK, so no National Annex K
value has yet been developed for those groups.
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Material partial safety factor M


 The value of the material partial safety factor is dependent upon two factors – the
manufacturing quality of the masonry units and the execution control (quality of
workmanship) of the masonry structure.
 Category I units: 95% specimens compliant with stated compressive strength i.e.
high manufacturing execution control.
 Category II units: all those non-compliant with Category I i.e. lower manufacturing
execution control.
 Class 1 construction: high level of supervision and inspection as well as compliance
with BS EN 1992-2 workmanship.
 Class 2 construction: compliance with BS EN 1992-2 workmanship only.

Material partial safety factor M


Class 1 Class 2
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Design vertical load resistance of an unreinforced masonry wall


EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Example 9.1: Preliminary design of an internal load-bearing wall

The internal load-bearing wall, shown in


the figure (right), supports a concrete floor
slab. Determine a suitable masonry unit Concrete slab
and mortar type, given that:
 The concrete slabs may be considered
to provide “enhanced resistance” to
the wall. h=2800mm

 The wall is 102.5mm thick, 2.8m high


and has length 4m. 102.5mm
 The ultimate axial load on the wall has
Concrete slab
been calculated to be 140kN/metre run
of the wall, including the wall self-
weight.
 The manufacturing control of the
masonry units is category II and the
execution control is class 2.
EG-154 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN - Section 9

Masonry

Advantages Potential disadvantages

Very good in compression Variable material properties/anisotropic

Good inherent fire resistance Thermal expansion and contraction effects e.g. cracking if
inadequate allowance for thermal movement
Low maintenance Poor in flexure/bending

Appearance is generally popular with the Not perceived as environmentally friendly compared with
public other materials, due to use of natural materials (clay,
aggregate etc.) and high energy required during production
Labour intensive to construct

Availability/cost of suitably skilled labourers

Challenging to satisfy robustness/disproportionate collapse


requirements for class 2A buildings, and especially
challenging for Class 2B upwards
Can only transfer modest forces between members
Extract from Conceptual Design of Buildings
– Norman et al. 2021

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