Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1266–1274

www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Applications of shape memory alloys in civil structures

G. Song a,∗ , N. Ma a , H.-N. Li b
a Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
b School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, China

Received 24 June 2004; received in revised form 19 December 2005; accepted 26 December 2005
Available online 17 April 2006

Abstract

Shape memory alloy (SMA) is a novel functional material and has found increasing applications in many areas. Recently, research efforts have
been extended to using SMA for control of civil structures. This paper presents a review of applications of the SMA materials for passive, active
and semi-active controls of civil structures. First, an overview of the characteristics of SMA is presented. The shape memory effect (SME) and
pseudoelasticity, two major properties of SMA associated with the thermal-induced or stress-induced reversible hysteretic phase transformation
between austenite and martensite, are reviewed. These unique properties enable SMA to be used as actuators, passive energy dissipators and
dampers for civil structure control. This paper then reviews current research using SMA-based devices for passive, semi-active or active control
of civil structures. The operation mechanism, design and experimental results of these SMA-based devices are also presented in the paper.
c 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Shape memory alloy; Structural control; Passive vibration damping; Structural rehabilitation

1. Introduction of SMAs’ applications in civil structures are still in laboratory

stage, a few have been implemented for field applications and
Smart systems for civil structures are described as systems found effective [17].
that can automatically adjust structural characteristics in
response to external disturbances and/or unexpected severe 2. Basics about Nitinol shape memory alloys
loading toward structural safety, extension of the structure’s life
time, and serviceability [26]. One key technology toward this 2.1. Basics about shape memory alloys
goal is the development and implementation of smart materials,
In 1932, Chang and Read observed a reversible phase
which can be integrated into structures and provide functions
transformation in gold–cadmium (AuCd), which is the first
such as sensing, actuation and information processes essential
record of the shape memory transformation. It was after
to monitoring, self-adapting and healing of structures. Some
1962, when Buechler and co-researchers discovered the
examples of smart materials are piezoceramics, shape memory
shape memory effect (SME) in nickel–titanium at Naval
alloys (SMAs), magneto-rheological (MR) fluids, and electro-
Ordnance Laboratory (they named the material Nitinol after
rheological (ER) fluids.
their workplace), that both in-depth research and practical
SMAs have found applications in many areas due to
applications of shape memory alloys emerged.
their high power density, solid state actuation, high damping
Up to date, many types of shape memory alloys have
capacity, durability and fatigue resistance. When integrated
been discovered. Among them, Nitinol possesses superior
with civil structures, SMAs can be passive, semi-active, or
thermomechanical and thermoelectrical properties and is the
active components to reduce damage caused by environmental
most commonly used SMA [12]. In this paper, SMAs
impacts or earthquakes. Though most of the research activities
are referred to as Nitinol SMAs unless another type of
SMA is specified. The following reviews two important
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 713 743 4525; fax: +1 713 743 4503. properties of Nitinol SMAs: the shape memory effect and the
E-mail address: [email protected] (G. Song). superelasticity.

c 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

0141-0296/$ - see front matter 
doi:10.1016/j.engstruct.2005.12.010
 G. Song et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1266–1274 1267

2.2. Shape memory effect and superelasticity

Nitinol SMAs have two unique properties: SME and

superelasticity. The SME refers to the phenomenon that SMAs
return back to their predetermined shapes upon heating. The
superelasticity refers to the phenomenon that SMAs can
undergo a large amount of inelastic deformations and recover
their shapes after unloading [12]. These unique properties are
the result of reversible phase transformations of SMAs.
There are two crystal phases in SMAs: the stronger austenite
phase, stable in high temperature, and the weaker martensite Fig. 1. Stress-free martensitic phase transformation.
phase, stable in low temperature. These two phases differ
in their crystal structures. The austenite has a body-centered
cubic crystal structure, while the martensite has a parallelogram
structure (which is asymmetric), having up to 24 variations.
When SMAs in martensite are subject to external stress,
they deform through a so-called detwining mechanism, which
transforms different martensite variations to the particular one
variation that can accommodate the maximum elongation. Due
to its parallelogram structure, the martensite phase is weak and
can be easily deformed. On the contrary, the austenite phase
has only one possible orientation and shows relatively strong Fig. 2. Isothermal stress-induced martensitic phase transformation.
resistance to external stress [12].

2.3. Phase transformations and associated energy dissipation

The composition of SMA depends on the internal energy

level. For a given temperature, the crystal structure is required
to accommodate the minimum energy state. Driven by external
force, the two crystal phases can be transformed: the martensitic
transformation and its inverse transformation. The driving force
for the phase transformation is the difference between the Fig. 3. Stress–strain relationship of the martensitic SMAs (T < M f ).
Gibbs free energy of the two phases, which can be provided
by either temperature gradient or mechanical loading. From and the residual strain induced by the martensite reorientation
a thermomechanical point of view, temperature and external can be recovered only by the reverse phase transformation
stress play an equivalent role in the transformation mechanism upon heating (SME). If deformation exceeds the maximum
[30]. Hence, there are two types of martensite transformations: value which martensite can sustain through the martensite
the temperature-induced transformation which causes the SME reorientation mechanism, the permanent plastic deformation
and the stress-induced transformation which results in the takes place. Hence, for practical use, the applied stress should
superelasticity. not exceed this maximum value to avoid a permanent plastic
Fig. 1 shows a typical stress-free temperature-induced deformation. The curve in Fig. 3 exhibits hysteresis, i.e. the
martensitic transformation and its inverse transformation un- released energy during unloading is significantly less than
der a temperature excitation cycle. Four transition temperatures the input energy during loading. The area enclosed by the
characterize the transformation loop: martensite start tempera- hysteresis loop is proportional to the energy dissipation and thus
ture (Ms ), martensite finish temperature (M f ), austenite start to the damping capacity.
temperature (As ) and austenite finish temperature (A f ). These Shown in Fig. 3 is the stress–strain loop of a superelastic
critical temperatures pinpoint the beginning and the end of the SMA specimen undergoing a stress-induced transformation of
forward (martensite) and the inverse transformation. It is no- SMA at constant temperature (>A f ). The four segments of
ticeable that the temperature-deformation loop is hysteretic due the stress–strain loop (segments 1, 2, 3 and 4 shown in Fig. 2)
to internal phase friction. correspond to the different phase compositions of the SMA.
Fig. 2 presents a typical stress–strain curve of an SMA Before the stress reaches a critical value σms , the SMA behaves
specimen at constant low temperature (T < M f ). When the elastically (corresponding to Segment 1). In Segment 2, stress-
martensite SMA is subject to tension, the elastic deformation induced martensite transformation takes place and results in a
is followed by a large increase of strain corresponding to an large deformation with little increase of stress. Similarly, there
almost constant stress. This yielding is due to the hysteresis- are four characteristic stress values indicating the beginning and
mobility of the twined variation interfaces and defects inside the end of the transformation. Investigation has pointed out that the
martensite phase. Upon unloading, only elastic strain recovers critical stresses are temperature dependent, and the temperature
1268 G. Song et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1266–1274

at the unloading process determines the residual strain [12]. 4. Applications of SMAs in civil structure control
Because of the stress–strain hysteresis, which is identified with
the stress difference of the loading and unloading, the area 4.1. Classification of applications of SMAs in civil structure
enclosed by the loop represents the energy dissipated through control
the loading–unloading cycle.
The vibration suppression of civil structures to external
dynamic loading can be pursued by using active control, semi-
3. Research on the damping properties of SMAs active control, and passive control. In the active control mode,
an external power source controls actuators to apply forces to
Using SMAs for passive structure control relies on the the object structures. For a passive control system, no external
SMA’s damping capacity, which represents its ability to power source is required and the impact forces are developed in
dissipate vibration energy of structures subject to dynamic response to the motion of the structures. The semi-active control
loading. As reviewed in the last section, the damping devices use considerably less energy to adjust the structural
capacity comes from two mechanisms: martensite variations properties than the active control devices.
reorientation which exhibit the SME and stress-induced Based on this classification methodology, the current
martensitic transformation of the austenite phase which exhibit applications of SMAs on structure control can be classified into
the superelasticity. three categories: passive structural control, active frequency
The energy dissipation of the widely-used Nitinol superelas- tuning (semi-active) and active damage control.
tic SMA wires was investigated [9,28,18,14]. Dolce and Car-
done [10] investigated the superelastic Nitinol wires subjected 4.2. SMAs for passive structural control
to tension loading. They observed the dependence of the damp-
ing capacity on temperature, loading frequency and the number 4.2.1. Classification of SMAs for passive structural control
of loading cycles. It is found that the mechanical behavior of The passive structural control using SMAs takes advantage
the wires is stable within a useful range for seismic application. of the SMA’s damping property to reduce the response and
Also, they suggested that the austenite wires should be pre- consequent plastic deformation of the structures subjected to
tensioned for larger effectiveness of energy dissipation. Pied- severe loadings. SMAs can be effectively used for this purpose
boeuf and Gauvin [28] reported that the influence of ambient via two mechanisms: ground isolation system and energy
temperature on the damping capacity of the superelastic Niti- dissipation system [30]. In a ground isolation system, SMA-
nol wires can be negligible. Gandhi and Wolons [14] proposed made isolators, which are installed between a super-structure
using a complex modulus approach to characterize the damp- and the ground to assemble an uncoupled system, filter the
ing capacity of superelastic SMA wires for convenient integra- seismic energy transferred from the ground motion to the super-
tion with structure dynamics. A superelastic SMA wire demon- structure so that the damage of the super-structure is attenuated.
strates the damping capacity not only under tension loading, On the other hand, via the energy dissipation mechanism,
but also under cyclic bending. In 2000, Ip presented his effort martensite or austenite SMA elements integrated into structures
to predict the energy dissipation in SMA wire under pure bend- absorb vibration energy based on the hysteretic stress–strain
relationship.
ing loading. His numerical results showed that the energy dis-
Although the two mechanisms are based on the damping
sipated by the superelastic SMA wire is highly sensitive to its
capacity of SMAs, they are different in arrangement and
diameter; in detail, the thicker the SMA wire, the more energy
function. An SMA isolator provides variable stiffness to the
was dissipated.
structure according to the excitation levels, in addition to
Recently, as large cross-section-area SMAs become avail-
energy dissipation and restoration after unloading. Therefore,
able, studies on the properties of SMA bars or rods have at-
superelastic SMAs are appropriate for isolators. On the other
tracted more attentions [22,9]. As discovered by Liu et al.
hand, an SMA energy dissipation element mainly aims to
[22], the damping capacity of a martensite Nitinol bar un-
mitigate the dynamic response of structures by dissipating
der tension–compression cycles increases with increasing strain
energy. Both martensite and superelastic SMAs have been
amplitude, but decreases with loading cycles and then reaches studied for this case.
a stable minimum value. Dolce and Cardone [10] compared In general, for SMA devices for passive vibration control,
the martensite damping and austenite damping of Nitinol bars martensite SMAs have a larger damping capacity; however, it
subjected to torsion. They found that the damping capacity of requires external heat to cause a phase transformation to restore
the martensite Nitinol bar is quite a bit larger than that of the its original shape. On the other hand, superelastic SMAs have
austenite Nitinol bar, although the prior cannot remain at its a smaller damping capacity, but they have a strong re-centering
highest value as the residual strain accumulates. They also no- force to restore the structure’s initial position and there will be
ticed that the martensite bar’s mechanical behavior is indepen- little residual strain of the superelastic SMAs.
dent of loading frequency and that of the austenite bar slightly
depends on the frequency. This implies that both martensite and 4.2.2. SMA isolation devices
austenite Nitinol bars can work in a wide frequency range and The reported SMA isolation systems include SMA bars for
have a good potential for seismic protection. An overview of highway bridges [37], SMA wire re-centering devices for civil
the damping capacity of martensite SMAs is presented in [16]. buildings [8], SMA spring isolation system [19,24] and SMA
 G. Song et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1266–1274 1269

Fig. 4. Schematic of the SMA isolation device for elevated highway bridges
[37]. Fig. 5. Schematic of the SMA isolation system for buildings [8].

tendon isolation system for a multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF)

shear frame structure [4].
Wilde et al. [37] investigated a base isolation system with
superelastic SMA bars for elevated highway bridges. The
SMA bar isolation system is illustrated in Fig. 4. Comparative
simulations of the SMA isolation system and a conventional
isolation system were conducted with three excitation levels.
The results revealed that the SMA isolation system provided
variable responses to excitation as well as a notable damping.
For small excitation level, the SMA isolation system firmly
links the pier and the deck, while the relative motion emerges
in the case of the conventional system. For a medium excitation
level, the SMA bar undergoes a stress-induced martensitic
transformation so that the soft stiffness allows a relative Fig. 6. Schematic of the SMA spring isolation device [19].
displacement comparable to that of the conventional isolation
system. At severe loading, the SMA bar enters an elastic
range of martensite and the maximum displacement is one-
fifth as much as that of the conventional isolation system. The
comparison shows that the damage energy of the bridge with
the SMA isolation system is smaller than with the conventional
system.
Dolce et al. [8] developed and tested the full-scale Nitinol-
wire-based isolation system within the MANSIDE (Memory
Alloys for New Seismic Isolation and Energy Dissipation
Devices) project to study the feasibility of Nitinol wire for
vibration isolation. The operation principle is schematically
shown in Fig. 5. A superelastic SMA wire is so wound around
three stubs which are connected to the tubes that, when there Fig. 7. Schematic of the SMA tendon isolation system for a MDOF structure
is reciprocal movement between the super-structure and the [4].
foundation, the wire is elongated and the vibration magnitude
is damped by the wire. The isolation system is able to carry did not trigger the stress-induced martensitic transformation.
out up to 600 kN maximum force and to reach up to 180 mm Moreover, the SMA springs achieved the best isolation effect
displacement. Cyclic loading tests show that the isolation only when the system vibrated at a frequency near its resonance
system shows a variable stiffness with the loading intensity, frequency and under higher loading levels. Fig. 6 shows
and a high effectiveness in filtering energy transmission. They the experimental setup for the SMA spring isolation system
tested the isolation system to control the free vibration of a developed by Mayes et al. [24], on which the experiments were
real base-isolated building with 140 mm initial displacement. conducted by the same research group. It was shown that the
The test fully confirms the applicability of an SMA wire re- significant impact of SMA springs on the dynamic response of
centering isolation system on passive structural control. the vibration system lied on two aspects: greatly altering the
Khan and Lagoudas [19] analytically studied using SMA system’s resonance frequency and resonance amplitude.
springs to isolate a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system Corbi [4] proposed using the SMA tendon associated low
from a ground excitation simulated by a shake table. It was level part of a multi-story shear frame (shown in Fig. 7) to
shown that the vibration isolation depended on the relative isolate the ground excitation. The numerical simulation showed
displacement of SMA springs, because small displacements that the SMA tendon isolation device decisively improves the
1270 G. Song et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1266–1274

Fig. 8. Schematic of the setup of the SMA brace reinforced frame structure [3]. Fig. 9. Schematic of the SMA braces for a two-story steel frame [15].

dynamic response capacity of the structures either in terms of

response reduction or re-centering capacity.
It should be emphasized that for isolation devices only
superelastic SMA has been studied due to its zero residual
strain after unloading. However, to improve the damping effect
of the superelastic SMA isolation devices, martensite SMA
elements can be introduced to help dissipate more energy.
The re-centering device by Dolce et al. [8] is a good example
of combining the superelastic and martensitic SMAs.

4.2.3. SMA energy dissipation devices

The SMA energy dissipation devices have been seen in
the forms of braces for framed structures [3,15,7,8,29,11,36, Fig. 10. Schematic of the SMA braces for a frame structure [36].
34,1,32,13], dampers for cable-stayed bridges [21] or simply
supported bridges [6,2], connection elements for columns [35, were diagonally installed in a two-story steel frame structure,
36,20] and retrofitting devices for historic buildings [17,5]. as shown in Fig. 9. Both experimental analysis and numerical
Experiments or simulations or both have been carried out to verification were conducted to demonstrate the effectiveness
explore the potentials of the SMA-based energy dissipation of the SMA dampers on vibration reduction. Experimental
devices in passive structure control. That research focused on comparisons of the frame responses with and without dampers
three aspects: modeling for dynamic response of the structures showed that the vibration of the controlled frame decayed
with SMA devices, experimentally verifying the feasibility of very much faster than that of the uncontrolled frame. The
the SMA devices and optimizing the SMA devices’ design simulation has demonstrated that the largest displacement of
in terms of vibration suppression using experimental and the controlled frame is only 15% of that of the uncontrolled
numerical methods. case. The combined steel–SMA type braces were also adopted
by Tamai and Kitagawa [36] in their seismic resistance devices
A. SMA braces for frame structures as shown in Fig. 10.
The SMA wire braces are installed diagonally in the frame Saadat et al. investigated utilization of Nitinol tendons
structures. As the frame structures deform under excitation, for vibration control of coastal structures. Their work was
SMA braces dissipate energy through stress-induced martensite carried out on a single-degree-of-freedom structure installed
transformation (in the superelastic SMA case) or martensite with diagonal Nitinol tendons. They mainly studied the effects
reorientation (in the martensite SMA case). of the eight different configurations of the bracing system on
Clark et al. [3] conducted a study on a six-story two-bay the dynamic characteristics of the structure by simulation. They
by two-bay steel frame which was installed with the Nitinol- concluded that the hybrid tendons made of rigid segments
wire energy dissipation devices (shown in Fig. 8). 210 loops and Nitinol wire can be used for vibration control of coastal
of Nitinol wire were wrapped around two cylindrical support structures and the proper tendon geometry plays an important
posts to assemble the braces. A similar configuration of the role in energy dissipation. Considering the transient response of
wire brace can also be seen in the Nitinol wire re-centering a frame with beams and SMA tendons, Sun and Rajapakse [34]
braces proposed by [7,8]. Several different scale prototypes numerically investigated the modeling issue of a simple frame
of the devices were designed, implemented and tested. They with two diagonally installed SMA wire tendons. It was found
showed that the proposed devices have characteristics of great that there is pre-strain dependency in the dynamic response of
versatility, simplicity of functioning mechanism, self-centering the frame and in the energy dissipation.
capability, high stiffness for small displacements and good Seelecke et al. [32] studied the effects of geometry variations
energy dissipation capability. In the work by Han et al. [15], of a superelastic SMA damper on the dynamic response of
eight damper devices made of the SMA wires and steel wires a SDOF model representing a building structure to a seismic
 G. Song et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1266–1274 1271

Fig. 11. Schematic of the SMA damper for a stay-cable bridge [21].

Fig. 13. Schematic of SMA bar anchorage for a column.

Fig. 12. Schematic of the setup of SMA restrainer for a simple-supported

bridge.

excitation. They showed that a particular value of SMA

diameter resulted in an optimal vibration control performance.
Duval et al. [13] conducted a numerical simulation on a Fig. 14. Schematic of SMA connector for steel structures.
similar SDOF system associated with a SMA spring damper
for buildings. Their work focused on the dynamic response of analysis and show the applicability of the martensite Nitinol
the system under random excitation. Their research suggested bar in energy dissipation.
that system response could be altered by damping effect and
temperature variation of SMA springs. C. SMA connectors
Connectors or connections in various structures are prone
B. SMA damping elements for bridges to damage during an earthquake event. SMA connectors have
Both superelastic and martensite SMAs can be used as been designed to provide damping and tolerate relatively large
damper elements for bridges. Li et al. [21] theoretically studied deformations. Tamai and Kitagawa [36] proposed an exposed-
the vibration mitigation of a combined cable–SMA damper type column base with SMA anchorage for seismic resistance.
system which can be used on a stay-cable bridge (shown in The SMA anchorages are made of the Nitinol SMA rods
Fig. 11). The dynamic responses of the SMA damped cable in 20–30 mm diameter and steel bars, as shown in Fig. 13.
were simulated as it vibrated at its first mode or at its first few The results obtained from the pulsating tension loading tests
modes respectively. They stated that the proposed superelastic and numerical simulation of the SMA rods, have shown that
SMA damper can suppress the cable’s vibration in both cases. the SMA wires were very effective in dissipating energy and
As shown in Fig. 12, DesRoches and Delemont [6] reported reducing the building’s vibration under severe seismic ground
their testing on a full-scale superelastic SMA bar used for motion. In the paper by Tamai et al. [35], they reported the
seismic retrofit of simply support bridges and their simulation pulsating tension loading tests on the exposed-type column base
analysis on a multi-span simply supported bridge with the SMA with SMA anchorages. It was observed that, contrary to the
restrainer. The results have shown that the SMA restrainer more accumulated residual strain of ordinary anchorages, the SMA
effectively reduced relative hinge displacement at the abutment anchorages can recover their original shape after cyclic loadings
and it provided a large elastic deformation range in comparison and therefore their resisting performance remains the same
with conventional steel restrainer cables. In addition, the SMA to prevent plastic deformation and damage in the structural
restrainer extremely limits the response of bridge decks to near- columns. Leon et al. [20] used martensite SMA tendons as
field ground motion. the primary load transferring elements in steel beam–column
Casciati et al. [2] studied the application of the large connections (shown in Fig. 14). Based on loading tests of the
martensite Nitinol bar in seismic protection devices for bridges. two full-scale SMA enhanced connections, they concluded that
They used a finite element model (FEM) to analyze both static the connection exhibited stable and repeatable hysteresis for
and dynamic response of the devices to strong earthquakes. rotations up to 4% and the SMA tendon was able to sustain
The following experiments were in agreement with the FEM up to 5% strain without permanent damage.
1272 G. Song et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1266–1274

Fig. 15. Schematic of retrofit of a bell tower using SMA anchorage. Fig. 16. A large crack during a loading test.

D. Structural reinforcement for earthquake retrofit

SMAs have also been used to retrofit existing or damaged
structures. As seen in Fig. 15, superelastic SMA tie bars were
used by Indirli et al. [17] to rehabilitate the S. Giorgio Church
Bell-Tower, which was seriously damaged by the earthquake
of Oct. 15th 1996. The SMA tie bars, which run through the
height of the tower and are anchored at its foundation, reinforce
the structure and increase its modal frequencies. This historical
tower was declared intact after an similar earthquake in 2000
[17].

4.3. Shape restoration using superelastic SMAs

Fig. 17. The crack closes after the loading test.
In the literature, there is a specific type of application of
superelastic SMA wires for structural control purpose different the host structure so that the natural frequency of the structures
from the aforementioned examples. This application uses the can be actively tuned. By active frequency tuning, the vibration
shape restoration property of superelastic SMA wires. For control for the structures can be achieved. This is the basic
example, Sakai et al. [31] researched self-restoration of a principle of SMAs for semi-active structural vibration control.
concrete beam using superelastic SMA wires. The experimental For example, McGavin and Guerin [23] reported a proof-of-
results revealed that the mortar beam with SMA wires recovers concept experiment in which the frequency of a steel structure
almost completely after incurring an extremely large crack. is adjusted by using SMA wire actuators in real-time. They
In recent work [27] at University of Houston, a more achieved about 32% change of the natural frequency.
efficient way to use superelastic SMA wires to achieve a larger 4.5. SMAs for structural self-rehabilitation
restoration force in the form of a stranded cable was developed.
Shown in Figs. 16 and 17 is a concrete beam (24 in. × 4 in. × By utilizing the actuation property of SMA wires, Song
6 in.) reinforced with fourteen 1/8 in.-diameter superelastic and Mo [33] proposed the concept of Intelligent Reinforced
stranded cables via the method of post-tensioning to achieve Concrete (IRC). The IRC uses stranded martensite SMA wires
a 2% pre-strain. Each cable has seven strands and each strand for post-tensioning (as shown in Fig. 18). By monitoring the
has seven superelastic wires. Special clamps were made to hold electric resistance change of the shape memory alloy wires,
the superelastic strands/cables without slippage. After a load the strain distribution inside the concrete can be obtained. In
of 11,000 lbs and the appearance of a large crack (Fig. 16), the presence of cracks due to explosions or earthquakes, by
the crack on this beam was closed (Fig. 17) under the elastic electrically heating the SMA wires, the wire strands contracts
restoration force of the superelastic SMA cables upon removing and reduce the cracks. This self-rehabilitation can handle
the load. This research also demonstrates that the form of macro-sized cracks. The concrete structure is intelligent since
stranded cable is a new and effective way to use SMAs for civil it has the ability to sense and the ability to self-rehabilitate.
applications. To demonstrate this concept, several small size specimens
(dimension: 13.5 in. × 6 in. × 2 in.) were cast and tested. Some
4.4. SMAs for active structural frequency tuning convincing preliminary results have been achieved. These small
concrete blocks post-tensioned by Nitinol SMA wires were
For a structure vibrating at its resonant frequency, the fabricated and tested at University of Houston [25]. Fig. 19
vibration can be reduced by actively tuning the resonant shows one specimen. Each rope has seven 0.015 in.-diameter
frequency of the structure. Upon heating, SMA actuators SMA wires with 90 ◦ C transformation temperature. A three-
embedded or installed in structures will increase the stiffness of point bending test was conducted, as shown Fig. 20. During
 G. Song et al. / Engineering Structures 28 (2006) 1266–1274 1273

resistance value of the SMA wire changed up to 15% and this

phenomenon is used to monitor the crack opening without using
additional sensors.

5. Conclusions

Fig. 18. Schematic of intelligent reinforced concrete specimen.

This paper presents a review of the basic properties of
Nitinol shape memory alloys (SMA) and their applications
in passive, active and semi-active control of civil structures.
The shape memory effect (SME) enables martensite Nitinol
materials to be used as actuators and also enables their ap-
plications in active and semi-active controls of civil struc-
tures. Structural self-rehabilitation using reinforced martensite
SMAs is an example of active structural control. Active tun-
ing of structural natural frequency using martensite SMA wires
for vibration suppression is an example of semi-active con-
trol of civil structures. Both martensite and superelastic SMAs
show strong hysteretic effects in their stress–strain curves for
Fig. 19. A small concrete block post-tensioned with SMA wires.
loading–unloading cycles and dissipate energy during these
cycles. This provides the basis for developing passive struc-
tural damping devices using both martensite and superelastic
SMAs. For passive structure control, SMA can be effectively
used in two mechanisms: isolation system and energy dissipa-
tion system. Their similarity and difference have been stated
in the paper through many applications and research examples.
The effectiveness and feasibility of passive SMA devices were
also demonstrated by these examples. We have seen a trend to
combine the advantages of martensite and austenite SMAs to
Fig. 20. The three-point bending test of the specimen.
achieve optimal performance in structural control.

Acknowledgements and disclaimer

The first author would like to thank the support provided by

NSF via a CAREER grant (Grant No. 0093737 and 0305027).
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations
expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the sponsors.

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