Lesson 2

 Reading of
Pneumatic Tire
Sidewall

Tire Sidewall Markings

(P) Tire Type

The “P” stand for passenger so these tires are often called P-Metric. Other letters you
might see include “LT” stands for Light Truck, “ST” stands for “Special Trailer” and “T”
for temporary. The absence of a letter at the beginning of the size description indicates
that the tire is Euro-Metric. The main difference is that Euro-Metric tires may have
different load carrying capacities than their P-Metric counterparts.
(225) Tire Width
The 225 represents the approximate section width or width of the tire from sidewall to
sidewall. The larger the number, the wider the tire.

(60) Aspect Ratio

The 60 refers to the aspect ratio
which is the nominal sidewall height reflected as a percentage of section width. So the
sidewall height on this tire is 60% of 225 or approximately 135 millimeters.
(R) Construction
The “R” stands for radial construction, which is the industry standard for passenger car
and light truck tires. A “B”, “X”, or “-“ in place of the “R” would indicate that the tire
has bias ply construction.
(16) Rim or Bead Diameter
The “16” represents (in inches) diameter of the beads, which means that this tire is
designed to fit on a rim with a 16-inch diameter.

(97V) Service Description

The final component of
the size designation is
called the Service Description, which indicates the Load Index and the Speed Symbol
for the tire. Load Index, or 97 in this example, is a two or three digit code that
represents the maximum load that can be carried at the speed indicated by the speed
symbol. In order to determine the actual maximum load for the tire, you must consult
the Load Index Chart below. The Speed Symbol, or V in this example, indicates the
maximum speed for the tire, but it is more like a performance rating that reflects the
handling characteristics after it is installed on the vehicle. To find the maximum speed
for your tire, refer to the Speed Rating Chart below.

Speed Rating
Q 160 km/h 99 (mph)
R 170km/h 106 (mph)
S 180 km/h 112 (mph)
T 190 km/h 118 (mph)
H 210 km/h 130 (mph)
V 240 km/h 149 (mph)
ZR > 240 km/h 149 (mph)
W 270 km/h 169 (mph)
Y 300 km/h 186 (mph)

Load index vs Load in kg/tire

Load index Load in kg per tire
65 290
66 300
67 307
68 315
69 325
70 335
71 345
72 355
73 365
74 375
75 387
76 400
77 412
78 425
79 437
80 450
81 462
82 475
83 487
84 500
85 515
86 530
87 545
88 560
89 580
90 600
61 615
92 630
93 650
94 670
95 690
96 710
97 730
98 750
99 775
100 800
101 825
102 850
103 875
104 900
105 925
106 950
107 975
108 1000
109 1030
110 1060
111 1090
112 1120
113 1150
114 1180
115 1215
116 1250
117 1285
118 1320
119 1360
120 1400
121 1450
122 1500
123 1550
124 1600

DOT Code

Another important piece of

information on your tire’s sidewall is often
referred to as the Department of
Transportation, or DOT, code and the Tire
Identification Number, or TIN.
The three letters, “DOT,” indicate
that the tire has passed all of the tests
required by the Department of
Transportation (DOT) for motor vehicle
safety standards.
After the DOT insignia is your tire’s
identification number (TIN). The first grouping of two to three letters or numbers
represents the assigned identification mark for the manufacturer.
The second group can be no more than two symbols and identifies the tire size.
The third grouping can be no more than four symbols and may be used at the option of
the manufacturer to indicate the tire type or other significant characteristics of the tire.
The final four numbers in the TIN represent date of manufacturer. The first two
numbers reflect the week and the last two indicate the year. So a tire stamped 2910
was manufactured in the 29th week of 2010.

UTQG Code
 The Uniform Tire Quality Grading (UTQG) was established by the National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) to test tires following government
prescribed test methods and then grade each tire on three main components:

Treadwear

Treadwear is a comparative figure that attempts to project the longevity of the

tire in the form of a three-digit number. This is the wear rate of the tire, comparable
only to other tires within a tire manufacturer’s line. It is based on a control tire that is
tested under controlled conditions at a specified government test track. The control tire
is rated 100. Therefore a tire with 200 would theoretically wear twice as long on the
government’s course compared to a tire with 100. Likewise, a tire rated 60 would be
projected to wear about 60% as well as the control tire rated 100. Since it is does not
take application, driving style or tire maintenance into account, the Treadwear rating
cannot project the actual tread mileage of a tire nor can it be accurately used to
compare the projected tread life of one brand against another.

Traction

Traction grades are AA, A, B and C (with AA being the highest grade). They
represent the tire’s ability to stop straight in a straight line on wet pavement. Any tire
rated under C is considered unacceptable for road travel.

Temperature

The Temperature grade indicates the resistance to heat and the ratings range
from A to C with A being the most resistant to heat.
Lesson 3

 Causes of
Hydroplaning

HYDROPLANING OF PNEUMATIC TIRES

INTRODUCTION
According to the latest available data, 10,012 people died due to road crashes in
2015 – a 45.76% increase from 6,869 deaths recorded in 2006.Research we conducted
based on data from the PSA and other sources on road crash information yielded the
following:
The total number of deaths due to road crashes nationwide has been increasing
since 2006.
In 2006, the PSA recorded 6,869 deaths due to road crashes. Nine years later, in
2015, that number jumped to 10,012.
Since 2010, the number of road crash deaths never dipped below 8,000. The
year with the most number of road crash-related deaths is 2015, with 10,012 people
killed. This is 1.79% of the 560,605 total deaths (including non-road crash ones)
recorded by the PSA that year.
What is hydroplaning?
Hydroplaning occurs when a sheet of water wedges itself between the road and
your tire, preventing the tire’s tread from properly gripping the road.
You may have heard about a tire’s “footprint,” which refers to the part of the
tread that physically touches the pavement and allows you and your car to turn freely
and maintain unimpeded forward momentum. The bigger your tire’s footprint, or the
more contact your tread has with the road, the more control you have. When you
hydroplane, your car is basically losing its footing, which can lea*d to a loss of steering
control, spins, and, at the very least, jangled nerves.
 Hydroplaning of Pneumatic Tires

CAUSE
Every vehicle function that changes direction or speed relies on friction between
the tires and the road surface. The grooves of a rubber tire are designed to disperse
water from beneath the tire, providing high friction even in wet conditions.
Aquaplaning occurs when a tire encounters more water than it can dissipate.
Water pressure in front of the wheel forces a wedge of water under the leading edge of
the tire, causing it to lift from the road. The tire then skates on a sheet of water with
little, if any, direct road contact, and loss of control results. If multiple tires aquaplane,
the vehicle may lose directional control and slide until it either collides with an obstacle,
or slows enough that one or more tires contact the road again and friction is regained.

PREVENTATIVE MEASURES TO AVOID HYDROPLANING

 Rotate tires regularly and replace as necessary.

 Makes sure your tires are properly inflated. You’d be amazed at how many
dangerous situations you can prevent with this one quick, easy measure.
 Check your tires regularly to ensure proper tread depth. Use the coin test!
 Avoid settling into the outer lanes of the road, where excess water tends to
accumulate.
 Watch the drivers in front of you. If they begin to act erratically, there’s a chance
you will too. And it goes without saying, but you always want to maintain proper
distance as well.
  Try to drive in the tracks created by the vehicle(s) ahead of you.
 Turn off the cruise control. There are varying arguments as to how much cruise
control actually increases hydroplaning risk, but at the very least you’ll stay more in
tune with the conditions at hand. Sometimes, even when you do take every
possible precaution, Mother Nature doesn’t care and you can still end up in
hydroplaning. If your vehicle does start to hydroplane, follow these steps – you still
may be able to right yourself with the road and make it to work with nothing more
than an increased heartbeat.

Figure 2.5 Preventive Measures to Avoid Hydroplaning

THINGS TO DO IF YOU END UP HYDROPLANING
There are times when hydroplaning will still occur no matter how careful you are. If
your vehicle starts skidding on a wet surface, there are steps you can take to regain
control of your vehicle.
 Don’t panic.
 Remove your foot from the accelerator. Again, applying brakes abruptly when you’re
already sliding is a mistake. The best you can do is to step off the gas.
 Turn the steering wheel to the direction of the hydroplane. Skidding is similar to
drifting, and by turning your wheels to the direction of the hydroplane, you prevent
losing further control of your car.
 Wait for the tire to regain its grip on the road before anything else.
Response when hydroplaning
 Understand what's happening when you skid
 If your vehicle has been driving straight, it will most likely feel loose and begin
veering in either direction.
  If the drive wheels hydroplane, there might be an increase in your speedometer
and engine RPM as your tires begin to spin.
 If the front wheels hydroplane, the car will start to slip towards the outside of
the bend.
 If the back wheels hydroplane, the car's rear end will begin to veer sideways into
a skid.
 If all four wheels hydroplane, the car will slide forward in a straight line, as
though it were a large sled.
How to reduce the risk of hydroplaning
 Be careful during the first few minutes of rainfall.
 Slowdown in wet conditions.
 Avoid driving through puddles and standing water.
 Turn off cruise control.
 Consider driving in a lower gear.
 Drive slowly and carefully to avoid skids, and maintain a mild pressure on your
brake and gas.
 Driver’s alertness.
Lesson 4

 Factors that
Contributes
Hydroplaning

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTES HYDROPLANING

WATER DEPTH FACTORS

1. Depth of compacted wheel tracks and longitudinal depressions: Heavy

vehicles can cause ruts in the pavement over time that allow water to pool.

2. Pavement micro- and macro texture: Concrete can be preferable to hot mix

asphalt because it offers better resistance to rut formation, though this depends on

the age of the surface and the construction techniques employed while paving.

Concrete also requires special attention to ensure that it has sufficient texture.

3. Pavement cross slope and grade: Cross slope is the extent to which the cross-

section of a road resembles an upturned U. Higher cross slopes allow water to drain

more easily. Grade is the steepness of the road at a particular point, which affects

both drainage and force exerted by the vehicle on the road. Vehicles are less likely to

aquaplane while traveling uphill, and far more likely to do so at the trough of two

connected hills where water tends to pool. The resultant of cross slope and grade is

called drainage gradient or "resulting grade". Most road design manuals require that

the drainage gradient in all road sections must exceed 0.5%, in order to avoid a thick

water film during and after rainfall. Areas where the drainage gradient may fall below

the minimum limit 0.5% are found at the entrance and exit of banked outer curves.
 These hot spots are typically less than 1% of the road length, but a large share of all

skid crashes occur there. One method for the road designer to reduce the crash risk

is to move the cross slope transition from the outer curve and to a straight road

section, where lateral forces are lower. If possible, the cross slope transition should

be placed in a slight up- or downgrade, thereby avoiding that the drainage gradient

drops to zero. The UK road design manual actually calls for placement of a cross

slope transition in an artificially created slope, if needed. In some cases, permeable

asphalt or concrete can be used to improve drainage in the cross slope transitions.

4. Width of pavement: Wider roads require a higher cross slope to achieve the

same degree of drainage.

5. Roadway curvature

6. Rainfall intensity and duration

VEHICLE SENSITIVITY FACTORS

 The driver's speed, acceleration, braking, and steering

 Tire tread wear: Worn tires will aquaplane more easily for lack of tread depth.

Half-worn treads result in aquaplaning about 3–4 mph (5–7 km/h) lower than

with full-tread tires.[6]

 Tire inflation pressure: Under inflation can cause a tire to deflect inward, raising

the tire center and preventing the tread from clearing water.

 Tire tread aspect ratio: The longer and thinner the contact patch, the less likely a

tire will aquaplane. Tires that present the greatest risk are small in diameter and

wide.
  Vehicle weight: More weight on a properly inflated tire lengthens the contact

patch, improving its aspect ratio. Weight can have the opposite effect if the tire

is underinflated.

 Vehicle type: Combination vehicles like semi-trailers are more likely to experience

uneven aquaplaning caused by uneven weight distribution. An unloaded trailer

will aquaplane sooner than the cab pulling it. Pickup trucks or SUVs towing

trailers also present similar problems.

There is no precise equation to determine the speed at which a vehicle will aquaplane.

Existing efforts have derived rules of thumb from empirical testing. In general, cars

start to aquaplane at speeds above 45-58 mph (72-93 kph).

THE 3 TYPES OF HYDROPLANING

1. Dynamic Hydroplaning
Dynamic hydroplaning happens when water lifts your wheels off the runway.
This usually happens when a wedge of water builds up in front of your tires and lifts
them off the runway. When it happens, you're literally riding on water. And that's not
good, because you don't have traction or braking

Figure 2.2 Dynamic Hydroplaning

How to Prevent Dynamic Hydroplaning
 Don't land fast on a wet runway. Dynamic hydroplaning happens at about 8.6
times the square root of your tire pressure. For a Cessna 172 with 42 PSI tires,
that's about 56 knots.
 Keep your tires inflated. Under-inflated tires hydroplane easier than properly
inflated ones.
 Use back pressure and aerodynamic braking to slow down. The more weight
you have on your tires, the better.

2. Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning

Reverted rubber hydroplaning happens when your tires lock up, the rubber begins to
melt, and trapped water under the tire turns into steam. When it happens, you're riding
on steam, and melting your tires in the process.

Figure 2.3 Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning

How to Prevent Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning

 Use light brake pressure, and use aerodynamic braking to keep maximum
weight on your landing gear.
 Use light brake pressure, and never lock up your brakes on landing.

3. Viscous Hydroplaning

When oil or accumulated

rubber combines with water on a
runway, it can form an impenetrable layer of liquid your tires can't break through. This
is especially problematic on smooth asphalt runways.

Figure 2.4 Viscous Hydroplaning

How to Prevent Viscous Hydroplaning

 Land on a grooved runway, if possible.
 Don't land fast.
 Keep your tires inflated. Under-inflated tires hydroplane easier than properly
inflated ones.
 Use back pressure and aerodynamic braking to slow down, and use light brake
pressure.