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HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Class XII-Chapter 03
JUHI MISHRA
INTRODUCTION
● Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produces young one of their own type &
reproductive system is a system of organs which takes part in this process.
● Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous.
● Rate of reproduction is slower in sexual reproduction.
● Humans are unisexual. The reproductive system of each sex consists of many organs. The
latter are distinguishable into primary and secondary sex organs. Besides these, there are
some accessory sex characters.
● Primary sex organs : These are also called gonads which form gametes like - testis in males
and ovary in females. Testis produces sperms and secretes testosterone. Ovary produces ova
and secrete estrogen.
● Secondary sex organs : Sex organs, glands and ducts which do not produce gametes but are
otherwise essential for sexual reproduction are known as secondary sex organs.
● Accessory / External / Secondary sex characters are traits which do not have any direct role
in reproduction but provide specific features and structures to both the sexes.
● Beginning of sexual maturity or ability to reproduce is known as puberty. Puberty occurs at the
age of 10 - 14 years in girls and 13 - 15 years in boys.
Table : Sexual characteristics in human beings
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Male reproductive system is located in the pelvis region and consists of a pair of testis, a
paired duct system consisting epididymis, vasa efferentia, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct &
urethra.

Fig. : Male reproductive system

TESTES
● The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called scrotum.
● The scrotum allows sperms to develop at the optimum temperature (temperature of
testes which is 2–2.5°C lower than the normal internal body temperature).
● The testis is attached to the scrotum by a band of connective tissue known as
gubernaculum testis and the scrotum communicates with the abdominal cavity through
inguinal canal.
● Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules. Each lobule contains
one to three highly coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperms are produced.
● Each seminiferous tubule is lined by germinal epithelium which is formed of two types
of cells -male germ cells (spermatogonia) and sertoli cells.
● Germ cells undergoes spermatogenesis to form spermatozoa and sertoli cell (also called
subtentacular cells) functions as nurse cells for differentiating spermatozoa.
● The regions outside the seminiferous tubules (called interstitial spaces) contain small
blood vessels and interstitial cells or Leydig cells. Leydig cells synthesize and secrete
testicular hormones called androgens.
SECONDARY SEX ORGANS/GLANDS
● The seminiferous tubules of the testis open into the vasa efferentia through rete
testis. The vasa efferentia leave the testis and open into epididymis located along the
posterior surface of each testis.
● Epididymis is involved in temporary storage, nutrition & physiological maturation and
motility of sperms. Epididymis is divided into three parts– anterior caput epididymis,
middle corpus epididymis & porterior cauda epididymis (here spermatozoa is
concentrated & stored until ejaculation).
● Ejaculation is the discharge of semen due to powerful rhythmic contraction of
urethra.
● The duct system conduct the semen to the exterior.
● Vas deferens is a large duct which arises from the cauda epididymis & reach upto
seminal vesicle.
● Ejaculatory ducts are short straight muscular tubes each formed by the union of vas
deferens & duct of seminal vesicle. They have contractile mechanism that aids in the
emission of seminal fluid.
● Urethra leads from the urinary bladder through the prostate glands and into the penis.
Urethra has four parts– urinary, prostatic, membraneous and penile. The latter two
form the outflow pathway for the urine and for the seminal fluid.
● Penis is the male copulatory organ. Glans penis is the tip of the penis which is highly
sensitive to stimulation. Prepuce is a loose retractile foreskin which covers glans
penis.
● Secretions of seminal vesicles, a prostate and paired bulbourethral glands constitute
the seminal plasma which is rich in fructose, calcium and certain enzymes. The
secretions of bulbourethral glands also helps in the lubrication of the penis.
● The seminal vesicles are long pouches with muscular wall. They secrete spermatozoa
activating substances, such as fructose, citrate, inositol, prostaglandins and several
proteins. Sperms use fructose as a respiratory substrate. Seminal fluid maintains
viability and motility of sperms.
● Seminal vesicle secretes a alkaline, nutritive fluid which forms main part i.e., 60 % of
the semen. It is also called uterus-masculinus. It forms the mullerian duct of the
embryo.
● Seminal vesicles are found in between the urinary bladder and rectum.
● The prostate gland surrounds the first portion of the urethra. This gland secretes a
slightly acidic fluid (pH about 6.5) which forms 25% part of the semen. The secretion
nourish and activates the spermatozoa to swim. It is essential for sperm motility
(removal causes sterility).
● In the secretion of prostate gland, citric acid, calcium and phosphate, fibrinogen and
fibrinolysin is present. The secretion of the prostate gland combines with the secretion
of seminal vesicle and so the semen gets coagulated. In the coagulated semen, the
mobility of sperms is reduced and so their energy is conserved. After sometime, due to
fibrinolysins, semen again liquefies and in this semen, the sperms can move.
● Cowper's glands are also termed as Bulbourethral glands. 1st pair of Cowper's glands
are attached to urethra. They secrete alkaline mucus which is discharged into the
spongy part of urethra. The mucus lubricates the reproductive tract. This serves to
neutralize any acid of urine remaining in the urethra. Secretion of Cowper's glands is
produced before the ejaculation of semen.
● Secretion of Cowper's glands carries some spermatozoa released before ejaculation.
This is one of the reasons for the high failure rate of the withdrawal method of birth
control.
HORMONAL CONTROL OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The growth, maintenance and
functions of secondary sex organs
are under the control of
testosterone hormone secreted by
Leydig's cells of testis, while those
of seminiferous tubules and Leydig's
cells are controlled by Follicular
Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and
Interstitial Cells Stimulating
Hormone (ICSH) of anterior pituitary
lobe respectively.

Fig: Hormonal control of male reproductive system

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, a uterus,
a vagina, external genitalia, and a pair of mammary glands.

Fig. : Diagrammatic sectional view of female pelvis showing reproductive system

OVARY
● The ovaries produce the female gamete (ovum) and some steroid
hormones (ovarian hormones).
● The ovaries are attached to the abdominal wall by an ovarian ligament
called mesovarium.
● Each ovary is a compact or solid organ, consisting of an outer cortex and
inner medulla. The stroma of the cortical region is composed of spindle
shaped fibroblasts. A poorly delineated dense connective tissue layer,
the tunica albuginea, covers the cortex. It imparts the whitish colour to
the ovary. Located outside the tunica albuginea, the germinal epithelium
formed of simple squamous or cuboidal epithelial cells covers the
surface of the ovary.
● Ovarian follicles in different stages of development are embedded in the
stroma.
● Follicles are specialized structure in which oocyte growth & meiosis I occur.
● Mature follicles are known as Graafian follicle which occupy a single cavity
called antrum & contains a secondary oocyte ready for ovulation.
● Ruptured graafian follicle is called corpus luteum (a temporary endocrine
gland which secretes progesterone hormone for the maintenance of
pregnancy).
● Corpus luteum loses its yellow colour & become inactive & transformed
into a small cell mass called corpus albicans.
● Degenerated follicles are called atretic follicles.
● NOTES
● A female child at birth possess 80,000 follicles in the ovaries but about
400 mature & discharge their ova, the rest undergoes degeneration.
SECONDARY SEX ORGANS/GLANDS
● Oviducts develop from the mullerian duct of the embryo. It conveys the egg from
the ovary to the uterus, and provides the appropriate environment for its
fertilization. It is supported by a double fold of peritoneum called mesosalpinx.
● Each oviduct is differentiated into four parts – infundibulum (surrounded by finger
like projections called fimbriae), ampulla (place where fertilization of ovum takes
place), isthmus and uterine part.
● Fimbriae helps in collection of ovum after ovulation.
● Tubectomy is the cutting of oviduct & tying its two ends separately.
● Uterus (also called womb) is a pyriform, hollow muscular thick-walled but
distensible median structure located above and behind the urinary bladder. It is
meant for nourishing and development of foetus. For this, uterus is capable of
tremendous enlargement. The empty uterus is 7.5 cm long and 5 cm broad and 2.5
cm thick.
● The surgical removal of uterus is called hysterectomy.
● The uterus has three layers – outer perimetrium, middle myometrium (thickest layer
containing areolar connective tissue & smooth muscle fibres) & inner endometrium.
● During pregnancy, endometrium forms the maternal section of the placenta.
● The uterus is the site of implantation of the pre-embryo and for the subsequent
embryonic & fetal development.
● The female external genitalia includes mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen
and clitoris.
● Vagina is a tubular female copulatory organ and passageway for menstrual flow as
well as birth canal. It is of about 10 cm length.
● Vaginal wall is made of an internal mucosa, muscular layer and an outer adventitia. Its
mucous membrane is non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Glands are
absent. However, cervical glands do pass on some mucus into it during ovulation.
● During reproductive life, vagina contain certain bacteria (species of Lactobacillus
and Lactoneustroc, also called Doderlein's Bacillus) which bring about fermentation
and produce acid which inhibits the growth of other microorganisms.
● In virgins, the vaginal orifice is partially covered by an annular centrally perforate
membrane called hymen.
● Vulva ( = external female genitalia) is flanked by two pairs of fleshy folds of skin :
the inner small, thin, moist, labia minora and outer larger, hair-covered labia
majora ( = homologous to scrotal sac of male). All the labial folds have numerous
sebaceous and sweat glands on both sides.
● A small erectile organ, the clitoris, lies at the anterior junction of the labia minora.
It is homologous to the penis in the male but is very small and solid, having no
passage through it. It consists of a short shaft with erectile tissue. It ends in a
rounded glans clitori. The latter is covered by a small hook of skin, the prepuce.
Rubbing of clitoris during intercourse produces a pleasurable sensation. This seems
to be its only function.
● Urethra and vagina open by separate apertures, the upper urethral and
lower vaginal orifices, into the vestibule. A fleshy elevation above the
labia majora is known as mons veneris or mons pubis. It bears pubic
hair, made up of adipose tissue.
● Bartholin's glands are a pair of small glands which open in the vestibule
lateral to vaginal orifice. The secretion of this gland is thick, viscous and
alkaline for lubrication and counteracting urinary acidity (similar to
Cowper's glands in males).
 Fig. : Female reproductive system

Mammary gland are modified sweat glands that lie over the pectoral muscle. Internally
each gland contains 15-20 lobulated milk glands. Essential function of mammary gland is
milk production which has nutritional and immunologic functions.
HORMONAL CONTROL OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
● Ovary is regulated by pituitary gonadotropins or GnRH. Anterior pituitary
secretes follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) which controls the
transformation of young primary follicle into graafian follicle, maturation
of ovum and secretion of estrogen by its follicular cells. The Luteinizing
hormone (LH) of anterior pituitary regulates the ovulation from the
graafian follicle, transformation of empty graafian follicle into yellowish,
conical corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone hormone from the
corpus luteum.
● Growth and function of secondary sex organs are regulated by estrogen
and progesterone. Estrogen controls the growth, maintenance and
functioning of secondary sex organs of female. Progesterone suspends
ovulation during pregnancy, promotes implantation of foetus on the
endometrium and development of foetus in the uterus.
 Fig. : Hormonal Control of Female Reproductive System.

At the end of pregnancy, the corpus luteum secretes relaxin which broadens the
pelvis for easy parturition.
GAMETOGENESIS
● Gametogenesis is the process of gamete (sperm or egg) formation which include
spermatogenesis & oogenesis.
SPERMATOGENESIS
● Spermatogenesis results in the formation of sperms that are transported by the
male sex accessory ducts.
● Spermatogenesis is a continuous process & occurs in seminiferous tubules at the
time of puberty (due to significant increase in the secretion of GnRH) & continues
throughout life.
● Increased levels of GnRH acts at the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates the
secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). LH
acts at the Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of androgens.
Androgens, in turn, stimulate the process of spermatogenesis. FSH acts on the
Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of some factors which help in the process of
spermiogenesis.
● The spermatogonia present on the inner wall of seminiferous tubules multiply by
mitotic division and increase in numbers. Each spermatogonium is diploid and
contains 46 chromosomes. Some of the spermatogonia called primary
spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis.
● A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction division)
leading to formation of two equal, haploid cells called secondary spermatocytes,
which have only 23 chromosomes each.
● The secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to produce four
equal, haploid spermatids.
● Spermiogenesis or spermateleosis is the process of formation of flagellated
spermatozoa from spermatids.
● Spermiogenesis begins in the seminiferous tubules but usually completed in
epididymis.
 Fig. : Events in spermatogenesis

After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become

embedded in the sertoli cells, and are finally
released from the seminiferous tubules by
the process called spermiation.
STRUCTURE OF SPERM
● Sperm is a microscopic structure
composed of a head, neck, a middle
piece and a tail.
● The sperm head contains an
elongated haploid nucleus, the
anterior portion of which is covered
by a cap-like structure, acrosome
(produced by golgi body). The
acrosome is filled with enzymes that
help in fertilization of the ovum.
● If acrosome is removed from a sperm,
it will fail to penetrate the ovum.
● Neck is very short containing proximal
& distal centriole.
Fig. : Structure of sperm
● The middle piece possesses numerous mitochondria, which produce energy for the
movement of tail that facilitate sperm motility essential for fertilization.
● Deficiency in the number of sperms result in sterility which is known as
oligospermia.
● Absence of sperms in semen is known as azoospermia.
● Although normal number of sperm are present in semen but if these are
completely non-motile, then this condition is known as necrospermia.
OOGENESIS
● The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called oogenesis.
● Oogenesis is a discontinuous process.
● Oogenesis begins before birth, stops in mid process and only resumes a year after
menarche (the first menstrual bleeding).
● Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development stage when a
couple of million gamete mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each
fetal ovary; no more oogonia are formed and added after birth. These
cells start division and enter into prophase-I of the meiotic division and
get temporarily arrested at that stage, called primary oocytes.
● Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells
and then called the primary follicle. A large number of these follicles
degenerate during the phase from birth to puberty. Therefore, at puberty
only 60,000-80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary.
● The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells
and a new theca and are called secondary follicles. The secondary
follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is characterized by
a fluid filled cavity called antrum.
Fig. : Events in oogenesis
● The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle or Graafian follicle. The
secondary oocyte forms a new membrane called zona pellucida surrounding it. The
Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the ovary
by the process called ovulation.
● NOTES
● Secondary oocyte is a female gamete in which the 1st meiotic division is completed
& second meiotic division (metaphase stage) begins. Secondary oocyte complete the
secondary meiotic division only after fertilization by the sperm in the fallopian tube).
The egg is released at secondary oocyte stage under the effect of LH.
● Oogenesis ends at menopause.
● Polar bodies are formed only in oogenesis at the time of formation of secondary
oocyte.
STRUCTURE OF OVUM

● An ovum is generally spherical, non motile gamete with yolky cytoplasm

and is enclosed in one or more egg.
● Size of ovum varies in different animals and depends upon the amount
of yolk. Size of ovum varies from 10µ to a few cm.
● Egg size and yolk amount are interdependent. In mammals, it is generally
microlecithal and about 100µ.
● The life span of eggs in female reproductive organs in human being is 48
hrs.
● The nucleus of egg is known as germinal vesicle.
 Fig. : Structure of Ovum

NOTES
Largest sized egg is of ostrich and is about 170 ×135 mm. Smallest egg is of humming bird.
Table : Differences between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis
MENSTRUAL CYCLE

● Menstrual cycle is the cyclic change in the reproductive tract of primate females.
● The first menstruation begins at puberty in females is known as menarche.
● Menstrual cycle starts only after attaining sexual maturation (puberty). During
ovulation, only one ovum is released per menstrual cycle.
● The cyclical changes in the ovary and uterus during the menstrual cycle are
induced by changes in the levels of pituitary and ovarian hormones.
● Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal reproductive phase and extends
between menarche (the first menstrual cycle) and menopause.
● The length of menstrual cycle varies widely in women, but on average it is
completed in 28 days (mensus means a month).
● Menstrual cycle is absent during pregnancy, may be suppressed during lactation
and permanently stops at menopause.
PHASES OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Menstrual cycle is divided into four phases - follicular, ovulatory, luteal and
menstrual.
FOLLICULAR (PROLIFERATIVE) PHASE OR POST-MENSTRUAL OR PRE-OVULATORY
PHASE
● It follows the menstrual phase and lasts for about 9-10 days (from 6 to 13th day of
menstrual cycle).
● It involves following changes :
● Under the stimulation of FSH-RF of hypothalamus, there is increased secretion of
FSH from anterior pituitary.
● FSH stimulates the change of a primary follicle of the ovary into a Graafian follicle.
● Follicular cells of Graafian follicle secrete estrogens.
● Proliferative phase consists of growth of endometrium, fallopian tube and vagina.
● The follicular phase ends with ovulation.
OVULATORY PHASE OR FERTILITY PHASE

● It involves the ovulation from the Graafian follicle of ovary.

● It occurs at the end of proliferative phase i.e. 14th day or midday during menstrual
cycle and coincides with the beginning of the next phase.
● It is caused by increased turgidity and contraction of smooth muscles fibres
around the Graafian follicle. Ovum is received by the fimbria of the fallopian tube.
Ovum is viable for two days.
● Ovulation is controlled by the increased level of LH in the blood. Egg at that time is
in the secondary oocyte state. LH also starts the change of empty Graafian follicle
into corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone from corpus luteum.
● During ovulation, the secondary oocytes remains surrounded by its zona pellucida
and corona radiata. There is no much change in uterine endometrium during
ovulatory phase.
● In animals, the ovulation follow three patterns :

○ Fix or spontaneous ovulators : In these animals, ovulation takes place at a fix

time in the midway of cycle. There is no need of coitus for ovulation. E.g.,
Primates (Human, Ape and Monkey).

○ Induced or reflex ovulators : In these animals, copulation or coitus is

necessary for ovulation, e.g., rabbit,
● Seasonal ovulators : Ovulation occur in breeding season, e.g.,
frog.
LUTEAL OR PROGESTATIONAL OR PRE-MENSTRUAL OR
SECRETORY OR POST-OVULATORY PHASE
● It lasts for about 12 - 14 days and extends from 16th to 28th day of menstrual
cycle.
● It is characterised by following changes -

○ Corpus luteum (yellow body) is formed from empty Graafian follicle so is

called luteal phase.

○ The endometrium prepares for the implantation of an embryo & the corpus
luteum is active.
● Corpus luteum begins to secrete a hormone called progesterone. The later reaches
its peak about 22nd day after the beginning of cycle.
MENSTRUAL PHASE OR BLEEDING PHASE

● It lasts for about 3-5 days and extends from 1st to 4th day of the menstrual cycle.
● When the ovum remains unfertilized, then the corpus luteum starts degenerating.
The level of progesterone in the blood declines. The uterine tissues fail to be
maintained. Then the unfertilized ovum along with ruptured uterine epithelium,
about 50 - 100 ml of blood and some mucus is discharged out through the vaginal
orifice and is called menstrual flow or menstruation.
● Decrease in the level of progesterone and estrogen in the blood stimulates the
hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to release FSH-RF and FSH respectively
(positive feedback). FSH starts the follicular phase of next menstrual cycle.
Fig. : Menstrual cycle and diagrammatic presentation of various events during a
menstrual cycle
FERTILIZATION AND IMPLANTATION

● The process of fusion of a

sperm with an ovum to form
a diploid cell is called
fertilization.
● Fertilization activates the
secondary oocyte cell to
complete the division.
● It normally occurs when
sperm and egg interact in
the upper part of the oviduct
(ampulla)

Fig. : Ovum surrounded by few sperms

● During fertilization, a sperm comes in contact with ovum (zona pellucida layer) and
induces changes in the membrane that block the entry of additional sperms. Thus,
it ensures that only one sperm can fertilize an ovum.
● Polyspermy is the entry of more than one sperm nucleus into an ovum at
fertilization.
● When the acrosome of the spermatozoa touches the surface of egg, the cytoplasm
of the egg bulges forward forming receptive cone or fertilization cone (a region
where sperms enters the egg).
● The secretions of the acrosome help the sperm enter into the cytoplasm of the
ovum through the zona pellucida and the plasma membrane. This induces the
completion of the meiotic division of the secondary oocyte. The second meiotic
division is also unequal and results in the formation of a second polar body and a
haploid ovum (ootid). Soon the haploid nucleus of the sperms and that of the ovum
fuse together to form a diploid zygote.
● Cleavage is the mitotic division of the zygote unit moving through the isthmus of
the oviduct towards the uterus and forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called
blastomeres.
● Cleavage occurs more readily in the active cytoplasm.
● Cleavage in human is equal holoblastic.
● Morula is a solid ball of 32 cell stage without a cavity which is formed after 5th
cleavage and 31 cell division. Morula looks like a little mulberry.
● Morula changes to blastula due to rearrangements of blastomeres.
● Blastula formation is called blastulation.
● Mammalian blastula with a large blastocoel is called blastocyst (in humans).
● Blastocyst has 3 parts-trophoblast, inner cell mass and blastocoel.
● The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer called
trophoblast and an inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called the inner
cell mass.
● The trophoblast layer then gets attached to the endometrium and the inner cell
mass gets differentiated as the embryo.
● After attachment, the uterine cells divide rapidly and covers the blastocyst. As a
result, the blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium of the uterus. This
is called implantation (or nidation) and it leads to pregnancy.
● Implantation occurs generally between 6th to 9th day after fertilization.
● The site of implantation determines the portion of placenta.
● In human, implantation is of interstitial type in which embryo is buried in the
uterine epithelium which completely surrounds it.
Fig. : Mechanism of Implantation
PREGNANCY AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

● Placenta is an intimate mechanical connection between foetus and uterus of

mother for nutrition, respiration and excretion.
● Placenta contains minute finger like projections called villi. The uterine wall forms
corresponding depressions called crypts.
● Human placenta is hemochorial placenta (in which maternal blood bathes foetal
chorionic villi directly), non-deciduous and meta discoidal.
● In simplest type of placenta, six barriers separate maternal blood from foetal
blood. Three barriers are lost in human placenta.
● Umbilical cord is a flexible cord like structure connecting the foetus at the navel
with the placenta and containing two umbilical arteries and one vein that nourishes
the foetus and remove its wastes.
● Both type of blood vessels in the umbilical cord is surrounded by Whator's jelly.
● The placenta facilitates the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the
embryo and also removal of carbon dioxide and excretory /waste
materials produced by the embryo.
● Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue as it secretes several
hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental
lactogen (hPL), estrogens, progestogens, etc that are essential for
maintaining maternal physiological conditions appropriate for continued
development of the conceptus. In the later phase of pregnancy, a
hormone called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary.
Fig : Placenta and Umbilical cord
● During pregnancy, the levels of other hormones like estrogens,
progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine, etc., are increased several
folds in the maternal blood.
● Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo)
differentiates into an outer layer called ectoderm and an inner layer
called endoderm. A mesoderm soon appears between the ectoderm and
the endoderm. These three layers give rise to all tissues (organs) in
adults.
● The establishment of germ layers initiates the final phase of embryonic
development i.e. organogenesis.
DERIVATIVES OF ECTODERM

● Skin(epidermis) and their pigment cells.

● Mucosal membrane of lips, cheek, gums, basal portion of mouth, some part of palate,
nasal apertures.
● Lower part of anal canal.
● Glans penis.
● Labia majora and outer part of labia minora.
● Anterior epithelium of cornea, epithelium of conjunctiva, ciliary body and iris of eyes.
● Outer face of tympanic membrane, epithelium of labyrinth.
● Glands-
● Exocrine : Sweat glands, sebaceous glands, parotid glands, mammary glands, lacrimal
glands.
● Endocrine : Hypophysis cerebri and adrenal medulla.
● Hairs, nails, enamel of teeth
● Lens of eyes.
● Nervous system.
DERIVATIVES OF MESODERM

● Connective tissues, superficial and deep fascia, ligaments, tendons, dermis of skin
(from dermatome)
● Specialized connective tissues like adipose tissue, reticular tissues, bones, cartilages.
● Teeth.
● All muscles.
● Heart, all blood vessels and blood cells.
● Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, posterior urethra of female, upper glandular part of
prostate.
● Ovaries, uterine tubes.
● Testes, epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicle, ejaculatory duct.
● Pleural cavities, peritoneal cavity and pericardial cavity.
● Joints.
● Cornea, sclera, choroid ciliary body and iris related material.
● Microglia, dura mater etc
DERIVATIVES OF ENDODERM

● Epithelial part of mouth, some part of palate, tongue, tonsils, pharynx, oesophagus,
stomach, small and large intestine, upper part of anal canal.
● Pharyngo-tympanic tube, middle ear, inner face of tympanic membrane.
● Respiratory tract.
● Gall bladder, pancreatic duct.
● Major portion of urinary bladder, complete urethra of female except posterior part,
complete urethra of male except anterior and posterior part.
● Whole inner part of vagina including inner face of labia minora.
● Glands-

○ Exocrine : Liver and Pancreas

○ Endocrine : Thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, islets of Langerhans.

● In addition to the above, the glands of gastrointestinal tract, major part of prostate etc.
are also formed by endoderm.
PARTURITION AND LACTATION

● After nine months of pregnancy, the fully developed foetus is ready for delivery. The
process of childbirth is called parturition.
● It is induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism involving cortisol, estrogens and
oxytocin.
● Powerful contraction of the uterus in labor are needed for parturition.
● Stages of labor in parturition are

○ 1st stage : Dilation of cervix

○ 2nd stage : Delivery of baby

○ 3nd stage : Delivery of placenta and umbilical cord.

● The signals for placenta parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the
placenta which induce mild uterine contraction called foetal ejection reflex.
● Foetal effection reflex induces oxytocin release from the posterior pituitary, which acts
on uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine contraction.
● Gestation period is the length of time from conception to birth. Gestation
period of 280 days is calculated from time of last menstruation (hence 266
days).
● Mammary glands differentiate during pregnancy and secrete milk after child-
birth. The new-born baby is fed milk by the mother (lactation) during the
initial few months of growth.
● The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called
colostrum which contains several antibodies absolutely essential to develop
resistance for the new-born babies
Table : Gestation period of different animals
PARTURITION AND LACTATION

● SDF