2.9.

2 : Types of receiver
 2 basic types of receiver
 Coherent receiver – the frequencies generated in the receiver and used for
demodulation are synchronized to oscillator frequencies generated in the transmitter.
 Noncoherent receiver – frequencies that are generated in the receiver or the
frequencies that are used for demodulation are completely independent from the
transmitter’s carrier frequency
 For AM DSBFC scheme, the noncoherent receivers are typically used.
 Tuned Radio Frequency receiver (TRF)
 Superheterodyne Receiver

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2.9.2.1 : Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver (TRF)
 Block diagram of 3-stages TRF receiver that includes an RF stage, a detector
stage and an audio stage :
 Two or three RF amplifiers are required to filter and amplify the received signal to a
level sufficient to drive the detector stage.
 The detector converts RF signals directly to information.
 An audio stage amplifies the information signals to a usable level
 Simple and have a relatively high sensitivity

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2.9.2.1 : Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver (TRF)
 3 distinct disadvantages :
1. The bandwidth is inconsistent and varies with the center frequency when tuned over a
wide range of input frequencies.
 As frequency increases, the bandwidth = f/Q increases. Thus, the selectivity of the input
filter changes over any appreciable range of input frequencies.

2. Instability due to large number of RF amplifiers all tuned to the same center
frequency
 High frequency, multi stage amplifiers are susceptible to breaking into oscillation.

3. The gains are not uniform over a very wide frequency range.
 The nonuniform L/C ratios of the transformer-coupled tank circuits in the RF amplifiers.

*Q = Pstored/Pdissipated = I2X/I2R Q = X/R where: X = Capacitive or Inductive reactance at resonance

R = Series resistance.

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2.9.2.2 : Superheterodyne Receiver
 Heterodyne – to mix two frequencies together in a nonlinear device or to
transmit translate one frequency to another using nonlinear mixing.
 Block diagram of superheterodyne receiver :

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2.9.2.2 : Superheterodyne Receiver
 1. RF section
 Consists of a pre-selector and an amplifier
 Pre-selector is a broad-tuned bandpass filter with an adjustable center frequency
used to reject unwanted radio frequency and to reduce the noise bandwidth.
 RF amplifier determines the sensitivity of the receiver and a predominant factor in
determining the noise figure for the receiver.
*the minimum RF signal level that can be detected at the input to the receiver and still produce a usable demodulated information
signal.

 2. Mixer/converter section
 Consists of a radio-frequency oscillator and a mixer.
 Choice of oscillator depends on the stability and accuracy desired.
 Mixer is a nonlinear device to convert radio frequency to intermediate frequencies
(i.e. heterodyning process).
 The shape of the envelope, the bandwidth and the original information contained in
the envelope remains unchanged although the carrier and sideband frequencies are
translated from RF to IF.

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 2.9.2.2 : Superheterodyne Receiver
 3. IF section
 Consists of a series of IF amplifiers and bandpass filters to
achieve most of the receiver gain and selectivity.
 The IF is always lower in frequency than the RF because it
is easier and less expensive to construct high-gain, stable
amplifiers for low frequency signals.
 IF amplifiers are also less likely to oscillate than their RF
counterparts.

 4. Detector section
 To convert the IF signals back to the original source
information (demodulation).
 Can be as simple as a single diode or as complex as a PLL
or balanced demodulator.

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2.9.2.2 : Superheterodyne Receiver
 5. Audio amplifier section
 Comprises several cascaded audio amplifiers and one or more speakers

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2.9.3 : Receiver Operation
2.9.3.1 : Frequency Conversion
 Frequency conversion in the mixer stage is identical to the frequency
conversion in the modulator except that in the receiver, the frequencies are
down-converted rather that up-converted.
 In the mixer, RF signals are combined with the local oscillator frequency
 The local oscillator is designed such that its frequency of oscillation is always above
or below the desired RF carrier by an amount equal to the IF center frequency.
 Therefore the difference of RF and oscillator frequency is always equal to the IF
frequency
 The adjustment for the center frequency of the pre-selector and the local oscillator
frequency are gang-tune (the two adjustments are tied together so that single
adjustment will change the center frequency of the pre-selector and at the same time
change the local oscillator)
 when local oscillator frequency is tuned above the RF – high side injection
when local oscillator frequency is tuned below the RF – low side injection

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2.9.3.2 : Frequency Conversion
 Mathematically expressed :
High side injection flo  fRF  fIF (33)

Low side injection flo  fRF  fIF (34)

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2.9.3.2 : Frequency Conversion
 Illustration of the frequency conversion process for an AM broadcast-band
superheterodyne receiver using high side injection :

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2.9.3.2 : Frequency Conversion
 Ex 5-3

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2.9.3.3 : Local oscillator tracking
 Local oscillator tracking – the ability of the local oscillator in a receiver to
oscillate either above or below the selected radio frequency carrier by an
amount equal to the intermediate frequency throughout the entire radio
frequency band.

 With high side injection- local oscillator should track above the incoming RF carrier
by a fixed frequency equal to fRF + fIF
 With low side injection- local oscillator should track below the incoming RF carrier
by a fixed frequency equal to fRF - fIF

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 2.9.3.4 : Image frequency
 Image frequency – any frequency other than the selected radio frequency
carrier that will produce a cross-product frequency that is equal to the
intermediate frequency if allowed to enter a receiver and mix with the local
oscillator.
 It is equivalent to a second radio frequency that will produce an IF that will
interfere with the IF from the desired radio frequency.
 if the selected RF carrier and its image frequency enter a receiver at a same time,
they both mix with the local oscillator frequency and produce different frequencies
that are equal to the IF.
 Consequently, 2 different stations are received and demodulated simultaneously

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 2.9.3.4 : Image frequency
 The following figure shows the relative frequency spectrum for the RF, IF,
local oscillator and image frequencies for a superheterodyne receiver using
high side injection.

 For a radio frequency to produce a cross product equal to IF, it must be displaced
from local oscillator frequency by a value equal to the IF.
 With high side injection, the selected RF is below the local oscillator by amount
equal to the IF.
 Therefore, the image frequency is the radio frequency that is located in the IF
frequency above the local oscillator as shown above, i.e.

fim  flo  fIF  fRF  2 fIF (35)

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2.9.3.4 : Image frequency

 The higher the IF, the farther away the image frequency is from the desired radio
frequency. Therefore, for better image frequency rejection, a high IF is preferred.
 However, the higher the IF, it is more difficult to build a stable amplifier with high
gain. I.e. there is a trade-off when selecting the IF for a radio receiver (image
frequency rejection vs IF gain and stability)

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 2.9.3.5 : Image frequency rejection ratio
 Image frequency rejection ratio (IFRR) – a numerical measure of the ability of
a pre-selector to reject the image frequency; the higher value of IFRR the better
image rejection
 Mathematically expressed as,
IFRR  1  Q 2  2
(36)
where ρ= (fim/fRF) – (fRF/fim)
Q = quality factor of a pre-selector
Once an image frequency has down-converted to IF, it cannot be removed.
 In order to reject the image frequency, it has to be blocked prior to the mixer
stage. I.e. the bandwidth of the pre-selector must be sufficiently narrow to
prevent image frequency from entering the receiver.

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 2.9.3.5 : Image frequency rejection ratio
 Ex 5-5
Calculate the IFRR for a pre-selector Q of 100.

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 2.9.4 : Double Conversion Receivers
 For good image rejection, relatively high IF is desired. However, for a high
gain selective amplifiers that are stable, a low IF is necessary.
 The solution for above constrain is to use 2 intermediate frequencies, i.e. by
using double conversion AM receiver.

 The 1st IF is a relatively high frequency for good image rejection.

 The 2nd IF is a relatively low frequency for good selectivity and easy amplification.

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 2.9.5 : Net Receiver Gain
 Net receiver gain is simply the ratio of the demodulator signal level at the
output of the receiver to the RF signal level at the input to the receiver.
 In essence, net receiver gain is the dB sum of all gains to the receiver minus the
dB sum of all losses.
 Gains and losses found in a typical radio receiver :

Net Receiver Gain GdB = gainsdB – lossesdB

where gains = RF amplifier gain + IF amplifier gain + audio amplifier gain

losses = pre-selector loss + mixer loss + detector loss
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 2.9.5 : Net Receiver Gain
 Ex 5-8
For an AM receiver with a -80 dBm RF input signal level and the following
gains ad losses, determine the net receiver gain:
Gains : RF amplifier = 33 dB, IF amplifier = 47 dB, audio amplifier = 25 dB
Losses : pre-selector loss = 3 dB, mixer loss = 6 dB, detector loss = 8 dB

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