1.

5 Change in meaning

-ing To
Remember Jenny remembers locking the door. Jenny remembers to lock the door.
(хаалгаа цоожилсноо санаж байна) (хаалгаа цоожлохоо санаж байна)
Forget Dad’ll forget giving me the money. Dad’ll forget to give me the money.
(He will forget that he gave me the money.) (He hasn’t given me the money and he’ll forget to do it.)
Аав надад мөнгө өгсөнөө мартана Аав надад мөнгө өгөөгүй, тэр өгөхөө мартана
Stop Liz stopped drinking coffee. Liz stopped to drink some coffee.
(Liz doesn’t drink coffee anymore.) (Liz stopped doing something in order to drink coffee.)
Кофе цаашид уухгүй, уухаа больсон Тэр кофе уухын тулд хийж байсан зүйлээ больсон
Try I tried turning the computer off and on again, but it didn’t help. I tried to turn the computer off, but the shutdown command didn’t work.
(I tried this as an experiment to see if it would work). (I made an effort to turn the computer off).
Туршиж үзсэн Хичээсэн

feel, hear, see, watch + infinitive I saw Mary paint a picture.

аливаа үйл явцыг эхлэлээс нь төгсгөл хүртэл нь харснаа хэлэхэд ашиглана (I saw Mary start on the painting, paint it and finish painting).
feel, hear, see, watch + -ing I saw Mary painting a picture.
Тодорхой хугацаанд үргэлжилж буй үйл явцын зөвхөн хэсгийг нь харснаа (Mary was painting a picture when I saw her).
илэрхийлэхэд ашиглана

1.7 Register – formal and informal language

Formal Informal
Х Contractions- богиносгол
I am contacting you .../I’m contacting you …
Х Abbreviations- товчлол
Could you do it as soon as possible?/Could you do it ASAP?
passive voice active forms
The dissertation must be submitted today. You must submit the dissertation today.
It is said that spinach is healthy. They say that spinach is healthy.
indirect questions, beginning with expressions direct questions
Could you tell me ... ?/ I was wondering... Do you happen to know ... ?
I was wondering if there are enough volunteers. Are there enough volunteers?
Vocabulary
employment opportunities a chance to get a job
Is it possible to be happy? Is happiness possible?
 Many of the words used in formal language are derived from Latin Informal language features more vocabulary of Anglo-Saxon origin
to depart, to cease. to go, to stop.
appear turn up
furthermore/however and/but
in favour of for

2.2 Past Perfect Simple and Past Perfect Continuous

Past Perfect Simple Past Perfect Continuous

Usage Өнгөрсөнд тодорхой нэг цаг хугацаа, үйл явдалаас өмнө болсон зүйлийг Өнгөрсөнд тодорхой цаг хугацаа хүртэл
илэрхийлэхэд ашиглана. Ихэвчлэн энгийн өнгөрсөн цагтай хамт хэрэглэнэ. үргэлжилж байсан мөн үргэлжлээд тухайн үйлдэл
When I arrived at the wedding reception, the bride’s father had already made his болохоос өмнөхөн дуусан үед ашиглана.
speech.
By the age of sixteen, he had learnt to speak three foreign languages. The guests had been waiting for forty minutes
before the bus picked them up.
Өнгөрсөнд тодорхой хугацаанаас өмнө болсон үйлдлээс гадна нөхцөл байдлыг We hadn’t been thinking about selling the house,
илэрхийлж байсан энэ цагаар бичнэ (with state verb) but then we got this great offer.
When my parents got married, they had known each other for fifteen years. How long had you been sitting there before I woke
up?
– to talk about states using stative verbs, e.g. be, have, know, see, believe: Х
I went to see the castle. I had never seen such a magnificent building.
to talk about finished actions: Х
My father had visited his Scottish relatives twice before he finally went to live with
them.
Ганц удаа болсон үйл явц болон before, after зэрэг цаг илэрхийлсэн үгтэй энгийн өнгөрсөн цагийг ашиглана.
The children went to sleep before we came.
 2.5 Relative clauses

Defining relative clauses Non-defining relative clauses

Өгүүлбэрт үндсэн мэдээлэл өгдөг бөгөөд байхгүй тохиолдолд өгүүлбэр Нэмэлт мэдээлэл өгнө. Тухайн тодотгол гишүүн өгүүлбэр байхгүй ч
утгагүй болно. өгүүлбэр дангаараа утга илэрхийлнэ.
A stepfather is a man who is married to your mother but isn’t your father. Jill, who used to be my neighbour, is going to marry my nephew.
Тодотгох төлөөний үгсийг гээхгүй
Hector, who is a brilliant actor, took the main role.
Таслал авахгүй Таслалтай
The girl who is sitting next to the bride is her sister Kerry. The new film, which stars Leonardo DiCaprio, will be a huge success.

Defining relative clauses can start with: That- аас бусад тодотгох төлөөний үгсийг ашиглана.
– who or that, when talking about people: My father, who lives in Montreal, couldn’t come to the funeral.
Mrs Wilkes is the person who/that moved in last week. Joyce’s new Lexus, which she bought last month, cost a fortune.
– which or that, when talking about things: The college building, where the event is going to be held, was built in 1645.
Would you like to see the house which/that is for sale? Yesterday I bumped into Angus, whose brother is studying Medicine.
– whose, when talking about possession or ownership:
I know a girl whose parents own a yacht. You shouldn’t drive a car whose
bumper is about to fall off.
– where, when talking about places:
This is the place where my parents first met.
We can leave out the relative pronouns who, which and that when they are Өмнөх өгүүлбэрээ бүхэлд нь төлөөлж болдог.
followed by a noun or a pronoun: Tom was late for dinner again, which made his mother furious.
He is the man (who/that) I want to marry. The waiter continued to stare at me, which I found extremely annoying.
BUT: This is the man who/that wants to marry me.
Reduced relative clauses
We use the Present Participle (in the active voice) or the Past Participle (in the passive voice) instead of the relative pronoun and the verb:
Elderly people living alone (= who live alone) should have friends or family to care for them.
Children raised (= who were raised) in a bilingual environment may begin to speak a little late
 2.7 Collocations

• adjective + noun: My brother has a vivid imagination.

I only wear these earrings on social occasions.
• verb + noun: Try not to lose touch with your friends after high school.
Make sure you keep an eye on Maggie.
• noun + verb: Be careful when the doors open so that you don’t get hit.
Snow has been falling heavily recently.
• noun (of/and/for) + noun: Tim’s desire for knowledge is impressive.
What’s your home town like?
• verb + adjective/numeral: Who came first?
You looked beautiful at the ball.
• adjective + adjective: The rooms looked neat and tidy.
We were told loud and clear what to do in an emergency.
• verb + adverb: Hold tightly onto me when you’re going down those stairs.
She smiled politely.
• adverb + adjective: We want to rent a fully furnished flat.
It’s perfectly normal that you’re afraid of the operation.

3.2 Future forms including the Future Perfect Continuous

Future Continuous Future Perfect Simple Future Perfect Continuous

Ирээдүйд тодорхой цаг хугацаанд үргэлжилж Ирээдүйд тодорхой цаг хугацаанаас өмнө Ирээдүйд тодорхой хугацаа хүртэл аливаа
байх зүйлийг (төлөвлөсөн зүйл, арга хэмжээ, дуучихсан байх үйл явдлын талаар ярихад үйлдэл, нөхцөл байдал хэсэг хугацаанд
нөхцөл байдал гэх мэт байж болно) They will have left by 6 o’clock. үргэлжилж байгааг ярихад
илэрхийлэхэд: By the end of the year, we will have been living in
This time tomorrow we’ll be flying to the Maldives. Toronto for eight years.
I’ll be going to the supermarket after work.

Эелдгээр асуулт болон хүсэлт илэрхийлэхэд

Will you be doing the first aid course this month?
Will you be using your car tomorrow? (because I’d
like to borrow it)
Time expressions:
• by 2030/next month/next year • by then • by the time
• in two days’/three weeks’/one month’s/ten years’ time
 3.5 Quantifiers

Quantifier Countable nouns Uncountable nouns

each/every Each/Every book costs 10
pounds.
all All the books were quite cheap. 4.2 Question tags and reply questions
All the furniture was quite cheap.
most Most books were quite cheap.
Most of the furniture was quite cheap.
whole I’ve read the whole book.

many/much/ many much/a great deal of

a great deal Questions/negative: Questions/negative:
of Have you got many books? I Have you got much/a great
haven’t got many books. deal of furniture?
I haven’t got much/a great deal
of furniture.
a lot of/ lots I’ve got a lot of/lots of/loads of/plenty of books.
of/ loads of/ I’ve got a lot of/lots of/loads of/plenty of furniture.
plenty of
a number a number of/several/ a few/a a little
of/several/ a couple of I’ve got a little furniture.
few/ a I’ve got a number of/ several/a
couple of/a few/ a couple of books.
little
some I’ve got some books/furniture.

few/little few little

I’ve got very few books. I’ve got little furniture.
both Both these books are mine.

either (for two people/things)

You can buy either book.
neither (for two people/things)
Neither book was expensive.
no/none of I’ve got no books/furniture.
None of the books/furniture belongs to me.
 I’m late, aren’t I?
Let’s meet for a coffee later, shall we?
I hardly know you, do I?
They never listen to you, do they?
I hardly know you, do I?
They never listen to you, do they?
Something is wrong, isn’t it?
Nothing can be done, can it?
Everybody/Everyone will ask questions, won’t they?
Nobody/No one signed up for the dressmaking course, did they?
That’s your new car over there, isn’t it?
There was a security alarm in the store, wasn’t there?
There won’t be any problems with the complaint, will there?

4.5 Present and past modal structures

Had to/ didn’t have to Өнгөрсөн дэх хийх Ella’s car broke down, so she had to take a taxi.
шаардлагатай эсвэл There was nobody at the desk, but luckily I didn’t have to wait
шаардлагагүй байсан үйлдлийг long.
илэрхийлэхэд ашиглана
ought (not) to/ should (not) + have + Past Participle: Өнгөрсөнд болж дууссан зүйл We should have booked/ought to have booked a different
харамссан, шүүмжилсэн эсвэл hotel. This one is terrible.
зөвлөгөө өгч буй тохиолдол My parents shouldn’t have sold/oughtn’t to have sold their
ашиглана camper van.
didn’t need to + infinitive Өнгөрсөнд хийх шаардлагагүй I didn’t need to cook dinner for the children yesterday because
or needn’t have + Past Participle. байсан үйлдлийг илэрхийлэхэд they were away.
ашиглана. (Тэд нар явсан болохоор хоол хийх шаардлагагүй байсан
тиймээс хийгээгүй)

I needn’t have cooked dinner for the children yesterday because

they weren’t hungry and didn’t touch anything.
(хоол хийсэн гэхдээ хийх шаардлагагүй байсан)

4.7 Modality – alternative structures

 Probability – Ability - чадвар Permission - Prohibition – хорио, Obligation – үүрэг
магадлал зөвшөөрөл цээр хариуцлага
can, can’t, could, may, can, can’t, could can, could, may can’t, couldn’t, may not, must, should
might, must shouldn’t, mustn’t
be likely unlikely to do be able/unable to do: be allowed to do: not be allowed to do: have to do:
that: Zoe was unable to open a Will I be allowed to join the The school shop isn’t allowed You have to pay for extra
Tim is likely to sell the house. bank account. club? to sell any sweets. luggage.
It was unlikely that Jenny’s
offer would win.
be bound to do: manage to do: be permitted to do: be forbidden to do/from need to do:
You’re bound to feel nervous Will you manage to help her? Students were permitted to doing: We need to borrow money
before the auction. open a charity shop. Guests are forbidden to use to go on a holiday.
the pool after 11 p.m.
be sure to do: succeed in doing: be banned from doing: ought to do:
She is sure to pay a lot if she I succeeded in exchanging Students were banned from Producers ought to choose
wants to buy that flat. the trousers with no receipt. taking food into the room. names for their products
carefully.
be certain to do:
The manager is certain to ask
difficult questions.

5.2 Reported speech

1. Reported speech болгон хувиргахдаа дараах зүйлсийг өөрчилнө
 Тухайн өгүүлбэрээс хамаараад цаг илэрхийлсэн үг болон байршил заасан үгсийг өөрчилнө.
 demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those …), personal pronouns (I, you, she …), object pronouns (them, us, me…) possessive adjectives (his, my,
her …)
 дам яриаг дамжуулж байгаа үгс өнгөрсөн цаг дээр байгаа үед тухайн өгүүлбэрийн цаг ухарна (e.g. Present Simple or Present Perfect)

Дам яриаг дамжуулж байгаа үгс одоо цаг дээр байгаа тохиолдолд (Present Simple or Present Perfect) тухайн өгүүлбэрийн цаг ухрахгүй

I’m not satisfied with your performance.’ ➞ The teacher has said she is not satisfied with my performance.

‘How do you handle stress?’ ➞ She wants to know how I handle stress.

2. Reported speech болгон хувиргахад өөрчлөхгүй байх тохиолдлууд

Үйл үг Past Perfect Simple and Past Perfect Continuous цаг дээр байвал өөрчлөгдөхгүй

‘Before my resignation I had been working on an environmental project.’ ➞ The candidate said that before his resignation he had been working on an
environmental project.

‘Had you ever been to a job interview before that last one?’ ➞ I asked my neighbour if she had ever been to a job interview before that last one.

– modal verbs would, should, could, might, must хувирахгүй

During the interview you should try to make eye contact.’ ➞ The advisor told me that during the interview I should try to make eye contact.

‘We must all try harder.’ ➞ The manager said that we must all try harder.

5.5 Reporting verbs

Үйл үг шууд тусагдахуунгүй үед:

verb + (that) verb + (not) to + infinitive verb + (not) -ing verb + preposition + (not) -ing
(e.g.: add, admit, agree, claim, (e.g.: agree, claim, decide, offer, (e.g.: admit, deny, propose, (e.g.: apologise for, insist on, object
complain, deny, explain, insist, promise, refuse, threaten): recommend, regret, suggest): to):
promise, propose, recommend,
regret, suggest):
‘I wasted a lot of money.’ ➞ Sue ‘I’ll hire two new employees.’ ➞ The ‘I didn’t take the money.’ ➞ The ‘I’m sorry I was rude.’ ➞ I apologised
complained (that) she had wasted a manager decided to hire two new cashier denied taking the money. for being rude.
lot of money. employees.

Үйл үг шууд тусагдахуунтай үед:

 verb + object + (that) verb + object + (not) to + infinitive verb + object + preposition + (not) -ing
(e.g.: advise, assure, convince, inform, persuade, (e.g.: advise, ask, beg, convince, encourage, invite, (e.g.: accuse sb of, blame sb for, criticise sb for,
promise, remind, tell, warn): order, persuade, recommend, remind, tell, warn, congratulate sb on, praise sb for, suspect sb of,
urge) thank sb for):
‘The meeting will start in an hour.’ ➞ The ‘You really should apply for this job.’ ➞ Everybody ‘It’s your fault that the car was damaged.’ ➞ Joe’s
secretary reminded them (that) the meeting encouraged me to apply for that job. boss blames him for damaging the car
would start in an hour.

5.7 Phrasal verbs – advanced points

Three-part phrasal verbs

 Tom dropped out of school after failing his exams. =Сургуулиас гарах
 You should stand up for what you believe in. =хамгаалах, дэмжих
 Kate couldn’t keep up with other students. =Зэрэгцэх, ижил түвшинд байх
 We are sure to come up against a lot of opposition. = тулгарах
 Now he looked down on the casual friendships that people had at high school in America = өөрийгөө бусдаас дээгүүр тавих
 Facebook paid more than $19 billion to acquire WhatsApp, which more than made up for their earlier rejection = орлох, нөхөх

Word building with phrasal verbs

• Nouns

verb + adverbial/prepositional particle: adverbial and prepositional particle + verb:

clear out – a clear-out, let sb down – a letdown, bring up ➞ upbringing, pour down ➞ downpour,
warm sth up – a warmup, burn out – burnout set out ➞ outset, put in ➞ input
I had a clear-out because I needed more space for some new equipment. Please, allow me to say a few words at the outset.
A friend of mine took a year out to avoid burnout. They had the greatest input into our company
• Adjectives

adverbial/prepositional particle + verb + -ing: verb (Past Participle) + adverbial/prepositional particle:

put off ➞ off-putting, lift up ➞ uplifting, stand out ➞ outstanding run down ➞ run-down, build up ➞ built-up, wear out ➞ worn-out
Our teacher told us an uplifting story. You are driving through a built-up area.
For such outstanding work, you deserve a pay rise. The boys grew up in this run-down building you see.

6.2 Conditional clauses – alternatives to if

If – ийн оронд өөр холбоос ашиглах нь:

unless:
I won’t tell you what happened if you don’t promise to keep it secret. ➞ I won’t tell you what happened unless you promise to keep it
secret.
I wouldn’t lie to you unless it was necessary.
provided (that)/providing (that):

You can go with us if you pay for your own meals. ➞ You can go with us, provided that you pay for your own meals.
I’ll lend you €10 provided you pay me back tomorrow. (= if you pay me back …)
Imagine … or Suppose/Supposing- асуух өгүүлбэр ашиглана

If someone published a private email from you on Facebook, would you be angry? ➞ Imagine/Suppose/ Supposing someone published a
private email from you on Facebook, would you be angry?
Imagine you were getting married, how would you feel? (= If you were getting married, …)
Inversion – албан хэлбэрт ашиглана

If it were my photograph, I wouldn’t let anyone publish it. ➞ Were it my photograph, I would not let anyone publish.

If I had considered all the aspects more carefully, I would probably have made the right decision. ➞ Had I considered all the aspects more
carefully, I would probably have made the right decision.

If I hadn’t told the police the truth, an innocent person would have been arrested ➞ Had I not told the police the truth, an innocent person
would have been arrested.

If you are dissatisfied with the product, you are entitled to a refund. (the least formal) ➞ If you should be dissatisfied with the product, you
are entitled to a refund. (more formal) ➞ Should you be dissatisfed with the product, you are entitled to a refund. (the most
formal)

6.5 Mixed conditionals

Second + Third Conditional forms = mixed conditional sentences of Type I or Type II .

 Mixed conditionals Type I
If + Past Simple, would/wouldn’t have + Past Participle
Тогтмол нөхцөл байдал, байр суурь өнгөрсөнд болсон зүйлийн үр дүн болж байгаа тохиолдолд
Present condition + past result
If Sergio didn’t speak English with an Italian accent, he wouldn’t have been recognised and arrested last month. (But because he speaks with an
accent, he was arrested.)
If I was /were taller, I would have got the main role in the school play a year ago. (But I didn’t get the role because I’m not taller.)
Mixed conditionals Type II
Өнгөрсөнд хийгээгүй үйлдэл одоогийн нөхцөл байдлын шалтгаан болж байгаа тохиолдолд
Past action + present result
If + Past Perfect, would/wouldn’t + infinitive
If she hadn’t changed her job two years ago, Gina wouldn’t be so unhappy now. (But she did and now she is unhappy.)
He would be a free man now if the police had stopped looking for him then. (But the police didn’t stop looking and he isn’t free.)

As with all types of conditionals, we can use could, might or should instead of would in mixed conditional sentences.

6.7 Compound nouns and adjectives

Нийлмэл нэр үг
 Нийлмэл үг ихэвчлэн үгнээс бүрдэх бөгөөд эхний үг 2 дахь үгээ тодотгоно. Бичигдэхдээ нийлж, тусдаа эсвэл дундаа зураастай бичигдэж болно.

noun + noun adjective + noun verb -ing + noun: preposition + noun: nouns derived from
phrasal verbs:
We always watch a news Everybody should be Have you seen my reading Our local radio station is Don’t forget to ring me if
bulletin first thing in the interested at least a little bit glasses? located on the outskirts of you need any backup.
morning. in foreign affairs. town.

news anchor, newsreader, back sth up > a backup ,

health check crack down on sth > a
crack-down

Нийлмэл тэмдэг нэр

Нийлмэл тэмдэг нэр 2 болон түүнээс дээш үгнээс бүрдэж болох бөгөөд дундаа зураастай бичигдэнэ. fifteen-year-old, state-of-the-art.

Нийлмэл тэмдэг нэрэнд орсон нэр үг ганц тоон дээр бичигдэнэ.

two-minute conversation NOT two-minutes conversation flat-footed NOT flat-feeted

numeral + noun: adjective + noun: noun + adjective: noun/adjective/adverb + -ed/-ing verb +

participle: preposition/adverb:
We were extremely tired The setting of the film The evening blood-red sun It was such a heart-warming Nowadays, there are a lot
after the twenty-hour flight is present-day London. promises good weather the message. I got tongue-tied when I of made-up stories on
to Australia. next day. saw that so many people came to social media.
hear me speak.
three-minute, twenty-four- high-quality, present- user-friendly, waist-high, mouth-watering, short-lived, far- made-up, unheard-of
hour day, deep sea weatherproof fetched, kind-hearted, weather-
beaten, broad-shouldered, flat-footed

7.2 Advanced passive forms

Passive forms with modal structures