Combustion Problems

1 – Fuels and Combustion Stoichiometry

1.1 - Calculate the stoichiometric air/f uel ratio (mass and volume) f or the stoichiometric combustion (in air)
of :

a) methane (CH4); b) propane (C3H8); c) butane (C4H10); d) hydrogen (H2).

1.2 - Write the equation f or the combustion of a mixture of octane (C8H18) and air considering an air excess
coef f icient λ of 0.65 and 0.80.

1.3 - For propane burning at an air/f uel ratio (mass) of 18:1, determine the equivalence ratio.

1.4 - In a propane f uel truck 3% (by volume) of oxygen is measured in the exhaust stream of the running
engine. Considering complete combustion without dissociation, determine the air/f uel ratio (mass)
supplied to the engine.

1.5 - For the combustion of either heptane or octane in air, calculate the critical equivalence ratio below
which there is no carbon in products and above which there is carbon in the products.

1.6 - Calculate the percentage of CO in the combustion products of a mixture of octane/air f or an

equivalence ratio of 1.10.

1.7 - Propane is burned in a boiler with air in excess. The result of volumetric analysis perf ormed to the
products (dry base) is: O2: 2%; CO2: 12.4%; N2: 85.6%. Calculate the excess of air (%) and the
equivalence ratio.

1.8 - For the combustion of propane or methane in air, determine the range of equivalence ratio f or the
cases wherein the products, besides H20 and N2, contain:

a) CO and CO2; b) Only CO; c) CO and C.

1.9 - Write the chemical f ormula and schematically represent the molecule of the f ollowing f uels: methane,
n-heptane, iso-octane, ethanol, butanol, propene, acetylene (ethyne), benzene

1.10 - Write the global equation f or stoichiometric combustion of a generic hydrocarbon C x Hy in air and
express the stoichiometric air/f uel ratio (mass) as f unction of x and y. Conclude about the typical
range of values f or this parameter.

1.11 - Write the global equation f or the combustion of ethanol in air f or an equivalence ratio of 0.80 (consid er
that the reaction takes place under ideal conditions by neglecting dissociation ef fects)

1.12 - Considering a stoichiometric mixture of iso -octane and air, determine:

a) mole f raction of f uel

b) the f uel-air ratio

c) the mole f raction of H2O in the products

d) the temperature of products below which H2O starts to condense into liquid at 101.3 kPa

1.13 – How many kg of air are used to combust 55.5 liters of gasoline (represented by iso -octane)?
 1.14 - In a model “can-combustor” combustion chamber, n-heptane is burned under an overall lean
condition. Measurements of dry exhaust give mole f ractions of CO 2 and O2 as 0.084 and 0.088,
respectively. Determine the excess of air (%) as well as the f uel-air and air-f uel equivalence ratios.

1.15 – Consider the combustion of a gaseous mixture of 75% CH 4 and 25% H2 (volume basis) in air.
Determine:

a) the stoichiometric air-f uel ratio;

b) the molar f ractions of the combustion products f or complete combustion with 10% excess of air.

2 – Heat of Combustion, Adiabatic Flame Temperature, Chemical Equilibrium

2.1 - Determine the enthalpy of f ormation in kJ/mol for methane, f or a Lower Heating Value (LHV) of 50016
kJ/kg at 298 K.

2.2 - Consider a mixture composed by:

Specie No. of moles

CO 0.095
CO2 6
H2O 7
N2 34
NO 0.005

Determine the specif ic enthalpy of the mixture (kJ/kmol of mix) f or a temperature of 1000 K.

2.3 - The Higher Heating Value (HHV) f or liquid octane at T=298 K is 47893 kJ/kg and the heat of
vaporization is 363 kJ/kg. Determine the enthalpy of f ormation at 298 K f or octane vapour.

2.4 - Consider the stoichiometric combustion of propane in air at T=298 K. Assume complete combustion
with no dissociation and that the products have water in liquid phase (since T= 298 K). Determine:
a) A/F ratio (mass)
b) Δhr (kJ/kg of f uel)
c) Δhr (kJ/kg of mix)

2.5 - Consider a liquid f uel. Draw a sketch on h-T coordinates illustrating the f ollowing quantities: h l(T);
hv (T); heat of vaporization (hfg); heat of f ormation for fuel vapour; enthalpy of formation for f uel liquid;
lower heating value; higher heating value.

2.6 - Determine the adiabatic f lame temperature f or constant pressure combustion of a stoichiometric
propane-air mixture assuming reactants at 298 K, no dissociation of the products and constant
specif ic heats evaluated at 298 K. Compare the obtained value with the one f rom literature: 2267K.

2.7 - Determine the Lower Heating Value of a biogas mixture (50% CH 4 and 50% CO2 ; volume basis) and
compare it with the respective value f or pure methane.

2.8 - Compare the adiabatic f lame temperature f or stoichiometric methane combustion in air and pure
oxygen.
2.9 - Consider the constant volume combustion of a stoichiometric propane-air mixture assuming that
Ti=298 K and P i=1 atm, no dissociation of the products and species heat capacities evaluated at 298
K. Calculate the adiabatic f lame temperature and the f inal pressure.

2.10 - A f urnace uses preheated air to improve its f uel ef ficiency. Calculate the adiabatic f lame temperature
when the f urnace is operating at a mass air-f uel ratio of 18 f or air preheated to 800K. The f uel enters
at 450K. Consider:

▪ constant pressure combustion at P = 1 atm

▪ ℎ̅𝑓,𝑎𝑖𝑟
0 ̅𝑓,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
=ℎ 0
=0

▪ ℎ̅𝑓,𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
0
= 1.16 x 106 J/kg

▪ 𝑐𝑝,𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑐𝑝,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 = 1200 J/Kg K

▪ 𝑐𝑝,𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 3500 J/Kg K

2.11 - Estimate the adiabatic f lame temperature of a constant-pressure reactor burning a stoichiometric
mixture of H2 and air at 101.3 kPa and 25° C at the inlet. Assume an average constant heat capacity
at 1500K f or the products. Compare this estimate with the equilibrium result (2384 K) and explain
the possible reasons f or any dif ference f ound.

2.12 - The space shuttle burns liquid hydrogen and oxygen in the main engine. To estimate the maximum
f lame temperature, consider combustion of 1 mol of gaseous hydrogen with 0.5 mol of gaseous O 2
at 101.3 kPa. Determine the adiabatic f lame temperatures assume an average constant heat
capacity at 1500K f or the products. Compare this estimate with the equilibrium result (3509 K) and
repeat the calculation assuming that due to dissociation 29% vol. of H 2 is f ound in the combustion
products.

2.13 - Diesel f uel (C12H26) at 25 ºC is burned in a steady f low combustion chamber with 20% excess air
which also enters at 25 ºC. The products leave the combustion chamber at 500 K. Assuming
complete combustion, determine the required mass f low rate of the diesel f uel to supply heat at a
rate of 1500 KJ/s.

2.14 – Consider the reaction f or CO2 dissociation:

CO2 ↔ CO +1/2 O2

Determine the equilibrium composition (i.e. the molar f ractions of CO 2, CO and O2) where the ratio
between carbon and oxygen atoms is 1/2. The temperature is 2000 K and the pressure is 1 atm.

2.15 – Determine the temperature at which 10% of H2 dissociates into H at 10 atm.

2.16 - A mixture of 1 kmol of H2O and 2 kmol of O2 is heated to 4000 K at a pressure of 1 atm. Determine
the equilibrium composition of the mixture, assuming that only H2O, OH, O2 and H2 are present.

2.17 - The adiabatic f lame temperature of a stoichiometric CH 4-air mixture at constant pressure is
approximately 2318 K (obtained using enthalpy balance with constant average Cp approximation,
neglecting dissociation). Estimate the constant-volume adiabatic f lame temperature of this mixture
using the same approach as f or constant pressure. Initial conditions are Ti = 298 K, p = 1 atm
(=101.325 kPa). Compare the result at constant volume with the one at constant pressure.
3 - Chemical Kinetics

3.1 - Consider the overall oxidation reaction of propane:

C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

Assume that the reaction rate is given by: k = 8.6 x 1011 exp(-30/RuT) [C3H8] 0.1 [O2]1.65
Identif y the:
a) order of reaction with respect to propane
b) order of reaction with respect to oxygen
c) overall order of the global reaction
d) activation energy f or the reaction.

3.2 - Given the reactions:

a) CO + OH → CO2 + H
b) 2CO + O2 → 2CO2
c) H2 + O2 → H + H + O2
d) HOCO → CO + H
e) CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
f) OH + H + M → H2O + M

Classif y the reactions as global or elementary. For the elementary reactions ref er if they are
unimolecular, bimolecular or termolecular.

3.3 - The chemical reaction that ref lects the decomposition of nitrogen dioxide in the absence of N 2 is:

2NO2 → 2NO + O2

a) Write the equation of the reaction rate.

b) What is the order of this reaction?
c) What are the units of the constant in the expression of the reaction rate?
d) At the temperature of 592 K, the value of k f is 498 in the units of question c). What is the rate of
decomposition of nitrogen dioxide at this temperature if its concentration is 3 mol/cm3?
e) Calculate the activation energy of the reaction considering:

T (K) kf (units of question c) )

603.5 775
627 1810
651.5 4110
656 4740

3.4 - A proposed mechanism f or the pyrolysis of ethane is as f ollows:

(1) C2 H6 → 2 CH 3 𝑘 1 = 10 16.5exp(−
368000
𝑅0𝑇
) s -1

(2) CH3 + C2 H6 → CH 4 + C2 H5 𝑘 2 = 108exp (−

42000
𝑅0𝑇
) m3kmol-1s -1

(3) C2 H 5 → C2 H 4 + H 𝑘 3 = 1013exp (−
168000
𝑅0𝑇
) s -1

(4) H + C2 H 6 → C2 H 5 + H 2 𝑘4 = 109exp (−
25000
𝑅0𝑇
) m3kmol-1s -1

(5) 2 C2 H 5 → C4 H10 𝑘 5 = 10 10.25exp(0 ) m3kmol-1s -1

 The steady state assumptions can be used with H, CH3, e C2H5.

𝑑 [𝐶2 𝐻6 ] 𝑘 0,5
a) Show that − = 3𝑘1 [𝐶2 𝐻6 ] + 𝑘3 (𝑘1 ) [𝐶2 𝐻6 ]0,5
dt 5

b) Show that the concentrations of H and CH3 are much lower than that of C2H5. Consider the
reaction at constant volume and with an initial temperature and pressure of 900 K and 0.10 atm,
respectively. (Note: equations with R0 = 8.3143 kJkmol.K)

c) Considering that in the beginning only C2H6 was present, calculate the time necessary f or 10% of
the reaction of C2H6 (present the results as a f unction of the constants k).

3.5 - The proposed reaction mechanism f or the decomposition of ethane (C 2H6) in the presence of nitrogen
monoxide (NO) is as f ollows:

a) Write the global chemical reaction that is described by the above reaction mechanism.

b) Applying the steady-state hypothesis to the chemical species C2H5, H and HNO, show that:

3.6 - Consider that,

9835
𝑘𝑟 = 2.82 × 105 𝑇exp(− )
𝑇

The reaction mechanism is given by: CH4 + M ↔ CH3 + H + M and Kp (1500 K) = 0.003691.
Calculate k f at 1500 K.

3.7 - Consider the f ollowing elementary reaction mechanism f or the f ormation of OH:

CO + O2 ↔ CO2 + O

O + H2O ↔ OH + OH

CO + OH ↔ CO2 + H

H + O2 ↔ OH + O

a) How many rate equations are needed to describe the dynamics?

b) Write the expression to calculate the production rate of the OH.
3.8 - Consider the f ollowing chain mechanism f or the f ormation of NO:

O + N2 ↔ NO + N

N + O2 ↔ NO + O

𝑑 [NO] 𝑑 [𝑁]
a) Write the expression f or: and .
dt dt
𝑑 [NO]
b) Find a simplif ied expression f or: f or the case of reverse reactions negligible and assuming
dt
steady-state [N].

c) Write the expression f or the steady-state [N], used in b).

d) Calculate the value of the reverse reaction rate constant f or the f irst reaction, f or a temperature of
2100 K, considering that:
38310
𝑘1𝐹 = 1.82 × 1014 exp (− )
𝑇

3.9 - Consider combustion of stoichiometric methane-air at a constant temperature of 1800 K and

101.3 kPa. Using a one-step reaction f ormulation f or the rate constant, estimate the amount of time
required to completely consume the f uel.

The global rate of reaction progress is given as: q R = A 0 exp(-Ea/RuT) [f uel] a [O2] b , where
A0 = 1.3x109 ; Ea = 48.4 kcal/mol ; a = -0.3 ; b = 1.3

3.10 - In a gas turbine burner, engineers estimate the f lame temperature to be 2200 K and wish to reduce
the nitric oxide (NO) f ormation rate. As NO f ormation is very sensitive to temperature, one solution
is to inject a small amount of water (liquid spray) into the combustor so that the f lame temperature is
reduced. The NO production rate is modeled by the f ollowing rate equation.

In the combustor, the mole f ractions of O and N2 are 1x10-3 and 0.7x10-1, respectively. Since only a
small amount of water is injected, the pressure and the concentrations of O and N 2, (i.e. [O] and [N2]
) are assumed to remain unchanged. Estimate the f lame temperature with water injection at which
the NO f ormation rate is reduced to half of that at 2200 K.

3.11 - When burning hydrogen, an important chain branching reaction is:

H2O2 + M → OH + OH + M

where M can be any gas molecule. If hydrogen is being burned in an engine which operates at
T = 1000 K and P = 4.052 MPa (40 atm) at the end of the compression stroke, how long is the
hydrogen peroxide present? Assume the pre-exponential f actor of this elementary reaction to be
1.2x1017 and the activation temperature to be 22750 K.

3.12 - A closed chamber initially contains 1000 ppm of CO, 3% O , and the remainder N2 at 1500K and 1
atm pressure. Determine the time f or 90% of the CO to react assuming only the elementary reaction:

CO + O2 → CO2 + O

with k=2.5×106 exp(−24060/T) [mol-1.m-3.s -1]

 3.13 - Consider the f ollowing reaction mechanism:

2 NO → N2O2 (R1)

N2O2 → 2 NO (R2)

N2O2 + O2 → 2 NO2 (R3)

Determine the reaction rate of NO2 using the steady state assumption f or N2O2.

4 – Laminar Premixed Flames

4.1 - A premixed propane-air mixture emerges f rom a round nozzle with a unif orm velocity of 75 cm/s. The
laminar f lame speed of the propane-air mixture is 35 cm/s. A f lame is lit at the nozzle exit. What is
the cone angle of this f lame?

4.2 - Using the correlations of Metghalchi and Keck, calculate laminar f lame speeds f or the stoichiometric
mixtures of the f ollowing f uels f or P = 1 and 10 atm and Tu = 300 and 400 K: propane; isooctane;
and indolene (RMFD-303), a gasoline ref erence f uel.

4.3 - Consider a one-dimensional, adiabatic, laminar, f lat f lame stabilized on a burner such as in the f igure
bellow. The f uel is propane and the mixture ratio is stoichiometric. Determine the velocity of the
burned gases f or operation at atmospheric pressure and an unburned g as temperature of 300 K.

4.4 - A burner with a circular cross-section of 0.80 cm 2 has a unif orm velocity prof ile at its exit (i.e. the
boundary layer is neglected). The mixture is air/propane, the temperature is 25 °C and the pressure
is 1 bar. The measured laminar burning velocity as f unction of equivalence ratio is shown in the
f igure.

a) What is the height of the f lame when φ = 1.1 and the f low velocity is u = 1.20 m/s?

b) It is intended to maintain the f lame height. What should be the f low v elocity if the mixture changes
to φ = 1.3?
4.5 – Considering problem 4.4, if the ambient temperature goes f rom 25°C to 100°C, what is the f lame
height f or the laminar f low with φ = 1.1 under the f ollowing conditions:
a) the speed at the exit of the burner maintains the value of u = 1.20 m/s;

b) what is maintained is the mass f low rate.

4.6 - Estimate the propane-air laminar f lame thickness f or P=1, 10 and 100 atm. Consider stoichiometric
conditions and that Tu=300K.

4.7 - Using one-step reaction and simple thermal theory, estimate the laminar burning velocity of a
stoichiometric propane-air mixture initially at 300 K and 1 atm. The adiabatic f lame temperature is
2260 K. The global rate of reaction progress f or propane co mbustion is given as:

q R = A0 exp(-Ea/RuT) [f uel] a [O2] b

where A 0 = 8.6 x 1011 (mol/cm3)1-a-b/s; Ea/Ru = 15098 K; a = 0.1; b = 1.65

4.8 – Consider the design of a laminar-f low, adiabatic, f lat-f lame burner consisting of a square arrangement
of thin-walled tubes as illustrated in the sketch below.

Fuel-air mixture f lows through both the tubes and the interstices between the tubes. It is desired
operate the burner with a stoichiometric methane-air mixture exiting the tubes at 300 K and 5 atm.
The dependence of laminar burning velocity on pressure is give as: S L = 43 (P[atm])-0.5

a) Determine the mixture mass f lowrate per unit cross sectional area at the design condition.

b) Estimate the maximum tube diameter allowed so that f lashback will be prevented.
 4.9 - A certain Standard f or testing the f ire resistance of cloths requires that cloth samples should be burned
in controlled conditions. One of those conditions states that the sample should be burned by a
premixed laminar f lame of 25 mm in height. Some (f ew) conditions f or the f uel to be used are also
imposed. One laboratory has a f uel made out of a mixture of light hydrocarbons that complies with
the requirements imposed by the Standard. It has also a burner caref ully designed, containing a
very short tube of inner diameter equal to 12.0 mm and preceded by a contraction. The known
properties of the f uel are as f ollows: M=28.5 kg/kmol, C/H=5.33, /c p=1.61x10-5 kg/(ms) and
𝑅̅𝑓𝑢 = 6.2 moles/dm3s.

a) Calculate the volumetric f low rates of air and of f uel to obtain the f lame with the specif ied height,
using a stoichiometric mixture.

b) If the air f low rate is kept and the one of f uel is reduced, what will happen to the f lame height?
And if the f uel f low rate increases rather than decrease? Explain. Can you draw any conclusions
f rom the behaviour of the f lame?

c) Indicate which are the simplif ying assumptions used in the resolution of question a). The result
obtained in question a) is obtained by excess, by def ault, or you cannot know?

5 - Ignition Phenomena

5.1 - Compare the auto-ignition time of a f uel at 500 K and 520 K f or two cases:

(i) Fuel with Ea/Ro = 3800 K; (ii) Fuel with Ea/Ro = 20 000 K.

Assume that the reactive system is homogeneous and adiabatic.

5.2 - The auto-ignition time of Diesel can be estimated by the f ollowing expression:
4650
𝑡ig = 0.44𝑝 −1.19 exp ( )
𝑇

where the units of tig, T and p are, respectively, ms, K and atm.

a) Calculate tig f or p = 48 atm and T = 500, 1000 and 2000K.

b) Calculate tig f or T = 1000 K and p = 15, 25 and 45 atm.

c) Analyse the results and compare them with the values of the f igure bellow.
 5.3 - In a quick compression equipment, a stoichiometric mixture of air and methane was compressed from
an initial volume to a f inal volume in less than 1 millisecond. Af ter some time, due to the compression,
the mixture ignited. Two experimental tests with d if ferent conditions were done:

1st test: T0 = 1000 ºC; p = 1.8 bar

2nd test: T0 = 920 ºC; p = 2.7 bar

In the 1st test the mixture ignited af ter 11.6 ms af ter the compression. Considering an
Ea = 165 MJ/kmol, calculate the ignition time of the 2 nd test.

5.4 - Estimate the critical radius f or ignition of a stoichiometric propane-air mixture at 1 atm and 300K.

5.5 - A spark plug has a gap of 0.1 cm (typical f or car applications). Using air properties at T = 300 K and
P = 101.3 kPa, estimate the temperature increase when 0.33 mJ is deposited into the gases between
the spark plug gap.

6 – Droplet Evaporation and Combustion

6.1 - For a water droplet with 1 mm of diameter evaporating into a dry hot air at a temperature of 500K and
a pression of 1 atm. Calculate the evaporation rate constant. Consider a quasi-steady evaporation
process; the temperature of the droplet is unif orm and it is equal to the boiling temperature of the
f luid (Ts =TBP). ρl=957.9 kg/m3.

6.2 - Consider a 1 mm n-hexane droplet burning at 298 K and 1 atm. Considering that the droplet
temperature is unif orm and equal to the n-hexane boiling temperature and that there is no heat
transmitted into the droplet interior, calculate.

a) The mass burning rate;

b) The ratio between f lame radius and droplet radius;

c) The f lame temperature.

6.3 - Assess the inf luence of ambient temperature on droplet lif etimes considering a 100 µm diameter n-
hexane droplets evaporating into this ambient. Use temperatures of 600K, 800K and 1000K.
Consider a quasi-steady evaporation process; the temperature of the droplet is unif orm and equal to
the boiling temperature of the f uel (Ts =TBP). ρl=664 kg/m3

7 – Biomass and thermochemical conversion processes

7.1 - Table 1 shows the elemental analysis (in dry ash f ree basis) and the ash content (in dry basis)
of pine wood and wheat straw in wt.%, while Figure 1 shows the thermogravimetric mass
loss prof ile of the ref erred biomass samples pyrolysis perf ormed f rom room temperature up
to 700 ºC, at a heating rate of 5ºC/min.

Table 1. Elemental analysis and the ash content of pine wood and wheat straw in wt.%.
Biomass C H N S O* Ash
Pine wood 53.2 7.2 < 0.05 < 0.02 39.6 0.4
Wheat straw 45.0 5.8 < 0.05 < 0.02 49.2 14.7
*determined by dif ference
 100

90

80

70
Mass loss (wt.%)

60

50
Pine Wood
40
Wheat Straw
30

20

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700

Temperature (ºC)
Figure 1. Thermogravimetric mass loss prof ile of pine wood and wheat straw pyrolysis.

Given the previous inf ormation, estimate f or both biomass samples:

a) The proximate analysis;

b) The organic composition;
c) The higher and lower heating values using the available correlations.

7.2 - A biomass company plans to build a torref action plant, to use as f eedstock the wood of an
inf ested pine f orest. These residues contain 35% moisture (M) on as -received basis. The dry
basis composition of this f eedstock on is given bellow:

Proximate analysis:
Volatiles: 80.71%, f ixed carbon: 16.16%, ash: 3.13%.

Ultimate analysis:
C: 47.99%, H: 6.25%, O: 40.73%, N: 1.31%, S: 0.58%, ASH: 3.13%.

Consider that the optimum torref action temperature and residence time f or the given biomass
is 280 ºC and 20 min, respectively, such that 20% of the dry biomass is converted into
volatiles carrying 5% of the total thermal energy.

Determine:
a) The lower and higher heating values of the biomass f eed on (a) wet basis, (b) dry basis,
and (c) dry ash f ree basis.
b) Mass yield on dry basis and on dry ash f ree basis.
c) Energy yield on dry and dry ash f ree basis
d) Higher heating value of torref ied biomass on dry and on dry ash f ree basis

7.3 - Consider now that the inf ested wood can be considered f or pelletization or f or torref action
f ollowed by palletization. The f ollowing table provides the moisture and density values for
raw and pelletized raw wood.

Moisture (wt.%) Density (kg/m3)

Raw wood 35 300
 Pelletized raw wood 7 650

The torref ied wood has a 39% reduction in density but is f ree f rom moisture and its HHV
increases to 24.59 MJ/kg. Neglect any change in its energy content due to pelletization and
assume a 20% reduction in volume due to torref action.

a) Compare the volumetric energy density between raw wood and pelletized wood.
b) Compute the increase in energy density if the wood is torref ied and pelletized
af terwards.

7.4 - Four cof f ee husk pyrolysis experiments were conducted at 10, 20, 40 and 50 ºC/min, in a
thermogravimetric analyzer, f rom room temperature up to 700 ºC. Some of the properties of
cof f ee husk are shown below:

Proximate analysis (wt.%) Ultimate Analysis (dry wt.%)

Moisture 7.27 Carbon (C) 48.27
Volatile matter 71.39 Nitrogen (N) 0.60
Ash 3.39 Hydrogen (H) 5.87
Fixed Carbon 17.95 Oxygen (O*) 42.09
Dry Density (g/cm 3) 0.94 Sulf ur n.d.**
*Calculated by the dif f erence
Calorif ic Value (MJ/kg) 20.63
**Not detectable
From the pyrolysis tests was possible to obtain the f ollowing thermogravimetric prof iles of
mass loss and mass loss rate. Note that the evaporation stage was disregard in the results
shown.

With the given inf ormation:

a) Estimate the pyrolysis reaction kinetic parameters

b) Based on the kinetic parameters, estimate the conversion ef f iciency of raw dry
biomass into biochar inside a reactor at a constant temperature of 350 ºC and for
a residence time of 5 and 20 min.
 10 ºC/min 20 ºC/min 40 ºC/min 50 ºC/min

0.9

0.8
Mass loss (wt.%)

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Temperature (ºC)

10 ºC/min 20 ºC/min 40 ºC/min 50 ºC/min

0.006

0.005
Mass Loss rate (wt.%/s)

0.004

0.003

0.002

0.001

0
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
Temperature (ºC)

7.5 - Consider the biomass samples given in Problem 7.1. For gasif ication conditions occurring at
a reaction temperature of 800 ºC in a down draf t reactor. For a biomass f low of 1 ton/h
estimate:

a) Outf low gas composition

b) Outf low gas LHV
c) H2/CO ratio
d) Cold gas ef f iciency

8 – Laminar and Turbulent Diffusion Flames

8.1 - Calculate the stoichiometric mixture f raction f or combustion of diesel f uel, approximated as C 12H26, in
(i) air; (ii) air diluted with recirculated gas products such that the mass f raction of air in the oxidizer is
80%.
 8.2 – Estimate the dif f erent time scales (dif f usion, convection, and chemistry) f or a methane non-premixed
laminar jet f lame with the f ollowing inf ormation: f lame height of 50 mm, volumetric f low rate of f uel
equal to 5 cm3/s, jet radius of 0.5 cm, P = 1 atm, T∞ = 300 K.

8.3 – A methane non-premixed laminar jet f lame is used as a pilot f lame in a f urnace. Estimate the f uel
volumetric f low rate and heat release rate with the f ollowing inf ormation: f lame height of 5 cm,
P = 1 atm, T∞ = Tfuel = 300 K, Tflame = 2400 K.

8.4 - Estimate the f lame length f or a propane jet f lame in air at ambient conditions (p=1 atm, T∞ =300 K).
The propane mass f low rate is 3.66×10-3 kg/s and the nozzle exit diameter is 6.17 mm. Verif y if the
f lame is laminar or turbulent assuming that the propane density at the nozzle exit is 1.854 kg/m3.

8.5 – Consider a non-premixed, ethane (C2H6)-air f lame in which the mole f ractions of the f ollowing species
are measured using various techniques: C2H6, CO, CO2, H2, H2O O2, N2 and OH. The mole f ractions
of all other species are assumed to be negligible.

a) Def ine a mixture f raction expressed in terms of the mole f ractions of the measured species.
b) Determine the local mixture f raction and local equivalence ratio at a point of the f lame where the
f ollowing mole f ractions are measured:
x CO = 949 ppm, x CO2 = 0.0989, x H2 = 315 ppm, x H2O = 0.1488, x O2 = 0.0185, x OH = 1350 ppm

Assume that the balance of the measured mixture is N2.

9 – Turbulent Premixed Flames

9.1 - Consider the f ollowing turbulent premixed combustion:

• Propane-air mixture
• φ = 0.6
• Tu = 350K
• P = 2atm
• v’rms = 4m/s
• lo =5 mm

Calculate the characteristic chemical and f low times and determine the value of the Damkoler number.

9.2 - Determine the methane - air premixed turbulent f lame velocity, considering stoichiometric conditions,
reactants at ref erence conditions and that Da=80 and Ka=0.8. Consider the adiabatic f lame
temperature f or methane equal to 2246K. Identif y the combustion regime.

Solutions
1.1 – a) (A/F)mass = 17.2 b) (A/F)mass = 15.6 c) (A/F)mass = 15.4 d) (A/F)mass = 34.3

1.2 – f or λ = 0.8 : C8H18 + 10(O2 + 3.76 N2) → 9 H2O + 3 CO2 + 5C + 20.68 N2

1.3 – 0.87

1.4 – (A/F)mass = 18.35

1.5 – f or C7H16 : φcrit = 1.46

1.6 – f or C8H18 : % vol. CO = 3.84%

1.7 – e = 9.6 % ; φ = 0.912

1.8 – f or propane: a) 1 < φ < 1.43 b) φ = 1.43 c) 1.43 < φ < 2.5

1.9 – NA

1.10 – NA

1.11 – C2H6O + 3.75 (O2 + 3.76 N2) → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O + 14.1 N2 + 0.75 O2

1.12 – resolution available

1.13 – resolution available

1-14 – resolution available

1.15 – a) (A/F)mass = 27.456 ; x CO2 = 0.05230 x H2O = 0.20919 x O2 = 0.01743

2.1 – ℎ̅𝑓0 = -76980 kJ/kmol

2.2 – ℎ̅𝑚𝑖𝑥 = -62563 kJ/kmol

0
2.3 – ℎ̅𝑓,𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 = -208807 kJ/kmol

2.4 – a) (A/F)mass = 15.6 b) -50 MJ/kg c) -3.02 MJ/kg

2.5 – NA

2.6 – 2879 K

2.7 – at Tref = 298 K: LHVbiogas = 13.4 MJ/kg fuel (lower than LHV CH4 = 50.1 MJ/kg fuel)

2.8 – (const. average Cp; no dissociation) Tad,air = 2226K ; Tad,O2 = 5754K (with dissociation Tad,O2 = 3052K)

2.9 – 3843 K and 13.4 atm

2.10 – 2551 K

2.11 – resolution available

2.12 – resolution available

2.13 – 0.037 kg/s

2.14 – x CO2 = 0.9781 x CO = 0.0146 x O2 = 0.0073

2.15 – ~3537 K

2.16 – x H2O = 0.0805 x H2 = 0.0633 x O2 = 0.5495 x OH = 0.3067

2.17 – resolution available

3.1 – a) 0.1 b) 1.65 c) 1.75 d) -30 kcal/mol

3.2 – a) elem./ bi. b) global c) elem./ uni. d) elem./ uni. e) global f ) elem./ ter.

𝑑[𝑁𝑂2 ]
3.3 – a) 𝑞 = 𝑘𝑓 [ 𝑁𝑂2 ] 2 where = −2𝑞 b) 2 c) cm3.mol-1.s -1 d) -9x103 mol.cm-3.s-1
𝑑𝑡
e) 1.137x105 kJ/kmol

3.4 – b) depending on x C2H6 → [H2]/[C2H5] = 0.037 / x C2H6 and [CH3]/[C2H5] = 0.074 / (x C2H6)1/2 c) 74 s

3.5 – NA
𝑝0
3.6 – 𝑘𝑓 = 𝑘𝑟 𝐾𝑝
𝑅0 𝑇

3.7 – a) 7 b) 𝜔̇ 𝑂𝐻 = 2k f2[O][H2O] – 2k r2[OH] 2 – k f3[CO][OH] + k r3[CO2][H] + k f4[H][O2] – k r4[OH][O]

𝑑[𝑁𝑂] 𝑘1𝐹 [𝑂][ 𝑁2]

3.8 – a) NA b) = 2𝑘1𝐹 [ 𝑂][ 𝑁2 ] c) [ 𝑁 ] = d) k 1R = 3.26x1013 m3/kmol.s
𝑑𝑡 𝑘2𝐹 [𝑂2]

3.9 – resolution available

3.10 – resolution available

3.11 – resolution available

3.12 – 34.9 s

𝑑[𝑁𝑂2 ] 𝑘 1[𝑁𝑂 ]2[𝑂2]

3.13 – = 2𝑘 3
𝑑𝑡 𝑘 2+𝑘 3[𝑂2]

4.1 – α = 27.8 º

4.2 – propane: 63.3 cm/s isooctane: 47.3 cm/s indolente: 49.9 cm/s

4.3 – 2.58 m/s

4.4 – a) 1.47 cm b) 0.98 m/s

4.5 – NA

4.6 – 1 atm → 0.357 mm 10 atm → 0.0516 mm 100 atm → 0.0075 mm

4.7 – resolution available

4.8 – resolution available

4.9 – a) f uel: 7.9x10-6 m3/s air: 1.18x10-4 m3/s

5.1 – (i) t ig|520K / t ig|500K = 0.81 (ii) t ig|520K / t ig|500K = 0.23

5.2 – a) at 48 atm: 500 K → 48.05 ms 1000 K → 0.46 ms 2000 K → 0.04 ms

b) at 1000 K: 15 atm → 1.83 ms 25 atm → 1 ms 50 atm → 0.5 ms

5.3 – 18.1 ms

5.4 – 0.44 mm

5.5 – resolution available

6.1 – 13.66x10-8 m2/s

6.2 – a) 0.35 mg/s b) 34.9 c) 931 K

6.3 – 600 K → 53 ms 800 K → 33 ms 1000 K → 24 ms

7.1 –

aa) Proximate analysis b) Organic composition

Pine Wheat Pine Wheat

wt.% wood straw wt.% wood straw
VM 72 81 CELL 44.35 35.22
FC 13.3 14.6 HCE 16.63 18.00
ash 14.7 0.4 LIG 39.02 46.79
moisture 0 4

c) HHV (MJ/kg) LHV (MJ/kg)

Pine Wheat Pine Wheat
HHV (MJ/kg) wood straw wood Straw
Elemental
analysis 15.94 23.24 8.18 14.19
organic
composition 20.29 20.98 12.54 11.92
Proximate
analysis 15.81 18.53 8.06 9.47
7.2 –

a)

HHV (MJ/kg) LHV (MJ/kg)

db ar daf db ar daf
19.80 12.92 20.52 18.50 11.31 19.09

b) mdb = 80 wt.%; mdaf = 79.35 wt.% c) 95 % d) HHVt,daf = 25.36 MJ/kg; HHV t,db = 24.37 MJ/kg
7.3 – a) EVraw,wood = 3876 MJ/m3; EVpelletized,wood = 8398 MJ/m3

b) % torrefied,wood = 223%; % torr-pelletized,wood = 312%

7.4 – a) Ea = 71503.84 J/mol, A = 4974.7 1/s b) x 5min = 38.5, x 20min = 21.19

7.5 –

a) LHV b) H2/CO c) Qsyngas d) CGE

Wheat Straw 3.51 0.982 1.29E+03 34.97
Pine wood 3.68 0.980 1.26E+03 35.66
8.1 – (i) Zst = 0.0627 (ii) Zst = 0.0508

8.2 – resolution available

8.3 – resolution available

8.4 – 1.94 m (turbulent f lame)

8.5 – resolution available

9.1 – Da = τflow /τchem = 0.0313

9.2 – St = 3.57 m/s (f lamelet regime)