ECOSYSTEM

Consist of organisms (biotic/living factors), their environment (abiotic/nonliving factors) and the
interactions take place between them.

Concept:
Ecology: deals with the study of organisms in their natural home interacting with their
surroundings.
Modern ecologists believe that an adequate definition of ecology must specify some unit of
study and one such basic unit described by Tansley (1935) was ecosystem.
Ecosystem: A group of biotic communities of species interacting with one another and with
their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter.
The ecosystem is a unit or a system (consisting of interacting plants, animals and
microorganisms) which is composed of a number of subunits, that are all directly or indirectly
linked with each other
Eg: Animals cannot synthesis their own food either directly or indirectly depends on plants –
plants synthesis their own food but rely on abiotic substances such as light, water, carbon dioxide
etc.,
If they freely exchange energy from outside called as open ecosystem and if isolated from
outside named as closed ecosystem.

STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM
i. Biotic community includes species, numbers, biomass, life history and distribution in
space
ii. The quantity and distribution of abiotic materials – nutrients, water etc.,
iii. Existence of conditions such as temperature, light etc.,
I.BIOTIC COMPONENTS:
1. Autotrophs (producers): using radiant energy from sun (light energy) and simple
inorganic substance like CO2 and water, through photosynthesis process, produce
chemical energy (carbon compound, glucose, starch etc.,). O2 released by photosynthesis
is used for respiration of all living organisms Eg. Green plants – for land system and
Algae and other hydrophytes – aquatic system. They are also known as photo autotrophs.
There are some microorganisms also which can produce organic matter to some extent
through oxidation of certain chemicals in the absence of sunlight. They are known as
chemosynthetic organisms or chemo-autotrophs. In deep ocean, sulphur bacteria make
use of the heat generated by the decay of radioactive elements present in the earth’s core
and convert dissolved hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) into
organic compounds.
2. Heterotrophs (Consumers): directly or indirectly depends on autotrophs for their food.
(i) Herbivores (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers and hence also known as
primary consumers. e.g. rabbit, insect, man.
(ii) Carnivores (meat eaters): They feed on
other consumers. If they feed on herbivores they
are called secondary consumers (e.g. frog) and
if they feed on other carnivores (snake, big fish
etc.) they are known as tertiary
carnivores/consumers.
(iii) Omnivores: They feed on both plants and
animals. e.g. humans, rat, fox, many birds.
(iv) Detritivores (Detritus feeders or
Saprotrophs): They feed on the parts of dead
organisms, wastes of living organisms, their
castoffs and partially decomposed matter e.g.
beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms etc.
3. Decomposers: Chiefly bacteria and fungi
breakdown complex organic matter (dead organic matter) into simpler organic matter and
into inorganic nutrients which are once again used by producers.
II. ABIOTIC COMPONENTS:
1. Inorganic Substance:
Includes water (hydrosphere), minerals (lithosphere) and gases (atmosphere)
 The inorganic substances required for synthesis of organic substance are called as
inorganic nutrients or biogenic substance and the amount of substance present in an
environment is called as Standing state
  Nutrients keep on circulating in the environment – consumed by producers, passed to
consumers and recycled back to the environment by decomposers.
2. Organic substance:
 Dispersed from the dead bodies of organisms or from their excretion are collectively
called as organic detritus. The organic compounds contain mineral nutrients in
bounded form and the decomposers release the minerals.
 The organic substance link the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystem
3. Physical factor:
i. Light: provides solar energy for photosynthesis. Maximum energy is available in
equator and decreases towards poles.
ii. Temperature: on the basis of temperature four life zones – tropical (hot
throughout the year), subtropical (hot during summer and cold during winter),
temperate (summer and cold winter with occasional snow) and polar (very cold).
iii. Rainfall: Amount and periodicity of rainfall determine the type of terrestrial
ecosystem eg, evergreen forest, deciduous forest, desert, scrub land etc.,
iv. Humidity: transpiration is inversely related to humidity. Humid areas have
abundant dense plant growth while dry areas have sparse vegetation.
v. Wind: It controls weather, transpiration, pollination and dissemination of seeds.

FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM
Two ecological processes namely the energy flow and mineral recycling and its interaction with
abiotic and biotic communities were considered as “HEART” of ecosystem dynamics.
The major functional attributes of an ecosystem are as follows:
 Food chain, Food webs and Tropic structure
 Energy Flow
 Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)
 Primary and secondary production
 Ecosystem development and regulation

FOOD CHAIN
The transfer of food energy from producers to consumers (herbivores and carnivores) and to
decomposers with repeated eating and being eaten is called as food chain.
Two types: (1) Grazing food chain and (2) Detritus food chain
1. Grazing food chain:
 This food chain starts from producers (living green plants) – consumers (grazing
herbivores – carnivores).

CONSUMERS

PRODUCERS
Small fish Large fish
Macrophytes Larvae,
(rooted plants) molluscs Insects

Phytoplankton Zooplanktons
(algae)

 It depends on solar radiation

 Most of the ecosystem in nature shows this type of
food chain
Eg. Phytoplankton --- Zooplankton --- Fish ---- Large
fish
2. Detritus Food Chain
 Dead organic matter --- microorganism --- organisms feeding on detritus (detritivores ) -
-- predators
 Less depend on solar energy – chiefly depends on organic matter produced in other
system
Eg: mangrove ecosystem – described by Heald (1969)
and Odum (1970).
 Mangrove leaves fall into shallow water
 The fallen leaves are acted upon by saprotrops
(fungi, bacteria, protozoa etc.,)
 Colonized by phytoplanktons and algae
 Eaten by small animals (crabs, shrimps,
molluscs etc)
 Eaten by small fishes – large fishes – birds
 FOOD WEBS:
Food chain in nature never operates as individual sequence, interconnected with each other
forming a sort of interlocking pattern.
Eg. Five linear food chains in the food web of a grass land
1. Grass --- Grasshopper --- Hawk
2. Grass --- Grasshopper ---- Lizard --- Hawk
3. Grass --- Rabbit --- Hawk
4. Grass --- Mouse --- Hawk
5. Grass --- Mouse --- Snake ---- Hawk
 All these five food chains are interlinked with each other at different points forming food
web.
 Food webs maintains the stability of an ecosystem
 Decrease in population of rabbit would increase the population of mouse which in turn
may affect the population of consumer that prefers rabbit.
 A balanced ecosystem is essential for survival of all living organisms.
The complexity of food web depends on the biodiversity of the ecosystem
 Biodiversity depends on (1) length of the food chain and (2) alternatives in the length of
the food chain
 Each step in the flow of energy level through food chain in an ecosystem is known as
Tropic level and the amount of living matter at each tropic level at a given time is known
as standing crop or standing biomass.
 Producers (plants) first tropic level---- herbivores (second) ---- carnivores (third) –
carnivores that eat other carnivores (fourth).
Significance of food chains and food webs
Two important functions namely energy flow and nutrient cycling take place through
them.
 The food chains also help in maintaining and regulating the population size of different
animals and thus, help maintain the ecological balance.
 Food chains show a unique property of biological or bio magnification, non-
biodegradable pesticited and chemicals keep on passing from one trophic level to
another, keep on increasing at each tropic level.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:
Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting with
producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is knows as an
ecological pyramid. Charles Elton (1927) describes that at each time the energy moves to
next tropic level, considerable energy is lost (second law of thermodynamics) and the
tapering down of energy is shown in the form of energy pyramid.
Three types
I. THE PYRAMID OF NUMBERS: (UPRIGHT OR INVERTED)
 Deals with the relationship between the number of primary producers and consumers in
different orders
Upright: The base of pyramid is represented by PRODUCERS which are large in number than
the CONSUMERS
 Eg. Odum (1971) for South Michigan Grassland – USA
 The number of primary production 15,00,000 in 1000 sq.km – herbivores 2,00,000 –
carnivores 90,000 – final top of carnivore 1.
 In a lake ecosystem primary producers (Algae, Diatoms and other hydrophytes will be
large in number – herbivores 10,000 or zooplankton 1,000 – carnivores (small fishes) 100
– large fishes 10.
Inverted (Upside Down):
 The primary producer a Tree may have many birds to feed on – birds may have millions
of parasites (bugs & Lice) feeding upon their body – Millions of decomposers (bacteria &
Fungi) decomposes these organism in different tropic level.
II. PYRAMID OF BIOMASS: (UPRIGHT OR INVERTED)
 Biomass is referred as the weight of living organism in an ecosystem
 The structural representation of weight of living organism in each tropic level is called as
Pyramid of Biomass
 Always upright in terrestrial ecosystem and inverted in aquatic ecosystem
 Terrestrial : Eg. Odum (1971) - Grassland
o Biomass of producers (tree) – 15,00,000 g/m2 :- herbivores (bugs ) – 2,00,000
g/m2 :- carnivores (birds) – 90,000 g/m2 :- top carnivores 1 g/m2
 Aquatic: English canal
o Primary producers (Algae, diatoms and zooplankton) 4 g/m2 :- consumers (small
fishes) 21 g/m2

III. PYRAMID OF ENERGY : (ONLY UPRIGHT)

 The total quantity of energy utilized by the organism of an ecosystem in different tropic
level /unit area/period of time
 Eg. Odum (1957) – silver springs USA
 Expressed in terms of K cal/m2/yr
 Producers 20,810 :- herbivores – 3,368 :- carnivores 383 :- top carnivores 21.
ENERGY FLOW
Energy is defined as the ability to do work
Law of Thermodynamics
First Law: Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but it can be transformed from one
form to another. The solar energy is taped by green plants (producers) gets converted into
biochemical energy and later to consumers.
Second Law: states that energy dissipates as it is used or in other words, its gets converted from
a more concentrated to dispersed form. As energy flows through the food chain, there occurs
dissipation of energy at every trophic level. The loss of energy takes place through respiration,
running, hunting and other activities.
The above laws are followed in ecosystem.
Energy flow models: The flow of energy through various trophic levels in an ecosystem can be
explained with the help of various energy flow models.
Universal energy flow model: Proposed by Odham. Energy flow indicated by narrow pipes,
As the flow of energy takes place, there is a gradual loss of energy at every level, as indicated
by narrower pipes (energy flow) and smaller boxes (stored energy in biomass). This is the energy
lost in locomotion, excretion etc., or it is energy lost in respiration.
There are three steps- first, an organism produces organic matter within its body (Net
production) – next, it uses some of this new organic matter as a fuel in respiration and some of
the newly produced organic matter is stored for future use. The loss of energy is mainly the
energy not utilized (NU). Thereby resulting in less energy available at next trophic level (Gross
production)
Net production = Gross production – Respiration

Single Channel Energy Models

Since the flow of energy is unidirectional in an ecosystem, it is termed as energy flow
The light energy is fixed by the green plants through their chlorophyll pigments in the processes
of photosynthesis
 6CO2 + 12 H2O - Chlorophyll (673 k cal) -- C6H12O2 + 6O2 +6 H2O
In the process of photosynthesis 673 K cal energy is fixed for synthesis of each molecule of
carbohydrate

Double channel or Y-shaped energy flow model: In nature, both grazing food chain and
detritus food chain operate in the same ecosystem. In forest ecosystem huge quantity of biomass
produced cannot be all consumed by herbivores. Rather, a large proportion of the live biomass
enters into detritus (dead) compartment in the form of litter.
Primary Production
Primary productivity of an ecosystem is defined as the rate at which radiant energy is converted
into organic substances by photosynthesis.
Secondary Production: The plant energy is used up for producing organic matter of the
herbivores which, in turn, is used up by the carnivores. The amount of organic matter stored by
the herbivores or carnivores (in excess of respiratory loss) is known as secondary production.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Availability of nutrients are limited in earth hence the nature recycles them continuously through
cyclic changes.
Two types of cycles: sedimentary (soils and rocks) and gaseous cycles (atmosphere and ocean)
Macro nutrients: Those that make up bulk of an organism – Nine important – O, H, C, N, Ca, P,
S, K and Mg have cycles with atmosphere
Micro nutrients: Cu, Fe, Co etc., are soil based
Both are driven by energy flow and tied up by hydrological cycle.
Oxygen Cycle: Oxygen in atmosphere is formed as by product of photosynthesis of
carbohydrates.
2H2O + CO2 -----(sunlight)---- CH2O(carbohydrate)+H2O+O2
 All the oxygen in the atmosphere is biogenic released from water through photosynthesis
by autotrophs.
 Earth was originally filled with nitrogen, ammonia, hydrogen, carbon monoxide etc.,
  At first the UV rays react with water and produce non biological oxygen and a thin layer
of ozone.
 Which shielded the earth and give raise to single cellular aquatic organisms (anaerobes).
Slowly the photosynthesis started by marine plant species (phytoplanktons) – increases
free oxygen level and thickened the ozone layer – marine species started to move from
oceans to land.
 It took 2 million years for autotrophs to raise the oxygen content in atmosphere to 21%
(present)
 The first multicellular organism in the earth existed when the oxygen content was 0.6%
Carbon Cycle:
 Carbon is found in both organic (living or dead organic fuels) and inorganic form (carbon
dioxide, bicarbonate etc.,).
 Continuous two way flow between organic and inorganic. Inorganic carbon is oxidized
state and is reduced to organic carbon during photosynthesis.
 During Photosynthesis energy from solar is trapped as bicarbonate which is the primary
point of energy flow.
 Carbon can be retained in the plant itself and stored as fossil fuel or sent back to
atmosphere during respiration.
 Through respiration
both by animals and
plants utilizes the
energy and releases
carbon to the
atmosphere.
 When plant or animal
die, the decomposers
consumes the energy
and release the carbon
back to the atmosphere.
 The fossil fuel burned
the trapped carbon
returns atmosphere as carbon dioxide
 Carbon when mixes with water, reaches the sea and precipitated as limestone, corals and
algae, while it is pushed back to the surface, by weathering were returned back to the
atmosphere
 Due to excess usage of fossil fuel, more carbon is added to the atmosphere and results in
more storage of solar energy thereby leading to global warming.
Nitrogen Cycle

 Nitrogen is the most important element for plant growth, absorbs from soil for amino
acids, proteins, enzymes, chlorophyll etc.,
 But atmospheric nitrogen cannot be utilized directly, undergoes many changes in nitrogen
cycle: nitrogen fixation, nitrogen assimilation, ammonification, nitrification and
denitrification
Nitrogen Fixation: conversion of free atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen compounds.
 Involve two steps (1) Activation means splitting of molecular nitrogen into two free
nitrogen and (2) Fixing means incorporation of nitrogen in a chemical compound then
only it can be utilized by plants and animals
 Can be fixed by either physiochemical processes or biological processes
1. Physiochemical processes: Lightning or electrical discharge in clouds combines nitrogen
with oxygen forming nitrogen oxides
N2 (nitrogen) + 2(O) ---- electrical discharge - 2NO(nitric oxide)
2NO + 2(O)  2NO2 (nitrogen dioxide)
2NO2+(O)- N2O5 (nitrous oxide)

 These nitrogen oxides get dissolved in rain water and after reaching earth’s surface react
with mineral compounds to form Nitrates and nitrogenous compounds
N2O5+H2O2HNO3
2HNO3+CaCO3Ca(NO3) 2+CO2+H2O
2. Biological Processes: Blue-green algae (Nostoc, Anabena) living in ocean, lakes and
soil; Symbiotic bacteria (Rhizobium) living in the root nodules of some plants and free
living bacteria like azobacter fixes nitrogen.
 The actual fixation is two atoms of nitrogen combines with three molecules of hydrogen
to form two molecules of ammonia (NH3).
 Once ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ion (NH4) appears in the soil then it can be
absorbed by roots and incorporated into amino acids and then into proteins.
 Through biological process 700 mg/m2/yr and physiochemical processes 35 mg/m2/yr of
nitrogen is being fixed
Assimilation is the process of incorporation of inorganic nitrates into to organic compounds
(amino acids)
Ammonification means that the dead organic remains of plants and animals acted upon by
bacteria releasing nitrogen as ammonia
Enitrification is conversion of ammonia into nitrite
Denitrification is conversion of nitrite and nitrate into nitrogen
 N2

Fixation (Lightning) Fertilizer factories Bacteria

Denitrification

NO3 Plants Animals

Nitrate Bacteria

NO2 Decay and waste

Nitrite Bacteria NH4+ Decomposer

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

 Phosphorus is a heavy mineral and never mixes

with atmosphere
 Occur in Organisms, in water and in rocks
 When exposed, the inorganic phosphorus get
weathered and dissolve in water as solution and is
utilized by plants (autotrophs)
 Phosphorus is an important constituent of cell
membrane, DNA, RNA and ATP
 The heterotroph uses the phosphorus either
directly from plants or indirectly
 After death the phosphate will be returned to the
soil or water
 At one stage the phosphorus get deposited in the deeper portion of the ocean
 When it once again get exposed, weathering followed by solution and once again utilized
by plants and the cycle continues
 Human greatly interfere this cycle
 Mining of phosphate and excess usage as fertilizer adds more phosphate to the cycle
 When this get dissolved and mixed with stagnant water (lake / ocean / river mouth)
 The excess phosphate leads to overgrowth of algae called as algal bloom.
 This bloom uses more oxygen in water causing deficiency in water. This is called as
Eutrophication.
SULPHUR CYCLE
 Sulphur cycle links soil, water and air
 Sulphur is normally present as sulphides in rocks (FeS, ZnS etc) and sulphates
 Sulphur is a component of three amino acids (cystine, cysetine and methionene) hence
important for protein synthesis.
 Few organisms need organic form of sulphur as amino acids, most take sulphur as
inorganic sulphates.
 Under aerobic conditions sulphur can be reduced to sulphides
2H2S + O  2S + H2O

2S + 2H2O + 3O2 -2H2SO4

ECOSYSTEM REGULATION: All ecosystems regulate themselves and maintain themselves

under a set of environmental conditions. Under stress, tries to resist the change and maintain
itself in equilibrium with the environment due to a property known as homeostasis. However, the
tolerance is to a maximum and minimum range, the range of tolerance is known as homeostatic
plateau. Within this range, if any stress tries to cause a deviation, then the system has its own
mechanisms known as negative feedback mechanisms which counteracts and bring the system
back to its ideal conditions.
If the stress is too high, another type of mechanisms known as positive feedback mechanisms
start operating which take the system away from the optimal conditions
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

 Defined as orderly sequence and progressive replacement of one community by other till
the development of a stable community in that area (Smith 1966)
 Occurrence of gradual orderly and predictable changes in the composition of
communities towards the climax type (Benton and Warner 1969)
In an ecosystem development of community begins with pioneer stage - replaced by series of
communities – ends when a stable community is developed.
 Sere: whole series of communities which develop in an area.
 Seral stage or pioneer stage: relatively transitory communities
 Climax community: final stabilized community
Ecological succession is a process through which ecosystem tend to change over a period of
time.
Succession may be environmental changes which influence changes in the plant and animal
community.
Primary succession: Succession taking place in an area where there is no community occupied
in that area.
Secondary succession: Development of new community in that area where the previous existing
community was removed and the ecological and nutrient condition was favorable. (Abandoned
crop land, ploughed field etc,)
Events such as fire, landslides will destruct the existing community and succession will occur
again but not from the beginning.
Autogenic succession: succession or replacement of one type of community by another is due to
the modification of the environment and if the modification is by the community themselves then
called as autogenic.
Allogeneic succession: modification in the environment by an external force (eg. Ponds and
streams being modified due to supply of nutrient and pollutants)
Process of Succession:
 Pioneer: First seral stage to migrate and become established in a barren area. The
organism of such community called as pioneer species and community as pioneer
community
 Pioneers react on soil and modify the environment to make a successful hold on the soil.
 Pioneer species will have a short span of life compared to the succession stages.
 Increase in pioneer species greatly alter the environment leading to death of pioneer
species.
 Decay of pioneer species increases the organic matter, moisture and nitrogen content in
the environment.
 The enriched soil paves the way for secondary communities to grow and slowly the
pioneer will disappear and the process will continue.
 Each secondary community represents a seral stage.
 Each seral stage appears, flourish and disappear as the environmental changes occur.
 Each seral stage has a particular community called as seral community.
 Thus various seral stages leading to a climax is called as sere.
Concept of climax:
The community that ends a succession is known as climax community.
Theories of succession:
Monoclimax theory: there is only one climax community ina given climate or geographical
region (Fredrick Clements 1916)
Polyclimax Theory: number of different climax communities may be present ina climatic or
geographical region. (Nicholas, Champion and Bore 1953)
Climax pattern theory: the structure, composition and other characters of the climax
communities are determined by the total environment of the ecosystem and not by a single
factor. (Whitaker 1963, Mcintosh 1958 and Sellech 1960)
Patterns of Succession:
Pattern if succession depends on the types of habitat and the amount of moisture.
Chief patterns are (1) Hydrosere or Hydrarch (in water), (2) Xerosere or Xerarch (Dry
conditions) and (3) Mesosere of Mesarch (intermediate)
Hydrosere: Succession takes place in water – consider a fresh pond and various stages are
detailed below.
1 submerged stage:
 Water will be poor in nutrients and devoid of life.
 Pioneers (phytoplankton and zooplankton) grow floating in water and their death will
enrich the organic matter.
 Enrichment leads to rooted submerged hydrophytes.
 Death and decay of hydrophytes increases the nutrient level and the pond gradually
becomes shallow
2. Floating stage: when the ponds have 6 to 8ft depth, floating plants having root in the mud will
emerge and latter free floating plants will appear.
3.Reed – Swamp stage: as the water level decreases due to silting and transpiration – less
suitable for free floating and submerged plants – swampy environment persist leading to swampy
plants.
4. Marshy – meadow stage: As free water decreases – swampy land becomes too dry and gets
convert into marshy land – giving raise to herbs and shrubs.
5. Wood land stage: As succession continues – soil further build up – becomes totally dry –
small tress invade the area and due course dominated by forest trees.
Subsequently animal life will also change from aquatic to terrestrial.
6. Forest stage: this is the climax stage.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
Broadly classified into two types
I.Terrestrial Ecosystem: Further classified into four
(1)Forest; (2) Grassland; (3) Desert & (4) Man made or Artificial
II.Aquatic Ecosystem: Further classified into two based on the salt content
(1) Fresh water and (2) Marine or Oceanic
FOREST ECOSYSTEM:
Forest covers 40% of land and in India occupies 1/10th of total land area
Characteristic features: the upper most part of the forest is covered by canopy hence allow less
sunlight and wind to the ground level results in
 Passing diffused sunlight
 Moisture content of soil remains almost stable due to absence of evaporation
 No loss of water by transpiration because tree tops act as wind breakers

Abiotic component : these are organic and inorganic substance present in the soil and
atmosphere added mineral and dead organic debris found in the forest.
Biotic component:
1.Producers: Trees, shrubs and ground vegetation
2.Consumers:
a.Primary consumers: Herbivores including small animals feeding on leaves: ants, flies,
bugs, spider etc., and bigger animals feeding on shoots and fruits like elephants, deer,
squirrels etc.,
b. Secondary consumers: carnivores like birds, lizards, snakes, fox etc.,
c. Tertiary consumers: top carnivores like lion, tiger etc.,
3. Decomposers: wide variety of microorganisms like fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes etc.,
Rate of decomposition in tropical and sub-tropical is more rapid that the temperate forest.
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
They are terrestrial l ecosystem characterized by dominance of grasses (60-90%) and herbs (10-
40%). Roughly occupies 19% of earth’s surface.
They are also called as rangelands as they are used for grazing of animals.
Pastures are rangelands used for grazing through the year
Meadows are grasslands harvested during growing season and grazed during remaining period.
Abiotic component : Nutrients like C,H,O,P,S etc., present in the soil added trace elements were
also found
Biotic component:
1.Producers: grasses and shrubs
2.Consumers:
a.Primary consumers: herbivores like cow, buffalo, sheep etc., including insects, termites
and millipedes
b. Secondary consumers: carnivores like snake, fox, frogs, lizards
3. Decomposers: microbes
SAVANNA: tropical grassland with scattered trees – rainfall range of 100-150 cm/yr with
prolonged dry period. Trees growing in Savanna are generally drought resistant and thorny. One
third of Africa is covered by Savanna and in India five types of Savanna occur.

DESERT ECOSYSTEM:
They are dry, sandy and rocky areas with sparse vegetation with less rainfall of less than 25cm/yr
occupying 17 percent of land.
Life is very difficult due to less soil moisture, high temperature, dry atmosphere and strong
winds.
Types of desert:
(1) Hot desert: tropical – subtropical area with sandy, gravelly rocky soil with frequent sand
storms. Oasis occur at places
(2) Warm-semi desert scrub: Sub tropical and warm temperate area with scattered bushes.
 (3) Cold desert: dry, barren and rocky with sparse vegetation. Precipitation is little, mostly as
snow.
(4) Cold-semi desert: cold temperate areas with little precipitation and scrubby vegetation.
(5) Artic-Alpine semi desert: small plants in protected areas
(6) Artic-Alpine desert: permafrost soil bears sparse vegetation
Biotic component:
1.Producers: shrubs especially bushes, some grasses and few trees. Cactus and lower plants like
lichens and mosses are also present.
2.Consumers: Generally reptiles and insects live under xeric conditions
3. Decomposers: they are very few due to poor vegetation and dead organic matter.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Two categories – inland and oceanic
Inland waters can be standing or lentic and flowing or lotic
Depending upon the size and habit aquatic organism living in the ecosystem are classified as
follows
1. Plankton: passively drifting
microorganism –
phytoplankton (plant) and
zooplankton (animal)
2. Neuston: large organism
floating or swimming on the
surface of water
 Epineuston: living on
water surface
 Hyponeuston: hanging
from water surface (mosquito larvae)
3. Nekton: organism actively swimming inside water
4. Periphyton: organism occurring attached to submerged vegetation above the bottom.
5. Benthos: organism confined to bottom
POND ECOSYSTEM
Good example of a fresh water ecosystem. It exhibits a self sufficient and self regulating system.
Abiotic component : heat, Light, pH, organic and inorganic compounds in water (co2, N, O2 etc)
Biotic component:
1.Producers: these are autotrophic green plants and photosynthetic bacteria. They fix energy
with the help of minerals derived from water and mud and manufacture complex organic
substance as carbohydrates, protiens, lipids etc., Eg. Macrophytes and Phytoplankton
2.Consumers:
a.Primary consumers: herbivores feeding directly on living plants or plant remains. Eg.
Benthos (fishes, larvae, mollluscs etc) and zooplankton
b. Secondary consumers: insects and fishes feed on zooplankton
c. Tertiary consumers: large fishes
3. Decomposers: bacteria, antimocyetes and fungi

RIVERINE AND STREAM ECOSYSTEM: less studied

Biotic component:
1.Producers: permanently attached green algae, diatoms and mosses
2.Consumers: fresh water sponges, larvae, fish etc.,
3. Decomposers: bacteria and fungi
MARINE ECOSYSTEM
1.Producers: phytoplanktons and macroscopic seaweeds (algae) significantly contributes
primary production
2.Consumers:
a.Primary consumers: molluscs, fish etc.,
b. Secondary consumers: carnivores (fishes)
3. Decomposers: microbes

ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
1.Producers: macrophytes (seaweeds, sea grass and marsh grasses), benthic microphytes and
phytoplanktons.
2.Consumers: zooplankton, crabs, fishes etc.,
3. Decomposers: microbes
 BIODIVERSITY
Definition:
UNEP: The totality of genes, species and ecosystems in a region.
Castri (1996): the ensemble and interaction of genes, species and ecological diversity at given
place and time
Biological diversity is the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological
complexes in which they occur. Thus includes different genes, species, ecosystem and their
relative abundance.

 Species (individual) = can breed and produce fertile offspring

 Population = groups of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same
area.
 Community = different populations that live together in a defined area.
 Ecosystem = a collection of all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with
their nonliving, or physical, environment.
Genetic Diversity:
Variation of genes within species. It is the basic source of biodiversity. When the genes within
the same species show different versions due to new combinations, it is called genetic variability.
1. It may be the difference in genes within single species
Eg. Thousands of rice varieties
2. Variation in different population of same species
Eg. Coastal populations of shrimp are genetically different from freshwater population.
The diversity in wild species forms the „gene pool‟ from which our crops and domestic animals
have been developed over thousands of years
Species Diversity:
Species is the unit used to classify millions of life forms on Earth. Genetically so similar
members forms species.
The number of species of plants and animals that are present in a region constitutes its species
diversity. There are two popular indices of measuring species diversity known as Shannon-
Wiener index and Simpson index.
Scientists have identified about 1.8 million species on earth and 300,000 fossil species.
Areas that are rich in species diversity are called ‘hotspots’ of diversity. India is among the
world’s 15 nations that are exceptionally rich in species diversity called as Megadiversity
countries”.
Among 25 hot spots of the world, India has two namely Western Ghats and eastern Himalayas.
Ecosystem biodiversity:
An ecosystem is a set of living and non living elements in an environment.
Ecosystem diversity refers to variety of species within different ecosystem in other words the
variety of ecosystem found within a biogeographical or political boundary.
Biogeographical classification of India :
Based on the geography, climate and pattern of vegetation and animal species, the Wild Life
Institute of India (WII) classifies India into four biogeographical regions with ten zones further
subdivided into 26 provinces.
1. Palaerctic Region: Trans Himalayas and Himalayas zone
2. Ethiopian Region: Indian desert and Semi-Arid zone
3. Oriental Region: The Western Ghat, Deccan Peninsula, Gangetic Plain, The Coasts and The
North East India
4. The islands:
Biogeographic Zones
1. The cold mountainous snow covered Trans Himalayan region of Ladakh.
2. The Himalayan ranges and valleys of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Assam and other North Eastern States.
3. The Terai, the lowland where the Himalayan rivers flow into the plains.
4. The Gangetic and Bhramaputra plains.
5. The Thar Desert of Rajasthan.
6. The semi arid grassland region of the Deccan plateau Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andra
Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
7. The Northeast States of India,
8. The Western Ghats in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala.
 9. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
10. The long western and eastern coastal belt with sandy beaches, forests and mangroves.
VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
The value of biological resources were determined by three means
 Assessing the value of nature products Eg. firewood, meat etc., consumed directly
without passing through a market
 Assessing the value of products that are commercially harvested Eg. Timber, medicinal
plants etc.,
 Assessing indirect values of ecosystem functions Eg Watershed, photosynthesis,
regulation of climate, soil production etc.,
CLASSIFICATION OF VALUES OF BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES
I. DIRECT VALUES: direct usage of biological resources
a. Consumptive use:
 The direct utilisation of timber, food, fuelwood, medicine, fish, meat etc., by tribal
communities, the rural peoples living in the rim of forest and to some extent the urban
communities.
b. Productive use: (Marketable goods.)
 The biological products that are commercially harvested also accounts for nation’s
income (GDP).
 Products includes fuel wood, timber, honey, medicinal plants, musk, ivory etc.,
 For biotechnologist potential genetic properties in plants or animals that can be used to
develop better varieties of crops
 For pharmacist, biological diversity is the raw material from which new drugs can be
identified
 For industrialists, biodiversity is a rich store-house from which to develop new products
 Thus these wild species are the building blocks for the betterment of human life and their
loss is a great economic loss to mankind.
 The wonder drug Penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a fungus called
Penicillium. Likewise, we get Tetracyclin from a bacterium. Quinine, the cure for malaria
is obtained from the bark of Cinchona tree, while Digitalin is obtained from foxglove
(Digitalis) which is an effective cure for heart ailments. Recently vinblastin and
vincristine, two anticancer drugs, have been obtained from Periwinkle (Catharanthus)
plant, which possesses anticancer alkaloids.
Value of a tree: In 50 years a tree generates Rs 5.3 lakhs worth oxygen, recycles Rs 6.4
lakhs worth fertility, controls 6.4 lakhs worth soil erosion, controls 10.5 lakhs worth air
 pollution, provides 5.3 lakhs worth shelter to birds and animals and also provides flowers,
fruits and timber and thus a tree worth 34 lakhs in its life time.

II. INDIRECT VALUES:

 Deals primarily with the function of ecosystem doesn’t have direct bearing over
economic concerns on the other hand direct values are derived only from indirect values.
Social values:
 The consumptive and productive value of biodiversity is closely linked to social concerns
in traditional communities.
 ‘Ecosystem people’ value biodiversity as a part of their livelihood as well as through
cultural and religious sentiments.
  Particularly in India is important for its religious, spiritual and other cultural uses
including flowers for offerings.
Ethical values or existence value:
 Ethical values related to biodiversity conservation are based on the importance of
protecting all forms of life.
 All forms of life have the right to exist on earth.
 Humans have no rights to destroy the species because the loss of one species may have
far reaching consequence to the biological community and to human.
Aesthetic value:
 Everyone enjoys wildlife and landscapes aesthetically
 Wildlife is an important tourist attraction.
Option value:
 Keeping future possibilities open for their use is called option value.
 It is impossible to predict which of our species or traditional varieties of crops and
domestic animals will be of great use in the future.
BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL AND NATIONAL LEVEL
Terrestrial biodiversity of the earth is best described as biomes, which are the largest
ecological units present in different geographic areas and are named after the dominant
vegetation e.g. the tropical rainforests, tall grass prairies, savannas, desert, tundra etc.
India has a great wealth of biodiversity
Comparison between the number of species in India and its world ranking

Amongst 13.6 million of species around the world only 1.76 million is discovered so far. 20% of
species almost lost in 30 years and 50% will extinct by the end of 21st century.
Biodiversity at regional level is better understood by categorizing species richness into four
types, based upon their spatial distribution as discussed below
(i) Point richness refers to the number of species that can be found at a single point in a given
space.
(ii) Alpha (-) richness refers to the number of species found in a small homogeneous area
(iii) Beta (-) richness refers to the rate of change in species composition across different
habitats.
(iv) Gamma (-) richness refers to the rate of change across large landscape gradients.
- richness is strongly correlated with physical environmental variables. For example, there are
100 species of tunicates in arctic waters, 400 species in temperate waters and 600 in tropical
seas. Thus, temperature seems to be the most important factor affecting -richness of tunicates.
-richness means that the cumulative number of species increases as more heterogeneous
habitats are taken into consideration. For example, the ant species found in local regions of north
pole is merely 10. As we keep on moving towards the equator and thus add more and more
habitats, the number of species of ants reaches as high as 2000 on the equatorial region.
India as a mega diversity Nation
 India has a great diversity of ecosystem with high Himalayas in the north to low sea
coasts, wet Northeastern green forest to dry forest in the northwest, alluvial plains and
plateaus.
 It is estimated that Amongst plant species, 18%, amphibians 62% , lizards, of the 153
species recorded, 50% and various groups of insects, marine worms, centipedes, mayflies
and fresh water sponges are unique to this country.
 India has 27 indigenous breeds of cattle, 40 breeds of sheep, 22 breeds of goats and 8
breeds of buffaloes.
The Trans Himalayan region:
 Area is very cold and dry (6,000 mts above msl). Vegetation – sparse alphine steppe.
Faunal – wild sheep and goat, snow leopard etc.,
The Indian Desert:
 Tropical thorn forest and tropical dry deciduous forests, sandy desert, Thar is devoid of
birds. Black buck was the dominant mammal. Rann of Kutch only breeding site for
flamingoes. Other species includes fox, bustard and desert cat.
The Western Ghats:
 Covers only 5% of land surface but home for 4,000 country’s plant species. Nilgiri
langur, long tailed macaque, Tahr, hornbill etc., are endemic to western ghats.
The deccan peninsula
 Covers 43% of land. Bound by satpura in north, western gahts in west, eastern ghats in
east. Elevation varies from900m in west to 300m in east. Tropical deciduous forest.
Fauna like tiger sloath bear, wild boar, gaur, wild buffaloes, elephant etc.,
The Gangetic plain:
  India’s most fertile region - Soil formed by alluvial deposits of Ganges and its tributaries
- Stretching from eastern rajasthan, UP, Bihar and WB. Merges in the east with
mangrove region of sunderbans.
The coastal region:
 Natural vegetation consists of mangroves and animal species includes dolphins,
crocodiles etc. There are 26 and 5 species of turtles in fresh and marine waters
respectively.
Threats to biodiversity
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is threatened by anthropogenic activities in many ways.
HABITAT LOSS:
Habitat is the total environmental factor including food and water that a species need to survive
and reproduce.
Niche is the role of a species within the ecosystem includes the habitat that a species need to
survive, the organisms it eats, its predators and its competitors.
Limiting Factor is the factor that limits the numbers of a species. For plants, the limiting factors
are nutrients, water, sunlight, temperature, competitors, predators etc.,
Habitat can be destroyed or degraded in two basic ways: quantitative and qualitative loss.
 Quantitative loss is the measured reduction in the aerial extent. Eg. Reduction in the
wetland area due to construction activities
 Qualitative loss: degradation in the structure, function and composition of the habitat.
Eg. Addition of chemical waste into a water system
Habitat fragmentation: due to human activities like agriculture, plantation, housing, industrial,
etc., the overall habitat has been fragmented into small pockets.
Eg. Such habitat fragmentation has caused reduction in elephant population in India. Normally
elephants move long distance for food and water in a specified path. The conversion of forest
habitat into plantation has fragmented the forest habitat.
POACHING OF WILD LIFE:
 Killing animals for food (survival) is called as Subsistence hunting.
 Killing for recreation or for extra food called as sport hunting.
 Killing animals to sell their meat, fur and other parts called as commercial hunting.
 Illegal commercial hunting or fishing called as Poaching.
Methods of poaching: hunting with spears and arrows, shooting, poisoning, electrocution, traps,
nets with poison tipped nails, construction of pits, trained dogs etc.,
Poaching of elephants: For ivory and meat. Between 1979 and 1989 for ivory 10% of elephant
population was lost in Thailand. In Africa during 1977 the elephant population was 1.3 million
but in 1997 it was only 600,000.
Introduced Species: Introduction of non-native species (alien) created major threat to
biodiversity Eg In Andaman and Nicobar islands, introduced species has created major threat to
local fauna and flora.
Overexploitation of Plants and Animals: In marine ecosystem over catching of fishes by
mechanized boats and nets, ornamental cage birds etc.
Threats to Indian Biodiversity
 India stands second in threaten to mammals and sixth in terms of birds.
 India has 89,451 animal species accounting 7.31% global fauna (MoEF 1977) and flora
10.78%.
Reasons for loss of biodiversity:
 Destruction of forest
 Overexploitation of bio-resources
 Overgrazing
 Shifting cultivation
 Urbanization
 Illegal trade
 Smuggling and bio-piracy
 Soil degradation and erosion
 Diminishing green cover
 Mining and other projects
 Exploitation of timber resources
 Exploitation of NTFP (Non timber Forest Produce)
 Loss of land fertility
 De-vegetation
 Drought and famine
 Desertification
 Tourism
 Unequal globalization etc.,

Endangered and Endemic species of India

Endangered: species whose numbers are reduced that it is in danger of becoming extinct. The
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) publishes the
Red Data Book which includes the list of endangered species of plants and animals
Threatened/Vulnerable: species those are low enough or the trend indicates it may become
endangered.
 According to threaten Flora, 44 species are critically endangered, 113 endangered and 87
vulnerable.
 Fauna 18 critically endangered, 54 endangered and 143 vulnerable.
Endemic: species those are confined or restricted to a particular area.
 India contains 33% of endemic plant species
 140 endemic genera but no endemic families (Botanical survey of India, 1983)
 Areas rich in endemism are – north-east India, the western ghats, the northwestern and
eastern Himalayas.
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands contribute 220 endemic species of flora
 The other endemics are 55 bird species, 187 endemic reptiles and 110 species of
amphibians.
A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch e.g. Dodo,
passenger pigeon.
A species is said to be endangered when its number has been reduced to a critical level or whose
habitats, have been drastically reduced and if such a species is not protected and conserved, it is
in immediate danger of extinction.
A species is said to be in vulnerable category if its population is facing continuous decline due to
overexploitation or habitat destruction. Such a species is still abundant, but under a serious threat
of becoming endangered if causal factors are not checked.
Species which are not endangered or vulnerable at present, but are at a risk are categorized as
rare species.
Conservation of biodiversity
Importance: biological diversity is a vital resource; it is heart of economy and livelihood. Its
conservation and rational use is essential for sustainable development.
General attempts of conservation of biodiversity:
 Insitu: establish protected area network with appropriate management practice and restore
degraded habitats.
 Exsitu: establish botanical and zoological gardens, banks of germplasm, pollen, seed,
seedlings, tissue culture, gene and DNA etc.,
 Reduction of biotic pressure: reduce anthropogenic pressure on natural populations by
cultivating them elsewhere
  Rehabilitation: identify and rehabilitate threatened species.
Insitu and Exsitu Conservation:
Insitu conservation: conservation of plants and animals in their native ecosystem or even in
man made ecosystems. Eg. National parks, Sanctuaries, biosphere reserves etc.,
Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks of India: There are 589 Protected Areas in India of
which 89 are National Parks and 500 are Wildlife Sanctuaries.
 The Great Himalayan National Park is the largest sanctuary in this ecosystem and is one
of the last homes of the beautiful snow leopard. Dachigam Sanctuary is the only place
where the rare Hangul or Kashmir stag is found. Kaziranga National Park is the most
famous which has elephant, wild buffalo, gaur, wild boar, swamp deer, and hog deer, in
large numbers, as well as tiger and leopard. Its bird life is
 extremely rich and includes ducks, geese, pelicans and storks. The Manas Sanctuary, has
the rare golden langur and the very rare pygmy hog, the smallest wild boar in the world.
Bharatpur is one of the most famous water bird sanctuaries in the world. In the Thar
desert, the wild life is protected in the Desert National Park. Here large numbers of
black buck, neelgai and chinkara can be seen. The Great Indian Bustard lives in these arid
lands. Ranthambor was the most known sanctuary for tigers. The Great and the Little
Rann of Kutch have been made into sanctuaries to protect the very rare wild ass, the
flamingo, the star tortoise and the desert fox. The Gir Sanctuary protects the last
population of the majestic Asiatic lion.
 Sanctuaries such as Bhimashankar, Koyana, Chandoli and Radhanagari preserve this
rich flora in Maharashtra, Bandipur, Bhadra, Dandeli, Nagarhole, etc. in Karnataka, and
Eraviculum, Perambiculum, Periyar, Silent Valley, in Kerala. In the Nilgiri Hills the
rich forest Sanctuaries protect some of the last pockets of the Indian elephant in South
India. Examples include Bandipur, Madhumalai, Wynad and Bhadra.
 Two important sanctuaries meant for preservation of coastal ecosystems are the Chilka
Lake and Point Calimere. The Sunderbans protect the largest mangrove delta in India.
The Marine National Park in Gujarat protects shallow areas in the sea, islands, coral
reefs and extensive mudflats.
Exsitu conservation: conservation of samples of genetic diversity away from their habitat.
Done through gene banks and in India National Bureau of Plant genetic resources, New Delhi;
The National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources in Kamal; The national Bureau of Fish
Genetic Resources in Allahabad.
Germplasm: genetic material that comprises the physical basis of the inherited qualities of an
organism.
In India, we have the following important gene bank/seed bank facilities:
(i) National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) is located in New Delhi. Here
agricultural and horticultural crops and their wild relatives are preserved by cryo-preservation of
seeds, pollen etc. by using liquid nitrogen at a temperature as low as -196°C. Varieties of rice,
pearl millet, Brassica, turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli, tobacco, poppy etc. have been
preserved successfully in liquid nitrogen for several years without losing seed viability.
(ii) National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) located at Karnal, Haryana. It
preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.
(iii) National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) for the development of a
facility of conservation of varieties of crop plants/trees by tissue culture. This facility has been
created within the NBPGR.
The G-15 countries have also resolved to set up a network of gene banks to facilitate the
conservation of various varieties of aromatic and medicinal plants for which India is the
networking co-ordinator country. At present gene bank collections have over 34 thousand cereals
and 22 thousand pulses.
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is a secure seedbank on the Norwegian island, backup for the
world's 1,750 seed banks. The safest vault free from any natural calamities and man made
disasters including war.
IPAS: Integrated Protected Area System