IMPROVING MEMORY

In the previous section, we have discussed memory processes and introduced you to some
basic concepts of memory. What we have presented, however, is just the tip of the iceberg. If
you review research on memory and learning, you will find that there exist a vast amount of
information on the subject. But in learning to become more personally and academically
effective, you are probably most interested in seeing how this knowledge can be put into
practice. In other words, how can it help you improve your memory. Thus, we focus on
memory techniques and strategies.

1. PULLING IT ALL TOGETHER. Organizing and ordering information can significantly

improve memory. Imagine, for example, how difficult it would be to remember a random list
of 62 letters. On the other hand, it would not be difficult to memorize the first sentence in this
paragraph (consisting of 62 letters). Similarly, learning a large amount of unconnected and
unorganized information from various classes can be very challenging. By organizing and
adding meaning to the material prior to learning it, you can facilitate both storage and
retrieval. In other words, you can learn it better and recall it easier. The following concepts
can help you pull various information together in order to increase understanding and
organization. This can mean organizing material on paper, such as when you make an outline
or idea web, or simply organizing material in your memory, such as learning it in a particular
order or making intentional associations between ideas.

2. THE FUNNEL APPROACH. This means learning general concepts before moving on to
specific details. When you study in this manner, you focus on getting a general framework, or
overview, before filling in the details. When you understand the general concepts first, the
details make more sense. Rather than disconnected bits of information to memorize, such as
history dates, the material fits together within the overall framework. Seeing how the smaller
details relate to one another, you process the information more deeply (which helps you store,
and later retrieve, it from memory). This idea is probably familiar--there are many learning
strategies based on the funnel approach. For example, the approach is used in previewing a
chapter for the major ideas as a way to enhance your comprehension of details contained in
the chapter. You may also notice that many textbook chapters are organized in a "general to
specific" format. Finally, you probably use this type of approach when studying from an
outline, matrix, or concept map. Because of their organization, these tools are particularly
well-suited for learning general to specific.

3. ORGANIZING THROUGH MEANING AND ASSOCIATION. Earlier, we discussed

the concept of making intentional associations in order to improve learning retention. What do
we mean by "intentional associations"? When learning, a person continually makes
associations. We make associations between what we are learning and the environment we are
in, between the information and our mental states, and between the information and our
stream of thoughts. When things are associated in memory, thinking of one helps bring the
other to mind. Have you ever actually retraced your path when you have forgotten where you
put an object such as your keys? Often, as you approach the place where you put them, you
are suddenly able to remember the act of laying them down on the table or putting them in
your gym bag. This is association. The memory of putting the keys down was associated with
your memory of things in the environment. You can make associations work for you by
making them intentional. When you are having difficulty recalling new material, you can help
bring it to mind by thinking about what you have associated it with. In other words--retrace
your mental path. We will return to this idea later when we discuss specific strategies.
a) Deep processing--relating the material to yourself. One way to process information
more deeply, and also to create meaningful associations, is to think about how the information
can be personally meaningful. You might think about how the new material relates to your
life, your experience, or your goals. If you can link new information to memories already
stored ("mental hooks"), you'll have more cues to recall the new material.

b) Grouping. This idea is probably best explained with an example. Before reading ahead,
take a moment to complete the following exercise.

EXERCISE: GROUPING

Read the following list of sports one time. When you are done, write down as many of the
sports as you can without looking back at the list.

Snow Skiing Basketball Tennis

Long Jump Bobsledding 100-Meter Dash

Hockey Baseball Ice Skate

Discus Golf High Jump

Volleyball Javelin Soccer

Luge Curling Cricket

Decathlon Hurdles

Note the number of sports you remembered correctly. We will return to this exercise later.

You can organize material by grouping similar concepts, or related ideas, together. Arranging
the material into related groups helps your memory by organizing the information. For
example, in the exercise you just completed, you could have grouped all of the sports into one
of the following categories: a) Winter sports, b) Track and Field sports, and c)Sports using a
ball. Keeping these categories in mind, try the exercise again. If your are like most people,
you will be able to remember more of the sports.

Of course, in this instance, we created a list with the intention of demonstrating grouping;
thus, there were 6 or 7 sports in each category. Still, with a little thought, this strategy can be
used in a variety of ways. For example, can you think of other ways that these sports could be
grouped? There are individual sports, team sports, sports you may enjoy, and sports you may
dislike. There are sports requiring a great deal of equipment, and sports requiring little or
none. When you are trying to remember lists for a test, the concepts and words may or may
not have a natural organization. Therefore, you may need to be creative when making
associations. Finally, the process of organizing a list into groups can often help you to
understand the relationship between the concepts better.

4. VIVID ASSOCIATIONS. We have already discussed the idea of associations: aiding

storage and retrieval of new information by intentionally pairing it with something familiar.
When learning something new and unfamiliar, try pairing it with something you know very
well, such as images, puns, music, whatever. The association does not have to make logical
sense. Often times it is associations that are particularly vivid humorous, or silly that stay in
your mind. Some people remember names this way. For example, they may remember the
name "Robert Green" by picturing Robert playing golf (on the green), wearing green clothes,
or covered in green paint. Or suppose for your anatomy course you have to recall names of
the veins in the human body, and the first one on the list is "pancreatic" followed by "right
gastroepipeloic" and "left gastroepipeloic" and so on. You can picture a frying pan being
creative--maybe painting a picture with bright paints and bold strokes. If the frying pan is
working in a studio, picture gas pipes with little padlocks on them (gastroepipeloic) in the left
and right studio corners....

VIVID ASSOCIATIONS: LEARNING THE NAMES OF CLASSMATES

1. Pick names of classmates with whom you are unfamiliar.

2. For each name, brainstorm some words or ideas that you can associate with the name. For
example, if one student's name is Teresa Martinez, you might think of Mother Teresa, a
Martin (a type of bird), Mars the planet, a Martini (the drink), the word "terrific," Martinique,
etc.

3. Once you have brainstormed several ideas, you can begin to think of ways that some of the
associations can be combined to remember the name. In the above example, you could create
a visual association by picturing Mother Teresa standing on the beach at Martinique.

4. Do this for each person, and you will have a great way to remember the names of your new
classmates!

5. ACTIVE LEARNING. You will notice that the term "active learning" has come up
frequently. Active learning facilitates your memory by helping you attend to and process
information. All of the memory techniques we have discussed require active learning. Even if
you attend every lecture and read every assignment, there is no guarantee that you will learn
and remember the information. Although you may passively absorb some material, to ensure
that you remember important information requires being active and involved, that is attending
to and thinking about what you are learning.

6. VISUAL MEMORY. Some people remember information best when it is encoded

visually; if that is the case for you, then code information in this manner. But even if you do
not consider yourself specifically "a visual learner," you may find that including visual
memory can still help. After all, it is one more way of encoding and storing information--and
one more way of retrieving it for a test.

There are many ways of visually encoding and retrieving information. We have already
mentioned the strategy of associating concepts with visual images. But other aids to visual
memory include diagrams, tables, outlines, etc. Often these are provided in texts, so take
advantage of pictures, cartoons, charts, graphs, or any other visual material. You can also
draw many of these things yourself. For example, try to visualize how the ideas relate to each
other and draw a graph, chart, picture, or some other representation of the material. You may
even want to make it a habit to convert difficult material into actual pictures or diagrams in
your notes, or to convert words into mental images on the blackboard of your mind.
Finally, using your visual memory can be as simple as writing out vocabulary words, theories,
or algebraic formulas. This allows you to not only practice (repeat) the information but also to
see the way it looks on the page (developing a visual memory that you may be able to retrieve
later). Another advantage is that it helps you take an active role in learning the material. When
you draw your ideas on paper or write down things you are trying to remember, you have the
opportunity to think about the information more deeply.

7. TALK IT OUT. When trying to memorize something, it can help to actually recite the
information aloud. You might repeat ideas verbatim (when you need to do rote
memorization), or you can repeat ideas in your own words (and thus ensure that you have a
true understanding of the information). Repeating information aloud can help you encode the
information (auditory encoding) and identify how well you have learned it. Some students
have told us that they know the test information and are surprised when they "freeze" and
cannot give adequate responses. For some students, this "freezing" may be a result of test
anxiety. For others, however, it may be a result of overestimating how well they know the
material. If you recite the information aloud from memory (answering questions, defining
words, or using flash cards), it is often quite clear how well you know it. If you stumble in
your responses, have to look up answers, or can only give a vague response, then you know
that you need to study more.

Although reciting aloud can be a helpful memory technique, some people avoid it out of fear
of appearing foolish ("what if someone sees me talking to myself?"). If this applies to you,
work with a friend or study group. Another advantage of working with someone else is that
they can inform you when you are missing important concepts or misunderstanding an idea.
Keep in mind, however, that studying with others does not work for everyone. For example,
some students may become anxious or intimidated in study groups and would be more
comfortable studying alone.

8. VISUALIZE YOURSELF TEACHING THE MATERIAL. An effective way to

enhance recall and understanding of dense material is to teach it to an imaginary audience. By
doing so, you are forced to organize the material in a way that makes sense to you and to
anticipate potential questions that may be asked by your students. Moreover, by articulating
your lecture aloud, you will uncover gaps in your comprehension (and recall) of the material.
(Far better to discover those "weak" areas before a test than during it.) After you have
mastered a particular section from your textbook, try delivering an organized lecture on any
topic from that section. Then check for accuracy. Don't forget to anticipate questions that
students might ask about the material as a way of anticipating potential test questions.

Mnemonic Techniques and Specific Memory Tricks to improve

memory, memorization

Mnemonic techniques are more specific memory aids. Many are based on the general memory
strategies that were presented earlier. Although it can be easiest to remember those things that
you understand well, sometimes you must rely on rote memory. The following techniques can
be used to facilitate such memorization.

1. ACRONYMS. You form acronyms by using each first letter from a group of words to
form a new word. This is particularly useful when remembering words in a specified order.
Acronyms are very common in ordinary language and in many fields. Some examples of
common acronyms include NBA (National Basketball Associations), SCUBA (Self Contained
Underwater Breathing Apparatus), BTUs (British Thermal Units), and LASER (Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation). What other common acronyms can you
think of? The memory techniques in this section, for example, can be rearranged to form the
acronym "SCRAM" (Sentences/acrostics, Chunking, Rhymes & songs, Acronyms, and
Method of loci).

Let us suppose that you have to memorize the names of four kinds of fossils for your geology
class: 1) actual remains, 2) Petrified, 3) Imprint, and 4) Molds or casts. Take the first letter of
each item you are trying to remember: APIM. Then, arrange the letters so that the acronym
resembles a word you are familiar with: PAIM or IMAP.

Although acronyms can be very useful memory aids, they do have some disadvantages. First,
they are useful for rote memory, but do not aid comprehension. Be sure to differentiate
between comprehension and memory, keeping in mind that understanding is often the best
way to remember. Some people assume that if they can remember something, that they must
"know" it; but memorization does not necessarily imply understanding. A second problem
with acronyms is that they can be difficult to form; not all lists of words will lend themselves
equally well to this technique. Finally, acronyms, like everything else, can be forgotten if not
committed to memory.

2. SENTENCES/ACROSTICS. Like acronyms, you use the first letter of each word you are
trying to remember. Instead of making a new word, though, you use the letters to make a
sentence. Here are some examples:
My Dear Aunt Sally (mathematical order of operations: Multiply and Divide before you Add
and Subtract)
Kings Phil Came Over for the Genes Special (Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Genus,
Species)

Can you think of other examples? Like acronyms, acrostics can be very simple to remember
and are particularly helpful when you need to remember a list in a specific order. One
advantage over acronyms is that they are less limiting. If your words don't form easy-to-
remember acronyms, using acrostics may be preferable. On the other hand, they can take
more thought to create and require remembering a whole new sentence rather than just one
word (as is the case with acronyms). Otherwise, they present the same problem as acronyms
in that they aid memorization but not comprehension.

EXERCISE: PRACTICE USING ACROSTICS

1. Try making up a sentence (acrostic) to remember the five mnemonic techniques discussed
in this section.

2. Now come up with acrostics for several of the main sections of a chapter from one or your
textbooks.

3. RHYMES & SONGS. Rhythm, repetition, melody, and rhyme can all aid memory. Are
you familiar with Homer's Odyssey? If you are familiar with the book, then you know that it
is quite long. That is why it is so remarkable to realize that this, along with many ancient
Greek stories, was told by storytellers who would rely solely on their memories. The use of
rhyme, rhythm, and repetition helped the storytellers remember them.
You can use the same techniques to better remember information from courses. For example,
even the simple addition of familiar rhythm and melody can help. Do you remember learning
the alphabet? Many children learn the letters of the alphabet to the tune of "Twinkle, Twinkle,
Little Star." In fact, a student demonstrated how she memorized the quadratic formula
(notorious among algebra students for being long and difficult to remember) by singing it to a
familiar tune!

Using these techniques can be fun, particularly for people who like to create. Rhymes and
songs draw on your auditory memory and may be particularly useful for those who can learn
tunes, songs, or poems easily. Like the other techniques in this section, however, they
emphasize rote memory, not understanding. Also, when devising rhymes and songs, don't
spend too much time creating them. Use these techniques judiciously and don't let them
interfere with your studying.

4. METHOD OF LOCI. This technique was used by ancient orators to remember speeches,
and it combines the use of organization, visual memory, and association. Before using the
technique, you must identify a common path that you walk. This can be the walk from your
dorm to class, a walk around your house, whatever is familiar. What is essential is that you
have a vivid visual memory of the path and objects along it. Once you have determined your
path, imagine yourself walking along it, and identify specific landmarks that you will pass.
For example, the first landmark on your walk to campus could be your dorm room, next may
be the front of the residence hall, next a familiar statue you pass, etc. The number of
landmarks you choose will depend on the number of things you want to remember.

Once you have determined your path and visualized the landmarks, you are ready to use the
path to remember your material. This is done by mentally associating each piece of
information that you need to remember with one of these landmarks. For example, if you are
trying to remember a list of mnemonics, you might remember the first--acronyms--by
picturing SCUBA gear in your dorm room (SCUBA is an acronym).

You do not have to limit this to a path. You can use the same type of technique with just about
any visual image that you can divide into specific sections. The most important thing is that
you use something with which you are very familiar.

EXERCISE: METHOD OF LOCI

1. If someone reads a list of unrelated words to you, just once, how many do you think you
could remember? Give it a try. Have someone read a list of 10 words to you at a slow but
steady pace (about 1 word per second). Rather than using any of the memory techniques
presented here, simply try to concentrate on the words and remember them. How many words
did you remember?

2. Now take a few minutes to identify a path or object that you can use in the method of loci.
Familiarize yourself with each of sections of your path or object. Mentally go through each of
the loci (locations) and visualize them as best you can. Remember, it is important to be able to
visualize and recall each location readily. Once you have done this, have your friend read you
a different list of words. This time, try to create visual images of the words associated with
one of the locations. This may not come easy at first, but with practice you should be able to
create these visual images more readily. If you find that you are having difficulty coming up
with the images quickly, practice on some more lists until you have improved. Chances are,
when you become familiar with using this technique, you will be able to remember many
more words (maybe all 10 items).
3. Practice the technique to sharpen your skills.

5. CHUNKING. This is a technique generally used when remembering numbers, although

the idea can be used for remembering other things as well. It is based on the idea that short-
term memory is limited in the number of things that can be contained. A common rule is that
a person can remember 7 (plus or minus 2) "items" in short-term memory. In other words,
people can remember between 5 and 9 things at one time. You may notice that local telephone
numbers have 7 digits. This is convenient because it is the average amount of numbers that a
person can keep in his or her mind at one time.

When you use "chunking" to remember, you decrease the number of items you are holding in
memory by increasing the size of each item. In remembering the number string 64831996,
you could try to remember each number individually, or you could try thinking about the
string as 64 83 19 96 (creating "chunks" of numbers). This breaks the group into a smaller
number of "chunks." Instead of remembering 8 individual numbers, you are remembering
four larger numbers. This is particularly helpful when you form "chunks" that are meaningful
or familiar to you (in this case, the last four numbers in the series are "1996," which can easily
be remembered as one chunk of information).

6. PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT (or closer to it anyway): Okay, it may not be a

mnemonic, but repeating is still a great memory aid. Remember the children's game "I'm
going on a picnic and I'm bringing...." As each new object is added, the old objects are
repeated. People can often remember a large number of objects this way. When remembering
a list of things, you might try a similar concept. Once you are able to remember 5 items on
your list without looking, add a 6th, repeat the whole list from the start, add a 7th, and so on.
It can be quite intimidating to see long lists, passages, or equations that you are expected to
commit to memory. Break up the information into small bits that you can learn, one step at a
time, and you may be surprised at how easy it can be. You might even utilize grouping
techniques, like those discussed earlier, to form meaningful groups that you can learn one at a
time.