Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125055

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Design and economic analysis of off-grid solar PV system in Jos-

Nigeria
Olusola Charles Akinsipe a, Diego Moya b, c, d, Prasad Kaparaju a, c, *
a
School of Engineering & Built Environment, Griffith University, Brisbane, 4111, Queensland, Australia
b
Department of Chemical Engineering& Grantham Institute - Climate Change and the Environment, Science and Solutions for a Changing Planet DTP,
Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
c
Institute for Applied Sustainability Research (IIASUR), Av.Granados E13-55 e Isla Marchena, No.44, Quito, 170503, Ecuador
d
Carrera de Ingeniería Meca
nica, Facultad de Ingeniería Civil y Meca

nica, Universidad T

ecnica de Ambato, Av. Los Chasquis y Rio Payamino, Ambato,
1801314, Ecuador

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Around the globe, renewable energy sources and their associated technologies are critical to power
Received 27 May 2020 generation. The solar photovoltaic (PV) system is one of the renewable energy systems supporting
Received in revised form electricity consumption in the residential domain. Despite the potential of solar PV as well as an
27 October 2020
appreciable amount of global solar radiation in the region, no previous study has examined the viability
Accepted 8 November 2020
Available online 18 November 2020
of the PV system for off-grid electricity production in Jos, Nigeria. This paper focuses on examining the
feasibility of deploying an off-grid PV system to drive the electricity consumption of a residential
Handling editor : Jiri Jaromir Klemes building in Jos, Nigeria (9.9ON, 8.9OE, 1204.87 m). The paper adopts a mathematical modelling method
for designing and analyzing the entire PV systems to drive the power consumption of the households. By
Keywords: applying mathematical modelling approach, the results demonstrate that 10 MLE275HD2 PV modules
PV modules each of 275 Wp and five batteries of 100 Ah can satisfy the annual electricity consumption of approxi-
PV peak Power mately 3132 kWh. Further, an economic analysis carried out by using the life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis
Residential buildings depicts that the LCC, the annualized life-cycle cost (ALCC) and cost of electricity (COE) to be US$
The unit cost of electrical energy
10,110.85, US$ 593.75 and US$ 0.18/kWh respectively. The results of this modelling demonstrate both the
Jos-Nigeria
technical and economic viability of the off-grid PV system for power generation, and can serve as a model
to the successful development of the system for real application. Further, the model can encourage the
stakeholders in the renewable sector to provide the support mechanisms towards the adoption of the PV
system in the residential buildings.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction energy access as the capability of the residential household to

secure a contemporary energy service in the context of availability
Nigeria with a demographic size of approximately 190.9 million and affordability based on the customers’ proximity to the power
people could only supply electrical energy to about 50% of the grid and the utility providers (Brew-Hammond, 2010). The coun-
population (Bank, 2019) despite the capaciousness of fossil fuels try’s power sector is challenged in many aspects namely: admin-
and renewable energies including hydro, wind, power biomass and istrative and technical shortfalls (Akuru et al., 2017) and these have
sun-based energy to drive power supply (Akpan and Akpan, 2012; continued to compromise the nation’s electricity accessibility rate.
Aliyu et al., 2015; Barros et al., 2014; Mas’ud et al., 2015).Thanks to Some energy consumers in the downstream sector now depend on
renewable energy sources with their unlimited potential to miti- the generators to support electricity generation, but the high
gate the global energy security challenges as well as minimizing operating cost has made this approach unsustainable (Akuru et al.,
carbon footprints (Aliyu et al., 2015). Many studies have discussed 2017). A more sustainable measure of promoting electric power
access is by deploying solar-driven electricity with the capability of
underpinning regional energy as well as promoting small-scale
* Corresponding author. School of Environmental & Built Environment, Griffith electrification purposes like street and traffic lighting (Vincent
University, Brisbane 4111, Queensland, Australia. and Yusuf, 2014). Solar energy is a sustainable clean energy
E-mail address: p.kaparaju@griffith.edu.au (P. Kaparaju).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125055
0959-6526/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
O.C. Akinsipe, D. Moya and P. Kaparaju Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125055

resource, and it is best harnessed by deploying the solar photo- Intelligent Energy) model in their analyzing, considering the en-
voltaic (PV) systems (Karakaya and Sriwannawit, 2015) to convert ergy demand, climatic condition, and the techno-economic data as
solar irradiation directly into the electrical energy. The PV system is the major parameters and performed comparative analyzes. The
significant for the micro-grid power generation including the roof- result showed the economic viability of the rooftop PV system
tops residential household electricity generation (Palm, 2017). based on the electrical energy tariffs and the self-consumption
Further, the solar PV electrical energy has the potential to support share of the building. Several studies have discussed the potential
economic growth as well as electrical consumption of the remote of an off-grid solar home system to supply electricity to the rural
areas. communities of developing countries (Den Heeten et al., 2017; Zubi
Around the globe, different sizing methodologies and techno- et al., 2016). Chowdhury and Mourshed (2016) studied off-grid
economic simulations are used for sizing standalone PV and the electrical energy with the off-grid solar home technologies (SHS)
hybrid PV systems (Amrollahi and Bathaee, 2017; Kaabeche and and performed an empirical analysis on the quality of SHS com-
Ibtiouen, 2014). Li et al. (2017) studied the performance of a ponents from different manufacturers in the context of interna-
2.02 KWp standalone solar PV system and analyzed five tracking tional standards and specifications. The dominant parameters of
modes using the PVSYST V5.74 software. The results showed that the experiment were the solar module, the battery system, the
the fixed tilt angle of 25
had the lowest available solar energy of charge controller and the inverter and found out that all the com-
2461 KWh/y while the dual-axis tracking system had the highest ponents did not satisfy the national and international re-
available solar energy of 3081 KWh/y. Mandelli et al. (2016) pre- quirements. Although the authors offered positive recommen
sented a study on a sizing methodology that addressed the stand- dations, it was unclear if the off-grid electrical energy users were
alone rural electrical energy in Uganda by considering the levelized aware of the quality of SHS components. Perea-Moreno et al. (2018)
cost of supplied and lost energy. The parameters of sizing include carried out a techno-economic analysis in Coatzacoalcos, Mexico
the PV modules, batteries, inverter cost, operation and mainte- (180 080 N and 940270 W) using the RETScreen software. With the
nance costs among others. While the authors’ sizing methodology average solar irradiation of 5.3 kWh/m2 per day, the results of the
addressed outlying regions’ electrical demand of the developing analysis showed that the 12 modules, each of 310 W could generate
countries, the propriety of the measure to drive urban regions 5.41 MWh and reduced the GHG by 11 tCO2. Nevertheless, infor-
electrical energy was not presented. Li and Yu (2016) performed a mation regarding the area of PV modules has not been provided. In
techno-economic analysis and compared an off-grid hybrid the context of the current policy in Karnataka, Ghosh et al. (2015)
photovoltaic-diesel-battery and a photovoltaic-battery for a resi- reviewed the techno-economic parameters of rooftop photovol-
dential household in Urumqi, China using the RETScreen software. taic systems of the residential homes, commercial and industrial
The performances of fixed, one-axis and the two-axis solar tracking sectors. The results showed that the industrial rooftop PV system
options were studied and compared. The solar tracking with the was the most economically viable due to its capacity to provide a
fixed-tilt arrays was cost-effective compared to the one-axis and renewable energy certificate as well as its impact on the commer-
two-axis tracking options but less functional to harness solar irra- cial sector. In addition, the authors linked the non-economic
diation. Further, the authors performed a comparative analysis on viability of the residential off-grid systems to their inability to
the greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction cost and found out that the generate revenue from electrical energy. Several studies have
fixed-tilt array PV-diesel-battery system had a lower cost of energy employed analytical software such as the HOMER (Hybrid Opti-
(COE) compared to an off-grid PV-battery system with the two-axis mization Model for Electric Renewables) software for analyzing the
tracking system. In addition, the PV-diesel-battery system had the off-grid PV techno-economic viability (Das et al., 2017). A study by
highest cost reduction compared to the off-grid PV-battery system Crossland et al. (2015) evaluated the PV socio-technical data to
with the two-axis tracking system. Nevertheless information determine the measures of promoting battery’s lifespan and the
regarding the COE and GHG of off-grid PV system was not contained system’s reliability for eight health centres and a school. The au-
in the paper. A study by Siddaiah and Saini (2016) reviewed a thors used the Matlab and the HOMER modelling software for the
standalone PV system focusing on planning, technological frame- social and technical analysis of PV’s performance and performed
works, simulation and optimization methods. The authors have economic comparisons between the PV and diesel systems. The
reviewed the role of optimal sizing in achieving the lowest system results of the economic analysis showed that the off-grid PV capital
cost. They concluded on the significance of reliability-based models and the operating expenditures were significant compared to the
to evaluate the performance of hybrid renewable energy systems. diesel generating plant. The authors concluded that implementing
Another relevance study was that of Ismail et al. (2013) in Malaysia, a socio-technical measure could mitigate battery degradation.
where they carried out a techno-economic analysis of the hybrid Table 1 is the summary of different methodologies deployed across
standalone PV-battery-diesel generator for the outlying residential various parts of the world.
buildings to attain the lowest cost while satisfying the residential In Nigeria, several studies have examined the feasibility of
electrical loads’ demands. The authors applied mathematical deploying the grid-tied and off-grid solar PV system for generating
modelling and showed that a combination of the PV modules, electrical energy (Adaramola, 2014; Bashir et al., 2018; Oladeji, et.,
battery system, and the diesel generator offered the lowest COE of 2017). Adaramola (2014) investigated the feasibility of an on-grid
$0.239/kWh when the PV’s contribution was 90 percent and 0.4 solar PV system for electrical generation in Jos, Nigeria using the
autonomy days. Further, the PV’s contribution of 140 percent had HOMER software. The principal parameters of the author analysis
zero-emission and the COE of $0.318/kWh compared to the PV were the solar PV and solar irradiation, and the results demon-
hybrid system. Although the hybrid of PV-battery-diesel generating strated the viability of the grid-connected PV system to drive 40
plant was predominantly economical, they contributed signifi- percent of the power generation. Further, the expected annual
cantly to CO2 emissions. Lang et al. (2016) evaluated the techno- electrical energy and the levelized cost of energy were 331,
economic performance of a rooftop PV self-consumption focusing 536 kW h and $0.103/kW h respectively. Nevertheless, the author
on attracting investment in the residential and commercial build- has not considered the complexity of integrating the PV system to
ing sectors in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria without any the power network, the shortage of high-performing grid facilities,
economic support. They also discussed the prominent challenges of the costs of installation and distribution, the current metering
the roof-top PV technology and the self-consumption system. technology and the high degree of professionalism required to
Further, the authors used the HOMIE (HOusehold Model for implementing a grid-tied solar PV system. Further,Adaramola
2
O.C. Akinsipe, D. Moya and P. Kaparaju Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125055

Table 1
Off-grid solar PV applications.

Authors Electrical Loads Contents System components Area of Evaluation Area of Evaluation Analysis results

Ghafoor & Munir Lamps, Refrigerator, Washing machine, TV, PV Size:1928 WP, Faisalabad, Pakistan Mathematical modeling PKR. 14.8 kWh1
(2015) Fans, Battery: 24 V, 406.69 Ah
Okoye & 300 households electrical loads 273.8 MWh PV size: 165.6 kW Gusau, Nigeria. Mathematical modeling The cost of electricity is
Oranekwu- approximately Battery 6 V, 40 Ah 0.4 USD/kWh,
Okoye (2018)
Kamali (2016) A residential household electric loads PV size: 7475 WP Famagusta, Cyprus Mathematical modeling [TRY]0.43/kWh
Battery: 18 no (12 V/200 Ah)
Werulkar & Residential annual electrical load: 6.1 MW h PV size: 200 WP Nagpur, India Mathematical modelling/ 288 energy saved in
Kulkarni (2015) Battery size: 12 V/150 Ah software simulation 2013
Inverter size: 800VA
Rehman et al. Annual load:17,043.4 MW h Wind turbine Rawdat Ben Habbas, HOMER software PV-wind-diesel
(2012) size:3  600 kW, Saudi Arabia hybrid: 0.212 US$/
PV size:1000 kW, Diesel kWh.
generator: 4  1120 kW.
(COC, EO, & NF, Computers, printer, scanners, fluorescent PV Size: 28210 WP University of Port Mathematical modeling $0.60/kWh
2012) lamp, TV, ceiling fan, air conditioner Battery size: 20000 Ah Harcourt, Nigeria
Inverter size: 12000 W
Charger: 1800 A
Rahman et al. 50 households: Annual load of 3.51 MWh PV size: 3.40WP Rajshahi, spread-sheet modeling $0.72/kWh
(2016) Battery size: 24 (12V/130 Bangladesh
Ah)
Inverter size:3.9 Kw
Charge controller:60 A
Kolhe et al. (2015) A village of 150 households: Daily load of PV size: 30 Kw Siyambalanduwa, HOMER Cost of energy for
270 kWh Wind turbines: 40 kW Sri Lanka Hybrid:$0.3/kW h
Battery size: 222 kWh NPC: $553,000
Diesel generator capacity:
25 kW

(2014) investigated the possibility of deploying the solar PV-diesel- that the PV-diesel-battery systems had the least COE. The authors
battery in Jos, the Northern region of Nigeria using HOMER. The have not provided the amount of CO2 mitigated by deploying an
authors took into consideration ten different PV capacities and two off-grid PV system. Although the previous studies have established
rated power of diesel generator and concluded that the price of the viability of grid-tied PV system as well as the potential of PV
electrical energy generated from the hybrid PV-diesel-battery was hybrid system in Jos, Nigeria, researchers have not investigated the
economical in contrast to the standalone diesel generator. Oladeji feasibility of deploying the PV system for an off-grid power appli-
et al. (2017) modelled an off-grid PV system for an office building cation. This study attempts to bridge this gap by examining the
in North-West Nigeria. The experiment was catalogued into two viability of deploying an off-grid PV system to generate electricity
categories focusing on the prominent electrical appliances using for households’ consumption. The principal motivations for this
the HOMER software. The result showed that the category 1 with an study are the appreciable amount of global solar radiation in the
average energy of 36.34 kWh/d was more cost-effective in contrast region (Gajere and Ayegba, 2017) as well as the minimal energy
to category 2 with an average energy of 198.1 kWh/d. Akpan et al. requirement of the households. The scope of this paper is to
(2013) analyzed the life-cycle cost and investigated the viability examine the techno-economic viability of an off-grid PV system
of deploying an off-grid PV system in North-Eastern Nigeria in the using the mathematical modelling approach. The environmental
context of life-cycle cost using the RETScreen software. The authors and policy aspect of deploying an off-grid PV technology as well as
adopted the lifecycle measure to evaluate an off-grid PV system different PV hybrid systems’ application are not captured in this
lifecycle cost and compared it to the cost of a contemporary grid. present work. Regarding this present study, the pertinent param-
They concluded that the viability of the standalone PV system was eters identified in this paper include solar irradiation, PV peak
predicated on the subsidy program, legal and the regulatory power, the inverter size, the battery size as well as a charge
structures. However, information regarding the unit price of the controller. The remainder of the paper takes this organization:
off-grid PV and the system’s environmental benefit has not been section 2 provides a concise background of the study while section
supplied. Tijani et al. (2014) performed a techno-economic analysis 3 presents the methodology. The results and the discussion are
of hybrid photovoltaic-diesel-battery off-grid system to drive contained in section 4 while the conclusion of the paper is in sec-
electrical energy generation for an international college in North- tion 5.
ern Nigeria by using the HOMER software. The prominent param-
eters were PV modules, converters, storage batteries, and
2. Background study
generating plant. The results showed that the PV peak power of
120 kWp required module area of 972 m2 and 2 batteries (1156 Ah,
2.1. Site description
12 V) to drive the institution’s electrical loads of 102 kWp. The COE
was $0.566/kWh and the hybrid PV-diesel-battery CO2 emission
Nigeria daily global horizontal irradiation ranges from 3.5 kWh/
was reduced to 8477 kg/year in comparison with the off-grid diesel
m2/day (25.2 MJ/m2/day) to 7.0 kWh/m2/day (12.6 MJ/m2/day)
generators. By using the HOMER software, Modu et al. (2018) per-
(Akuru et al., 2017), and an average solar radiation of 6.5 h. The case
formed a techno-economic analysis in Kastina, Northern Nigeria
study area is located in Jos with the latitude 9045.9 N and longitude
and compared the COE of four different configurations, including
8048.91 E, and 6 h of sunshine, North-central. Nigeria has the global
the off-grid PV system, the standalone diesel generating plant, the
horizontal irradiance of 224 W/m2 (Giwa et al., 2017). Jos maximum
PV-diesel-battery and the PV-diesel system and the result showed
wind velocity is approximately 9.47 m/s (Mas’ud et al., 2015) in
3
O.C. Akinsipe, D. Moya and P. Kaparaju Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125055

contrast to the northern wind speed which ranges from 4.0 m/s to systems is calculated based on the levelized cost (LLC), annualized
5.12 m/s. The solar irradiation of the case study area is 5.0e5.7 kW/ levelized cost (ALLC) and the cost of energy (COE). The detailed
m2/day. Further, the average daily solar energy input (Havg) over the procedures of the methodology are explained below, and the
year for south-facing and tilted surface Latitude ± 10O for Jos, approach is represented in Fig. 3.
Nigeria is 5.653 kWh/m2/day. The solar radiation which is contin-
gent on the location and weather condition is critical to the power
generation. Fig. 1 is the Nigeria solar irradiation map showing Jos. 3.2. The analysis of end-users appliances
Based on the work of Fadare (2009), the monthly average daily
global solar radiation for Jos, Nigeria is described in Fig. 2. It is The analysis of data collected is performed by using a mathe-
anticipated that the monthly energy generation from the off-grid matical modelling approach. Several studies have reported the
PV system might fluctuate due to the variation in the monthly application of mathematical modelling for investigating the
global solar radiation. The months of March, April and May are techno-economic viability of the PV system as indicated in Table 1.
expected to demonstrate greater power generation in contrast to For the purpose clarification and understanding, applying mathe-
other months. matical modelling is suitable for this study because the case study is
not a complex system. This approach will provide results’ accuracy
3. Methodology because the technical and economic data used are not statistically
computed nor solely dependent on satellite data for evaluation in
3.1. Data collection contrast to the application of the HOMER software (Ameen et al.,
2015). The adoption of mathematical modelling considers the
Evaluating the residential electrical loads is critical to modelling electrical loads of the case study area as well as the solar energy per
an off-grid PV system for the residential building electrical energy unit area. Consequently, the following calculations are performed:
generation. The authors adopt the methodology pattern of Pantaleo
et al. (2013) to perform a detailed analysis of the technical and (1) Average daily electricity consumption of individual electrical
economic parameters of the solar PV systems. The techno- appliance is evaluated by this mathematical eq. (1):
economic analysis begins with data collection to evaluate the X
number of appliances used in a three-bedroom bungalow building Ael ¼ niph; ðkWhÞ (1)
with six occupants. The residential house is equipped with several
appliances classified as flexible appliances, scheduled or shiftable Where.
loads and fixed appliances based on their operating hours (Celik Ael average daily electricity consumption (kWh/day).
et al., 2017). The computation is based on the number of end-user i type of the electrical load
appliances, the power rating of the appliances and operation n number of the electrical load
hours, the daily average energy consumption and the solar PV p power rating of the electrical load (W).
technical parameters. Next, the economic validity of the solar PV h average operating hour.

Fig. 1. The map of Nigeria solar radiation (Nwulua and Agboolab, 2011).

4
O.C. Akinsipe, D. Moya and P. Kaparaju Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125055

Fig. 2. Solar energy available in Jos-Nigeria (Fadare, 2009).

Fig. 3. Steps taken in the techno-economic analysis of the solar PV systems (Pantaleo et al. (2013)).

3.3. Sizing of the PV parameters to 60
C. The technical characteristics of the PV module used in this
study are depicted in Table 3. Based on the above parameters, the
Optimal modelling of the PV array is performed by evaluating aggregate PV array area (APV) is evaluated by applying Eq. (2)
the daily initial electrical load as well as the aggregate daily solar (Okoye and Oranekwu-Okoye, 2018) and PV peak power in Eq. (3)
energy in kWh m2 d1 to support the usual daily energy (Yang and Xia, 2017).
requirement of the residential building. The first parameter eval- (a) The average PV array area is calculated by using Eq. (2)
uated is the required PV array’s area which is a function of electrical
loads’ energy (kWh), daily solar energy per day kW HM2 d1, PV El  
APV ¼ m2 (2)
module efficiency in percentage and module temperature coeffi- H X TC x hPV x hInv x hB
cient (TC) or correction factor. The TCF is assumed to be 80 percent
due to a loss in efficiency created by cell temperature increment up Where.
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O.C. Akinsipe, D. Moya and P. Kaparaju Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125055

Table 2
The analysis of the residential appliances.

Appliances No of Power of appliances Total Wattage Working Average operation Hours Average daily energy consumption
appliances (W) (W) time (h) (Wh)

Lighting bulbs outside I 7 40 280 0e5 5 1400

Washing machine 1 270 270 9e12 1 270
Television 1 70 70 16e22 6 420
Lighting Bulbs outside II 7 40 280 19e24 5 1400
Lighting Bulb II Bedroom 4 40 160 21e22 0.5 80
2
Deep Freezer 1 140 140 0e24 24 3360
Lighting Bulb 1 (Kitchen) 8 40 320 18e20 2 640
Lamps 6 40 240 20e21 1 240
Fans 2 55 110 7 770
Total 1870 8580

Table 3 3.5. Sizing of the charge controller

The parameters of the PV module (Kamali, 2016).

Specification Rating Unit Next, we design a charge controller to support a battery of the
off-grid system while considering the PV array current, the solar PV
Maximum power rating(Pmax) 275 W
Number of cells 120 Pcs
voltage and the battery storage system. The charge controller is
Maximum power voltage(Vmp) 32.1 V designed at the least 25 percent of the peak solar PV array current
Maximum power current(Imp) 8.58 A to permit cold temperature. The controller is equipped with a
Module efficiency 16.6 % maximum power point tracker (MPPT) that opens the charging
Short circuit current(ISC) 9.28 A
circuit and terminates the charging process at a pre-set high
Open circuit voltage(VOC) 38.5 V
voltage as well as closes the charging circuit at a pre-set low-
voltage to permit the charging of the battery (Blue-Pacific-Solar,
2019; Bortolini et al., 2014). The MPPT regulates the rate of cur-
H global solar irradiation per day (kWh/m2 day). rent entering or exiting the battery system thereby preventing
Tc temperature coefficient (assumed to be 80 percent). excessive charging or excessive discharging of the battery power.
hPV the PV module efficiency(assumed to be 15.5 percent). Further, a charge controller is modelled to support the solar PV
hInv the inverter efficiency(assumed to 85 percent). module voltage and the battery system voltage. The functions of the
hB battery efficiency (assumed to be 90 percent). charge controller include measuring the battery charging system
quality and the solar PV array functionality to supporting electrical
(b) The peak PV power (Pp(PV) array is evaluated using Eq. (3). load power consumption and promoting battery’s lifespan (Shukla
et al., 2016).
PpðpvÞ ¼ APV x IP x hPV; ðWÞ (3)

Where. 3.6. Sizing of the inverter system

APV the average PV array area (m2).
IP the peak solar irradiance as 1000 W/m2. The authors adopt (Ghafoor and Munir, 2015; Kamali, 2016) for
the selection of the DC-AC inverter system to satisfy the 20 percent
minimum requirements to support the end-users’ electrical loads.
3.4. Sizing of the battery system
3.7. Monthly solar PV production
The limited daily hours of sunshine and stochastic nature of
solar energy necessitate the design of the battery system for several The monthly off-grid PV capacity to generate power is evaluated
reasons such as supporting electricity generation sustainability and using the mathematical Eq. (5) (Ghafoor and Munir, 2015; Kamali,
energy storage (Crossland et al., 2015). Consequently, we consider 2016). The monthly solar irradiation from the experimental study
several parameters while designing the battery system such as the of Fadare (2009) is used to determine the PV system monthly
number of cloudy days or the number of autonomy days, the bat- production.
tery efficiency, the inverter efficiency, the depth of discharge (DOD)
and the size of the electrical load(s). The mathematical represen- MPV ¼ APV x hPV x Mirradiation ; ðkWhÞ=month (5)
tation of the battery storage capacity is shown in Eq. (4) (Yang and
Where.
Xia, 2017). Further, to evaluate the battery storage capacity, the
Mirradiation the monthly solar irradiation (kWh/m2/day).
battery with a DC bus voltage of 24 V has been used to minimize
system losses.
3.8. Economic analysis of the PV systems
EL x NCC
BSC ¼ ðWhÞ (4)
Dd x hinv x hB Life cycle cost analysis is the essential modelling tool for
studying the economic feature of the renewable energy systems
where. and it covers all the PV system life stages including the initial
BSC the battery storage capacity (Wh). capital cost or acquisition costs, the operation and maintenance
NCC number of cloudy day (taken to be 0.8). costs. The initial capital cost includes the PV panels’ costs, the costs
Dd depth of discharge (taken to be 85%) of the storage system, the charge controller, the inverter system,
EL, ɳinv, ɳBas already be defined above. and the installation expenses (Tripathy et al., 2017). Further, the
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O.C. Akinsipe, D. Moya and P. Kaparaju Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125055

costs incurred on annual periodic expenditures, frequent mainte-

 
nance and site supervision are catalogued under operation and 1þi N
maintenance costs. Regarding this study, the life cycle of the PV CBI ¼ CB ðUS$Þ (8)
1þd
system is 20 years while other components of the system such as
the storage system are subjected to periodical maintenance be- Where.
tween 5 and 10 years. Thus, evaluating the life cycle analysis is CB cost of battery, (US$).
performed based on the PV system life span of 20 years. The i inflation rate
inflation rate and discount rate are the essential aspects for deter- d discount rate.
mining the life cycle costs of the PV system. This paper assumes the N lifespan of the battery (taken to be, 5, 10 and 15 years
inflation rate and discount rate of 8.1 percent and 10 percent respectively).
respectively. Table 4 presents a summary of the economic param-
eters of the system. The paper adopts the mathematical values (4) The cost of an inverter system
presented by (Okoye and Oranekwu-Okoye, 2018) for evaluating
the PV array cost, the initial cost batteries, the inverter cost, the Based on (Okoye and Oranekwu-Okoye, 2018) and the unit price
charge controller cost and the installation cost. is taken to be $0.31/WP and this is shown in the mathematical Eq.
(9):
(1) The cost an of PV array
Cinv ¼ Cp x PpðpvÞ; US$ (9)
The PV module cost is taken to be USD 1.94/WP, and it is
mathematically calculated using Eq. 6 Where.
Cinv cost of inverter, (US$).
Cp unit price of inverter, (US$).
Pp(pv) as defined above.
1:94
Total CPV ¼ PpðpvÞX USD ; ðUS$Þ (6)
WP (5) The cost of charge controller
Where.
CPV cost of PV (US$). The cost of the charge controller is determined by multiplying
Pp(pv) PV peak power (W). the size of the charge controller by the unit cost as demonstrated in
Eq. (10). The current study adopts 120 A and $3.5/A as the size of the
(2) The initial cost of batteries charge controller and unit cost respectively.

The initial cost of the battery is evaluated using the Eq.(7) below Cch ¼ Scha x Cuni; ðUS$Þ (10)
while taking the unit price of battery to be $2.2/Ah.
Where.
Cch cost of charge controller, (US$).
Scha size of charge controller.
CiC ¼ BSC x Bup US$Þ (7) Cuni unit cost of charge controller, (US$).

where. (6) The installation’s cost

CIC initial cost of battery, (US$).
BUP unit price of the battery, (US$). The cost of installation is taken to be 10 percent of the initial cost
BSC has been defined above. of the PV modules and it is calculated using Eq. (11).

(3) Further, considering 5 years as the lifespan of the battery ICPV ¼ 10 % x ICPV ; ðUS$Þ (11)
system, this implies that the batteries are replaceable every 5
years. The present worth (PW) of the battery for 1st, 2nd and Where.
3rd is 5, 10, and 15 respectively, and it is evaluated based on ICPV initial cost of PV, (US$).
the work of (Ghafoor and Munir, 2015). The PW is calculated
based on Eq. (8). (7) Maintenance cost

Table 4
The cost analysis of off-grid PV systems.

Parameter Unit cost Value Economic cost ($)

PV module cost $1.94/WP 2566.8Wp 4979.60

Battery cost $2.2/Ah 24 V, 440 Ah 968.00
Present worth of battery, n ¼ 5 887.12
Present worth of battery, n ¼ 10 813.00
Present worth of battery, n ¼ 15 745.06
Inverter @ 10% of PV peak power $0.31/WP 2.5 kW 795.70
Charge controller $3.5/A 120 A 324.80
Installation cost 10% PV cost 498.00
Operation and maintenance cost 2% PV cost 100.00
Present worth of maintenance cost 1666.74
Levelised cost 10110.85
Annualized life cycle cost 593.73
Cost of electricity 0.18/KWh

7
O.C. Akinsipe, D. Moya and P. Kaparaju Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125055

The present study adopts 2 percent of the initial cost of PV as the The electrical energy unit cost (Uel) is the economic parameter
maintenance cost as described in Eq. (12). In addition, the PW of that determines the validity of the PV system (Kaabeche and
maintenance cost (Cm) is analyzed considering the parameters Ibtiouen, 2014). The cost of electrical energy is evaluated based
including, the depreciation rate of 10 percent, the inflation rate of on the ratio of the aggregate annualized cost of the system to the
8.1 percent and the PV system life span of 20 years. From Eq. (13) (El annual electrical energy generated (Sinha and Chandel, 2015), and
Shenawy et al., 2017; Ghafoor and Munir, 2015), the present worth it is calculated using Eq. (16) (El Shenawy et al., 2017). Table 4 is the
of Cm is evaluated by applying the following parameters: the life- summary of different costs of the off-grid PV system.
time of the PV system, the annual cost of maintenance, the inflation 
rate of 8.1 percent and the depreciation rate of 10 percent. ALCC
Ue1 ¼ ðUS$Þ kWh (16)
365lel
Cm ¼ 2% x CIpv ðUS$Þ (12)
where.
Where. ALCC annualized cost of energy.
Cm maintenance cost.
CiPV initial cost of PV 4. Results and discussion
0 1
  1þi N 4.1. Sizing results of an off-grid PV system
1þi B 1  1þd C
PWCm ¼ ðM = yrÞ B C; ðUS$Þ (13)
1þd @ 1  1þi A 1þd Jos, Nigeria, the location of our case study lies between 9.9ON
longitudes and 8.9OE and has appreciable amount of solar radiation
throughout the year. With a yearly average sunshine duration of
where. 6 h, the average daily irradiance is approximately 5.46 kWh/m2/
M maintenance cost, (US$). day. The design of an off-grid PV system adopts several parameters
i inflation rate, (%) while assuming that a temperature of 60
C might lead to around
d depreciation rate, (%) 14e20% as well as 80% total correction factor TCF (Kamali, 2016).
N lifespan. The authors assume that the PV efficiency, the inverter efficiency
Yr year. and the battery efficiency are 15.5 percent, 85 percent and 90
Cm as defined above. percent respectively. Satisfying the daily end-users load of
8.58 kWh requires 16.56 m2 PV array area and the module effi-
(8) The levelized cost (LCC) ciency of 16.6 percent to generate a peak power of 2566.8WP. The
summary of the end-users appliances is defined in Table 2.
The LCC of the PV system is the summation of the PV modules Based on a previous study by (Kamali, 2016), the MLE275HD2 PV
cost, the battery cost, the PW of the battery system, the inverter module with 120 monocrystalline cells are adopted for this current
cost, the charge controller cost and the installation cost. Eq. (14) work. Each module has 275WP, maximum voltage 32.1 V and the
(Ghafoor and Munir, 2015) is the expression of the LCC. maximum current of 8.58 A at a standard temperature condition
(STC) of 1000Wm-2 and 25
C with air mass of 1.5 connected.
LCC ¼ CPV þ CB þ CB1 þ CB2 þ CB3 þ Ci þ CC þ Cm Approximately 10 modules are designed using the series-parallel
þ Cinst; ðUS$Þ connection to generate the peak power of 2566.8WP. This is based
(14) on the assumption that the number of cloudy days (NCC), the
annual sunshine hour, the inverter efficiency, the battery efficiency
Where. and the optimal depth of discharge (DOD) are 0.8, 2373 h, 0.85, 0.9
CPV cost of PV, (US$). and 0.85 respectively. The technical parameters of each of the
CB cost of battery, (US$). MLE275HD2 PV module are defined in Table 3. In order to minimize
CB1, CB2& CB3 cost of battery for 5, 10 and 15 years, (US$). system losses, a DC Bus Voltage of 24 V is selected and the required
Ci cost of inverter, (US$). battery capacity is evaluated to be 440 Ah approximately. For a 24 V,
CC cost of charge controller, (US$). 100 Ah battery, approximately a minimum of five batteries are
Cm cost of maintenance, (US$). required for this off-grid application power back up system.
Cinst cost of installation, (US$). Further, a 24/120 A charge controller is selected to support the
short circuit of the PV array. Regarding the inverter system, a
(9) The annualized life cycle cost (ALCC) 2.5 kW inverter capacity, a value which is 20 percent higher than
the aggregate power of the end-users’ is selected for this work to
The annualized life cycle cost is calculated based on the pa- support the power of appliances in the house. Fig. 4 is a description
rameters including the levelized cost, discount rate (d), inflation of the off-grid PV system. Based on the experimental study of
rate (i) and the lifespan of the project. The ALCC is best evaluated Fadare (2009), the daily solar radiation of each month is critical to
using Eq. (15) (Ghafoor and Munir, 2015). evaluating the power generation potential of the PV system as
defined in Fig, 2. The monthly energy production of the off-grid PV
0 1
system is represented in Fig. 5. The months that demonstrate
1þi
B 1  1þd C appreciable solar irradiation have greater support for power gen-
ALCC ¼ LCC B C
@1  1þi N A; ðUS$Þ (15)
eration most especially the month of March that has the maximum
1þd
energy generation capacity approximately 509.60 kWh, follows by
April with 487.39 kWh while August shows the lowest energy
where. potential possibly due to the cloudiness of weather during the
LCC levelized cost, i,d,N are defined above. spring season. Annually, the solar PV system can generate
approximately 5478 kWh as well as support the residential build-
(10) The unit electricity cost ing electricity consumption of 3132 kWh approximately. The excess
8
O.C. Akinsipe, D. Moya and P. Kaparaju Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125055

Fig. 4. A layout of an off-grid PV system (Ghafoor and Munir, 2015).

Fig. 5. The monthly energy production of an off-grid PV (Ghafoor and Munir, 2015).

electricity could be exported to the power grid, subject to modi- and US$100.00. The present worth (PW) of maintenance cost is
fying the PV technical parameters, most especially by substituting a US$1666.74 and the PW of the battery for 5, 10 and 15 years are
grid inverter system with an off-grid inverter system. Overall, these calculated at US$887.12, US$813.00 and US$745.06 accordingly. The
results demonstrate the significance of implementing a small scale PW is mathematically computed based on the inflation rate of 8.1
off-grid PV system for power generation at the residential percent and a depreciation rate of 10 percent. Further, the LCC,
buildings. ALCC and COE are calculated as US$10,110.85, US$593.75 and
US$0.18/kWh respectively. Presently, the Jos-Disco utility company
is the sole distributor and marketer of electrical energy in the re-
4.2. The results of life cycle cost analysis gion. Depending on the type of residential building, the unit price of
electricity ranges from ₦ 26.93 (US$0.207) to ₦ 43.9 (US$0.337).
Evaluating the economic viability of the PV system is critical to Comparing our COE to the unit price of electricity in the region
the success of this work. Several economic parameters that are demonstrates the economic viability of this study. Further,
relevant to determining the feasibility are analyzed. Based on the comparing our findings with those of other research confirms the
mathematical modelling application, the costs of the PV modules, capability of the mathematical modelling tool to model the techno-
the battery system, the inverter system, the charge controller, the economic characteristics of the PV system for power application in
installation, and the operation and maintenance costs are evaluated the off-grid locations. Further, it is interesting to compare the
to be US$4979.60, US$968.00, US$796.00,US$324.80, US$497.96,
9
O.C. Akinsipe, D. Moya and P. Kaparaju Journal of Cleaner Production 287 (2021) 125055

results of our analysis with (Ghafoor and Munir, 2015) and (Kamali, energy compared to the fossil fuels generating plant. A further
2016) who found that the COE was PKR. 14.8 kWh1 and [TRY] 0.43/ study is suggested to examining the validity of environmental and
kWh respectively. It is encouraging that the COE of electrical energy policy aspects of the technology. The paper concludes that the unit
generated from the off-grid PV system is minimized in contrast to cost of electricity is valid and applicable to support the residential
the contemporary grid thereby presenting this model applicable for households’ electricity consumption. Further, an off-grid PV system
modelling and analyzing economic viability of the PV system for is both technically and economically viable to drive the electricity
off-grid power application in both developed and developing rural generation of the un-electrified residential buildings in the
communities around the globe. This finding is in line with the work Northern-Nigeria. Therefore, government at all levels and stake-
of Adaramola (2014) who applied the HOMER software to analyze holders should collaborate to drive the development and expansion
the viability of the grid-tied PV system and the COE was US$ 0.103/ of solar PV uptake in Nigeria via implementing renewable energy
kWh. Further, this study does not indicate an increase in electricity policies.
price in contrast to (COC et al., 2012) where the US$0.60 was the
COE. The validity of deploying the off-grid PV system for the resi- CRediT authorship contribution statement
dential households power generation application cannot be over-
emphasized as the current contemporary grid cannot support Olusola Charles Akinsipe: Conceptualization, Methodology,
energy access in the new regional communities of Jos metropolis. Validation, Writing - original draft. Diego Moya: Data curation,
Deploying an off-grid PV system will backstop carbon footprint Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing. Prasad
reduction as well as support regional growth in contrast to the Kaparaju: Supervision, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Visu-
present power network generation. Incentivizing the off-grid PV alization, Investigation, Writing - review & editing.
system could regulate the rural-urban migration as well as drive
poverty alleviation programs in Nigeria. Also, rural dwellers could Declaration of competing interest
be empowered to generate electrical energy to operate small-scale
businesses where it has become impossible to access electricity The authors declare that they have no known competing
from contemporary grids. Aside, functional electrical energy gen- financial interests or personal relationships that could have
eration in the case study area and rural areas are pertinent for appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
domestic consumption, including lighting, phone charging, pow-
ering low-energy consumption electrical loads, and this could be
Acknowledgements
attained by adopting the off-grid PV system. However, this will
require promoting economic programs such as the renewable en-
The authors are indebted to the reviewers for their comments
ergy subsidy program.
and contributions to the success of this paper. The authors have not
received any financial grant and support for this work.
5. Conclusion

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