B. Tech. Tes.602 Sixth Semester Theory Examination 2009-10 COMPUTER Time : 3 Hours Note : (Attempt all questions. Gi) You may make suitable assumptions where necessary. 1. Attempt any four of the following : Q_ 1. (a) Which OSI layer handles each of the following? (Framing Gi) Routing ‘Ans. (i) Framing : Framing is done by Data Link Laver. It is @ technique to break the bit stream into diserete frames and compute the checksum for the same. When a frame arrives at the destination, the checksum is recomputed. If the newly checksum is different from the one contained in the frame, the data link layér knows that an error has occurred end deals with it Gi) Routing : They have access to network, layer addresses and contain software that enables them to determine which of several passible paths between those addresses is the est for a particular transmission. Routers operate in the physical, data link and network layers of the OSI model. Routers relay packets among multiple interconnected networks, They route packets from one network to any of a mumber ¢f potential destination networks on an internet. Q, L. (b) What are the two reasons for using layered protocols ? ‘Ans. The following are the two main ‘reasons fer using layered protocols : 1. It helps to prevent changes in one layer from affecting other layers. This helps to ‘expedite technology development. 2 Work loads ean be evenly distributed ‘which means that multiple activites can be conducted in parallel thereby reducing the time taken to develop, debug, optimize and package now technologies ready for production implementation Q 1. (©) How much minimum bandwidth is required to digitally transmit a analog stream which is generated at 50 liz after Manchester encoding ? ‘Ans. We know that ‘A sampling rate of twice of the Frequency. So, sampling rate =2x 50000 100000 samples/seconds ‘A analog signal require twice the NETWORKS Total Marks : 190 bandwidth of the original signal. So, B.W. = 2x 50000 = 100000 BAW, = 100 KH So, 100'KHlz bandwidth is required to digitally transmit « anclog stream. Q. 1, (@) State with reasons if circuit switching is better suited for real time traffic. ‘Ans, Circuit switching is not an efficient tathod for routing any kind of data, whether itis digital voice or user data. The circuit is wasted ach of the time because no transmission is using the bandwidth of the circuit 100 pereent of the time, Any time there are idlo poriod on the cireuit, the cireuit ia being wasted. It would be much ‘more efficient to have a transmission facility capable of transmitting mony diferent conversations over the same eireuit at the same time. Circuit switching enables performance guarantees such as guaranteed maximum delay, which is essential for real time applications lke voice conversations. It is also much easier to do detailed accounting for eircuit-switehed network Q. 1. (e) What are the number of cable links required for n devices connected in mesh, ring, bus and star topology ? ‘Ans. Mesh : In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device, A fully connected mesh network has ae 2 physical channels to link n devices and to accomodate that many links, every device on the network must have n =I inputfoutput parts, : Ring : In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point line configuration only with the two devices on either side of. connect n devices in a ring topology, we noed m cable links. An eightdovice fing needs eight cable links. ‘Star: In a star topology, each device has @ dedicated point-to-point. link only to e central controller, usualy called « hubs 'o connect m devices in a star topology, we need (1 — I) cable links. “neo Bus : One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in the network. Nodes are‘connected to the bus cable by drop tines and taps. If we consider bus as devico, then (n -1) ‘cable links are required; otherwise n links are required. 2. Attempt any four parts of the following. Q. 2 (a) Write three major problems with” CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access). ‘Ans. The three major problems with CDMA. 1. As one of the major problems facing the dovelopment of telecommurications, bandwidth demand has driven the search for protocols that could be used to maximize bandwidth efficiency. Multiple accesses enable rultiple signals to ‘occupy a single communication channel. 2. The near-far problem is common in CDMA. It is a condition in which a strong signal captures a receiver making it impossible for the receiver to detect a weaker signal. It is very difficult in CDMA systems where transmitters share transmission frequencies. and transmission time. 3. Third problem is the antenna volume, An antenna is supposed to occupy a certain volume in order to oporate in a particular frequency. ‘That is, he phone needs a certain space inside its housing for an internal antenna. Usually the ‘space is limited, therefore smaller antennas are always desirable, Also, since an antenna requires » bigger volume for a lower frequency, the handset using a comparably low frequency range for a CDMA band requires more volume. ‘That is, designing internel antennas for the handeet using the lower frequency ranges ean be more challenging. @ 2. (b) 128 input callers are to be connected to 128 outputs. Using the 3-stage switching structure. If there are 16 first stage and third stage matrices then how many cross points are needed if the structure is to be non-blocking. ‘Ans. Let us compare she number of cross ‘4 128 by 128 single. Stage eroce bar ith the 128-by-128 multistage switch. In the single stage switch, we nzed 16384 crosspoint. (28. 128), In multistege switch o- three stage switch using we need. #16 Grst stage switch, each with 32 crosspoints (8x4), for'a total of 512 crosspoints at the firet stage. © 6 second-stage switches, each with 16 erosspoints (44), fora total of 96 ‘rosspoints at the first stage. ¢-16 third stage switches, each with 32 erosspoints (Bx 4), for & total of 512 crosspoints at last stage. ‘The total number of crosspoints required by our multistage switch is 1120. @. 2 (c) What are the problems encountered when IEEE 802.4 LAN as source is connected to IEEE 802.3 LAN as destination ? ‘Ans, IEEE 802.4 is ala0 referred to as taken Bus or Ethernet Bus. There were two main roblems with 802.3, first due to probabilistic \C protocol, with bad luck a station might hhave to wait for a long time to transmit and secondiy 802.3 frames do not have priorities ‘which made it unsuited for real-time systems. Ethemet (IEEE 202.) is not » sulable protocol for this purpose because the number collisions is not predictable and the delay in sending data from the control centre to the computers along the assembly line is not a fixed Q. 2 (d) What is the band rate of the standard 10 Mbps 802.3 LAN ? Explain your answer? ‘Ans. 10 Mbps Ethernet uses Manchester encoding where each sy¢nbol is represented by 2 bit sequence. Hence, the bits/symbol is 2. Since, Data rato =. bits/symbol onds = band rate =5 mega band. Q.2.(e) Explain the binary exponential back off algorithm ? ‘Ans. Binary exponential backoff algorithm fs used in 802.3. Medium Aesess Control (MAC) sublayer protocol. It is used to try lo minimize the probability of collision. When 2 or more devices detect that the network is idle and end up trying to send packets st the same time a collision happens. Ifthe station has a collision for Ast time it would wait for 0 oF 1 time dot before trying again, as per this algorithm. After the second collision bath will pick up either 0, 1,2 oF 3. When third time colision happens the number of slots to wait is chosen at random from 0 to 2-1 After 1 collision the random number will be between 2! -1. After 10 collisions have been ‘reached, the randomisation interval is frozen at 1023. After 16 collisions the controllers makes the station stop contesting and reports failure. 3. Attempt any two parts of the following: @. 3 (@) What are the network number,subnet number, and host number for address 135.104, 192.100, mask 255.255,128.0 ‘Ans. IP address 135.104.192.100 ‘Mask 256.255.1280 ‘Network number = 135104 Subnet number = 188.104.1280 Hest number = 16, 484 Because IP address is a class B address since 135 (base 10) =x 87 = 1000011} (base 2). ‘and the subnet number is 1 since the high-order bit ofthe octel 192 is 8 1, Here 192= 11000000 “base 2) =x co, ‘The host number is x4064 or 16, 434 (base 10), 3.) () Explain ARP. (addrese resolution protocol) an (reverse ARP) ? What is an ARP-cache ? ‘Ans. ARP : ARP is a protocol used by the Internet protocol, specifically IPv4, ta map IP rotwork addresses to the hardware addresses used by a data link protocol, The protocol ‘operates below the network layer as a part of the interface between the OSI network and OSI data Tink layer. For two machines on a given network to communicate, they must know the other ‘machine's physical addresses, By broadcasting ARPs, a host can dynamically discover the ‘MAC-iayer address corresponding toa perticular IP network-layer address. ‘The term address resolution refers to the process of finding an address of a compt ter in a network. The address is “resolved” using a protocol in which a piece of information is sent by a client process executing on the local computer to a server process executing on a remote computer. The information received by the server allows the server to uniquely idertify the network system for which the address was required and therefore to provide the required address. The address resolution procedure is completed when the client receives a response from the server containing the required address. P : It is the logical inverse of ARP, might be used by diskless workstations that donot know their addresses when they boot. RARP relies on tho presence of a RARP server with table entries of MAC-layer-to-IP address ‘mappings. 'RARP allows a physical machine in a LAN to request its IP address from a gateway servers ARP table or cache. A network admin strator creates a table in a LAN’s gateway router that ‘maps the physical machine (of MAC address) ‘addresses to corresponding IP address. When a ‘new machine is set up, its RARP client program requests from the RARP server on the router to be sent its IP address. Assuming that on entry hhas been set up in the router table, the RARP server will return the IP address to the machine, which can store it for future use. RARP is available for Ethernet, FDDI and taken ring LAN. ‘ARP Cache : To reduce the number of address resolution requests, a client normally caches resolved addresses for a short period of time. The ARP eache is of finite size, and would become full of incomplete and obsutete entries for computers that are notin use fit was allowed to ‘grow without check, The ARP cache is therefore periodically flushed of all entries. This deletes ‘unused entries and frees space in the cache. It also removes any unsuccessful attempts to contact computers, which are not currently running. Q. 3 (b) Gi) Is CIDR network prefix visible outside IP network ? Justify. ‘Ans. CIDR notation uses 2 syntax of specifying IP addresses for IPv4 and IP6, using the base address of the network followed by slash and the size of the routing prefix, eg, 192.168.0.0/16 (IP v4). ‘An IP address is part of a CIDR block and is said to match the CIDR prefix if the initial N bi? of the address and the CIDR prefix are the sanra ‘Thus, understanding CIDR requires that {P address be visualized in binary. Since the length of an IPv4 address has 32 bits, an N-bit CIDR prefix leaves 32-N bits unmatched, mesning that 282-N Tpv4 addresses match a given N-bit CIDR prefix. Shorter CIDR prefixes match more ‘addresses, while longer CIDR prefixes match fewer, An address can match multiple CIDR. prefixes of different lengths CIDR is also used with IPv6 addresses and the syntax semantic is identical. A profix length can range from Oto 128, due tothe lerger number ‘of bits in the address, however, by convention a subnet on broadcast MAC layer networks always thas 64-bit host identifiers. Larger prefixes are rarely used even on print-to-print li Q. 3. (c) (D) What are the limitations of Jeaky bucket algorithm ? How are they resolved ? ‘Ans. Limitations of leaky bucket algorithms : The behaviour of a switch in a Frame Relay network can be simulated by a leaky bucket. Ifa bucket has a emall hole at thebottom, the water leaks from the bucket at a constant rate as long as there is water in the ‘bucket. The rate at which the water leaks does not depend on the rate at which the water is inpat to the bucket. The input rate ean vary, but the output rate remains constant (see Fig.) Input: Variable rate + ‘Leaky bucket @ Output: Fixed cate e It is obvious that if more water enters the bucket than is lesked, the time will come when the bucket overflows, The same situation occurs in a packet-switched network such as Frame Relay that does not use flow ecntrol, Each switch can send data out at a certain rate. If data are For example, imagine received faster than transmitted, the switch can bbe congested and discard some frames. How can the leaky bucket contral bursty input 7 Imagine water is leaking at the rate of 2 gallons per minute. If we have an input burst ‘with a rate of 10 gallons per minute for a duration of 12 seconds and then nothing during the next 48 seconds, what should be the capacity ‘of the bucket to avoid overflow? We can find the ‘capacity using the following caleulato “Total water during the burst duration 10% (12/60) = 2,ellons. Ifthe capacity ofthe bucket is two gallons, it ‘can hold the water for the duration ofthe burst and let it leak continuously for a period of one minute. Note that the, capacity can be slightly Jose than two gallons because some of the water is leaking out during the burst interval. It is eustomary to use the woper limit. We can apply the idea to each output interface of each switch in Frame Relay. Tho ‘utput isa fixed rate (844 Mbps for example), while the input can be bursty. The switch ean use ‘2 queue (buffer) to serve as the buckot. Tho bursty data can be stored in the queue and then sent at the fixed rate. witch with only one input and one output interface. Ifthe data rate at the output interface is 2.544 Mbps and the input data are bursty with a rate of 40 Mbps for the duration of 100 milliseconds (and nothing else until the next second), what should be the size of the queue? +40 Mbps x (100/1000) = 4 megabits ‘Tho output intorface should have a queue (bufler) of 4 million bits or halfantllion bytes. Figure shows the dean vse Pale om > vt->oc Gee Swick Buthow can we controt the output data rate to be always loss than a fixed rate (for example, 1.544 Mbps) in a packet-switched network where the size of each packet ean be different ? We can ‘use a counter and clock. At the tick of the clock (he boginning of the second, for example), the Sounder istic arvurt of data that enn be output in one tick (usually in bytes). The tlgorthm then checks the sizeof the frame atthe front of the queue. Ifthe size is less than or equal to the value of the counter, the packet is sent; if the size is greater than the value of the counter, the packet is left in the queue and waits for the ext tick of the clock. So example are clear that we can resoled ‘note on traffic ‘Ans. Traffic shaping in «mechanism to ‘control the amount and the rate ofthe traffic sent to the network to improve Qos. It is a method ‘used for congestion control. (Congestion control isa method to manage network and internetwork traffic to improve through put) Ithelps the packets to be transmitted at a more predictable rate, This approach to congestion management is widely used in ATM networks and is referred to as traifie shaping. ‘Two algorithms used for this are 1. The leaky bucket algoritht 2. The token bucket algorith 4, Attempt any two paris of the following: Q. 4. @) Explain TCP congestion control algorithm in Internet ? ‘Ans. Nagle’s Algorithm : To solve the problem of congestion of WAN, the Nagle Algorithm io used, The Nagle lgorifhm ays that ‘when TCP connection has outstanding data that hhas not yet beon acknowledged, small segment cannot be sent until the outstarding data is acknowledged. Instead small ameunts of data arecollected by TCP and sent in as ngle segment when the acknowledgement arrives. The Nagle algorithm is self clocking, The fascer the ACKs come back, the faster the data is sont. But on a slow WAN, where it is desired is reduce the ‘umber of tiny grams, fewer segments are sent. Nagle’s algorithm is widely used by ‘TCP implementations, The example is X window gystem server. Mouse movements must be delivered without delay to provide real time Feedback for control called a sliding window protocol working is same as sliding window protocol in data link layer. ‘The problem occurs when data is passed to the sending entity in large blocks, but an interactive application on receiving side reads data 1 byte at a time. Initially buffer on receiving. side is full and sender knows this (ée., has a window of size ©. Then the interactive application reads one character from TCP stream. This is good for TCP, so it sonds a indo update tote ender hat i aight to senda sender obligies and sends Lbyte. ‘he Balle: is now ‘Fra so. receives acknowledgement of I-byte sogment but sets a ‘eindow too. This behaviour can go on forever. Q.4.(b) Explain TCP segment header ? Also discuss the TCP connection management? Ans. The TCP Segment: The scope of the services provided by TCP requires that the segment hheader be extensive (see Fig.). A comparison of the TCP between the two protocols datagram shows the di t format with that of a UDP user P pravides a comprehensive range of reliability functions but anerifices speed (connoctions rust be established, acknowledgenionts waited for, etc.). Because ofits smaller frame size, UDP is much faster than TCP, but at the expense of reliability. The description of each field is in order. ‘vent pater Opens & padi Fig. TCP segment format. * Source port address. The source port address defines the application program in the soures computer. Destination port address. The destination port address defines the application program in the destination computer, © Sequence number. A stream of data from the application from the applieation program may be devided into two or more ‘TCP segments. The sequence nuraber eld ow the position of data in the original data stream. + Acknowledgement number, * Header Length (HLEN) Reserved. Control. Window size Cheek sum Urgent PointerMausgement ‘Transport layer connection-oriented protocols are responsible for the series of communications required to establish a connection, riaintain it as data is Sent over it and then terminate the connection when itis no longer required, ‘Three-way handshake : Step 1: Client end system sends TCP SYN controt segment t0 server. ‘«_ Specifies initial seq #, Step 2 : Server ond eystem receives SYN, replies with SYNACK control segment, ‘© ACKS received SYN. * Allocates buffers. ‘© Spocilies server ~> receiver initial seq. #. '@.4.(e) Discuss various QoS (quality of services) primitives looked at transport layer. ‘Aus. The quality of service @oS) defines 1 set of attributes related to the performance of the connection. For each connectior, the user ean request.a particular attribute. Bach service class is associated with a set ofthe attrizutes, We can categorize the attributes into those related to the user and those related to the network. Figure shows the two categories and some important attributes in each category. es aisle. or) or) (5) ce] Gas om] ea FL (co [Ew] Figure User Related Attributes : User related attributes are those attributes that define how fast the user wants to send daca. These are negotiated at the time of contract between a user ‘and a network, The following are some uuser-related attributes : ‘© SCR. The sustained cell rate (SCR) is the average cell rate over a long time interval. The actual cell rate may be lower or higher than this value, but the average ‘should be equal to or loss than the SCR. PCR. The peak cell rate (PCR) defines the sender's maximum cell rate. The user's cell rate can sometimes reach this peak, as long as the SCR is maintained. CVDT. ‘The cell variation delay tolerance (CVDT) is a measure of the variation in cell transmission times. For example, if the CVDT is 5 ns, this means that the difference between the minimum ‘and the maximum delays in delivering the cells should not exceed 5 ns. Various Quality of Services Primitives looked at Transport Layer : Quality of service (QoS) is an internetworking issue that has been ivcussed more then defined. We can informally define quality of service as something a flow seeks to attain. Flow Characteristics : Traditionally, four type of characteristics are attributed to a flow, reliability, delay, jitter, and bandwidth, as shown in figure, ‘Reliability : Reliability is that a flow needs. Lack of reliability means Vosing a packet or acknowledgement, which ‘ontails retransmission. However, the sensitivity of application programs to reliability is not the characteristic same. For example it is more important that electronic mail, the transfer, and Internet access have reliable transmissions than telephony or audio conferencing. Delay : Source-todestination delay is another flow characteristic. Again applications ‘an tolerate delay in different. degrees. In this ‘ease, telephony, audio conferencing, video ‘conferencing, and remote log-in need minimum delay, while delay in file transfer or e-mail is less important, ‘Sitter : Jitter is the vatiation in delay for packets belonging to the same flow. For example, if four packets depart at times 0, 1, 2, 3 and arrive at 20, 21, 22, 23, all have the same delay, 20 units of time. On the other hand, ifthe above four packets arrive at 21,28, 21 and 28, chey will have different delays : 21, 22, 19 and 24 For applications such as audio and video, the first case is completely acceptable; the second caso is not. For these applications, it does not matter if the packets arrive with a short or long delay oa long as the delay is the same for all packets. For this application, the secand cage is ‘ot acceptable. ‘Jitter is defined as the variation in the packet delay high jitter means the difference between delays is large; low jitter means thevariation is small, Bandwidth : Different applications need different bandwidths in video conferencing we ‘ged to sex“ millions of bits per second to refresh ‘color sereen while the total number of bts in an ‘e-mail may not reach even @ million, 5 Attempt any tito parts of the following: . 5, (a) (i) When web peges are sent out, they are prefixed by MIME headers. Why ? ‘Ans. A mail message was defined asa block of plain text, preceded by specially defined headers specifying routing or other information about the message (e.g.. where the message was from, who it was to, whom copies were sent 10, ete,). This specification ssid litte about the format of message content, At the time, e-mail messages were plain text files 90 that concerns about the format of content were unwarranted. ‘Today there is enormous demand for e-mail that can deliver — messages containing components such as HTML text documents, image files, sound and even video data in addition to regular text. However, sach messages can be widely communicated only if all rmailshandling programs share a standard for constructing, encoding and transporting such complex, multipurpose, messages, ‘The MIME protocol provides this common standard, MIME provides an extensive format for including multimedia components within a mail message. MIME defines several document headers, placed inside the document, that specify such things as the nature of a message, how the ‘message parts are separated, the deta content of each part and the encoding scheme used to ‘encode each part. @ 5. (a) Gi) Explain the difference between http and hetps protocois ? ‘Ans. HTTP is hypertext transfor protocol which is responsible for transraitting and receiving information across the internet whereas HTTPS is secure http, which is used exchanging confidentia} information with a server, which needs to be secured in order to Prevent unauthorized access HTTP is tronsmitted over tho wire via PORT 80 (TCP). You normally use http when you fre browsing the web, its not secure and so omeone can eavesdrop on the conversation between your computer and the web server. HTTP can support the client asking for perticular file to be sent only if it has been updated after a certain date and time. This ‘would be usod if the client has already retrieved ‘copy ofa file by that name from that server, but ‘wants to chock to see if it has been updated since then, The server responds either with the updated file, with a message to say the file has not been changed or with a message that the file no longer exists. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol over secure socket layer or HTTP over SSL) is a web protocol developed by netape and built into its ‘browser that encrypts and deerypts user page requests a8 well as the pages that are returned by the web server. HTTPS is really just the use of Neticape's SSL es a sublayer under its regular HITP application layering. HTTPS uses port 449. SSL uses a 40-bit key size for the RCH stream encryption algorithm, new-age browsers use 128-bit key size which is more secure than the former, itis considered an adequate degreo of eneryption for commercial exchange HTTPs is normally used in login pages, shopping ete. Q.5. (b) What is the difference between active and dycamic web page ? Explain the structure of interface between access of a database over webpages ? ‘Ans. Difference between static Dynamic webpages 1, Static ‘webpages contain the same prebuilt content each time the page is loaded, while the content of dynamic webpages can be generated oh the fly. 2, Static webpages include HTML but dynamic webpages include jave, JSP. 3. Dynamic pages contain “server-side” code, which allows the server to generate unique content each time the page is loaded. For example : the server may displey the current time and date on the webpage. 4. We can easily identify static and Dynamic ‘webpages through their file extensions in the ul ‘Static webpages contains extension = “.htm or‘html", Dynamic webpages contains extension = oe ei “isp. aly bro f ications are usually broxen into logics! chunk calet “ters “were every Het is assigned a role. Traditional applications consist only of 1 tier, which resides ‘on the client machine, but web applications tend themselves to a n-tiered approsch by nature. Though many Variations are possible, the most common andstructure is the Stier pplication, In its most ‘common. form, the three tiers are called presentation, application and storage, in this order. A web browser is the first ticr, an engine Using some dynamic web eontent tschnology 15 the mildle tier making queries snd updates against the database and generites & user interface, For more complex applications, tier solation may fall short and you may’ need a Iutieved approach, where the greatrst benefit is breaking the business logie which rvsides on the application ticr or adding an intograsion tier hat separates the data Uier from the rest of ters by providing an oasy-to-use interface “0 azcess the Sata. For example, you would access the client date by calling a “ist clients 0 fun ton instead ‘vfmaking a SQL query directly agai ist the cient table on the database. That allows as to replace Ue uncerlying database without «hanging the other Hors. 3.(e) Write short notes 0: : jy DNS. (i) SNMP_ (ii) XML Ans.) DNS: To identify an eutity, TCPAP protorol use the IP address, which ‘uniquely dentilies the connection of a host to she Internet, However, people refer to uso names instead of addressts. Therefore, we necd system that can map a name to an address and conversely an address tna name, in TOPAP, this is the Domain Name Sysccm (DNS). DNS is'a prot col that ean ‘ve used! in different platforms, In the Internet, the domain name space (tree) is divided into three different sections : generic domains, country domains and inverse domain, San 4) SNMP: “The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) isa. framework for managing devices in a Internet using the TCPAP projocol suite. It provides a set of fundamental operations for monitoring and maintaining an Internet. SNMP. isan applieation-level protocol in which a: few manager stations control a sct of agent. SNMP frees management tasks from both the physieal ‘characteristics of the managed devices and the Underlying networking technology. It can be used in a heterogenous internet mode of different LANs and WANs cunnected by routers or gateways made by different ‘manufacturers, See SNMP defines five message : Get Request, Get Noxt Request, Set Request, Get Response and ‘Trap. me ii) XML, : XML is @ emss-platiorm, softwar and hardware independent. took for ‘transmitting information”. isa WSC Fecommendations. “It. stands. for Extensible Markup Language (XML). It isa markup Tangueie much like HTML used te dascribe data. TXOML stands for extensivle markup languare. ethene es fo tone — oes sina et Rese Se eamet 2. XML is markup I ‘much like language 3. XML was designed to describe date, 4. XML tage are not predefined. You must define your own tags. 5. XML uses document type definition or XML schema to describe the data. tp See