AXDM 211

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
STUDY GUIDE
Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences

North-West University

No part of this document may be reproduced in any form or in any way without the written permission of the publisher
Module information
Module code AXDM 211

Fundamental Concepts of Agricultural Extension

Module name

16 credits
Module credits

NQF level 08

Prerequisites NONE

Additional resources to Access to internet all the time, or access from time to time.
complete module

Lecturer and contact information.

Name of lecturer(s) Dr Sinah Modirwa

Office telephone 018 389 2745

Email address [email protected]

Building and Office nr Block F1E, Office G12

Consulting hours Wednesdays from 8H00-13H00 and 14H00-16H30.

Teaching assistants NONE

Purpose of the module

To introduce students to the basic concepts and underlying principles of extension, rural
development and equipping them with detailed knowledge of the applicable philosophy, ethics,
approaches, systems, methodologies, and used in planning Extension programmes.

Teaching and learning in this module.

Contact sessions, active learning techniques such as presentations, group discussions will be
used. Online teaching such as e-fundi will also be used. Class attendance is compulsory, and
students must take notes during lessons presentation. Students are urged to collaborate with
other students.

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Module plan:
The essential topics in this module are:
Unit 1: Basic concepts of Agricultural Extension
Unit 2: The principles of Agricultural Extension
Unit 3: Social and cultural and psychological concepts in Agricultural Extension
Unit 4: Communication Process in agricultural extension
Unit 5: Programme Planning and Evaluation in Extension

Assessment

This will be in the form of tests, assignment(s) and an examination. The assignment(s) will be
allocated during the theoretical session, and it will have a final date to be handed in. The
marked assignments will be handed back, and the lecturer will discuss problems that students
may have had regarding the assignment. The students will summatively be assessed on the
course during the scheduled examination. For a student to be eligible final examination he/she
should have attained a semester mark of at least 40% on formative assignments.

The results of the examination will contribute at least 50% to the final mark (semester mark plus
examination = final mark). The semester mark consists of tests, group presentation/discussion,
assignment, and quiz. The examination question paper will contain recall, applications, analysis,
synthesis and valuation of learning content as the most important aspects in ascertaining a
student’s knowledge, understanding and insight of the learning content of the module. A sub-
minimum final mark of between 45 and 49% will qualify the candidate for a re-examination. To
effect a pass in the re-examination, a minimum of 50% is required.

Assessment structure

Activity Allocated points

Test 1 40%

Test 2 40%

Group Assignments & 20%

presentations

Examination participation mark Student needs at least 40% to write final exam

Final Examination Student need at least 50% order to pass final

exam

Other Study reference materials

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Singh B, Shuphadeep R & Gautama N.S. 2017. Agriculture Extension & Sustainable Rural Development
Swanson B & Rajalahti R. 2010. Strengthening Agricultural Extension & advisory Systems: Procedures
for transforming and Evaluating Extension Systems.
Khalid S.M.N & Sherzad S. 2019. Agricultural Extension manual for Extension workers.

Action verbs

Clarification of key words within extension profession

 Extension: One definition of agricultural extension widely used in the FAO publications sees
extension as a service or system which assists farm people, through educational procedures, in
improving farming methods and techniques, increasing production efficiency and income,
bettering their levels of living and lifting the social and educational standards of rural life.
 Rural development: There are different understandings attached to the concept of rural
development. According to rural development is more than agricultural development. Rural
development is about enabling rural people to take control of their destiny, dealing effectively with
rural poverty through the optimal use and management of natural resources. It is a participatory
process through which rural people learn over time, through their own experiences and initiatives,
how to adapt their indigenous knowledge to their changing world.

• Innovation: the process of introducing an idea or invention to people that will value for
consumers to sustain their lives. e.g., machinery, inputs

• Society: a group of people residing in a common area sharing same culture.

• Culture: Common way of life shared by a society /group

• Perception: the way we view things and act. Perception includes the five senses: touch, sight,
taste and smell.

 Attitude: a tendency to respond positively or negatively towards a certain idea, object, person,
or situation.

 Motivation: internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in people to be
continually interested.

 Adoption: in terms of agricultural extension, it is the process by which farmers are exposed to,
considers and finally accepts a particular farming innovation/technology for use in their farms e.g.
application of a fertilizer.

 Diffusion: in terms of agricultural extension is a process whereby an innovation spread out

among farmers until many farmers have adopted and are able to use it

 Communication: in agricultural extension communication involves extension officers,

researchers and farmers sharing agricultural ideas, and information to reach a common
understanding about the farmer’s problems.
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  Extension teaching method: extension methods that are devices or tools used by extension
officers to disseminate, teach and inform farmers about agricultural developments.

 Participation: to be involved with in doing something (involving farmers in an activity or that will
improve their productivity and overall wellbeing

 Project: a temporary entity established to deliver specific results within a specified time.

 Programme: a program is a collection of multiple projects that are managed and coordinated as
one unit with the objective of achieving specific outcomes.

Warning against plagiarism

Assignments are individual tasks and not group activities (Unless explicitly indicated as group
activities).

Copying of text from other learners of from other sources (e.g., study guide, prescribed material or
directly from the internet) is not allowed-only brief quotations are allowed and then only if indicated as
such. You should formulate existing text and use your own words to explain what you have read. It is not
acceptable to re-type existing text and just acknowledge the source in a foot note – you should be able
to relate the idea or concept, without repeating the original author to the letter. The aim of the
assignment is not the reproduction of existing material, but to ascertain whether you can integrate
existing texts, add your own relevant interpretation and/or critique of the texts and offer a creative
solution to existing problems.

Be warned: Students who submit copied text will obtain a ZERO mark for the assignment and
disciplinary steps may be taken by the Faculty or University. It is also unacceptable to do
somebody else’s work, to lend your work to any student or to make them copy your own work –
be careful and not make your work available to anyone!

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 STUDY UNIT 1:

BASIC CONCEPTS OF AGRUCULTURAL EXTENSION

Objective

To enable students to enhance the quality and effectiveness of extension services in their different
technical fields. Depending on the learners’ area of technical expertise.

Outcomes

After completion of unit 1, students should:

 Be able to describe the concept “agricultural extension.”

 Be able to describe the origin of agricultural extension and its terminologies in different countries.
 Define the concept of rural development.
 Understand the functions of agricultural extension.

CONTENTS

Introduction

We are living in a period of rapid scientific and technological development, however, many farmers
especially in rural communities still make use of traditional farming practices. To make the rural
communities dynamic, an extension service is needed. Agricultural extension is also needed to help the
farmers obtain information on sources of input and credit facilities that would enhance their level of
production. Extension, therefore, is of critical importance. Without agricultural extension, farmers would
lack access to the support and services required to improve their agriculture and other productive
activities.

The word "extension “is derived from Latin language, "Ex" meaning out and "tensio" meaning
stretching. So, extension means to extend, to spread or to disseminate.

What is agricultural extension?

There are many different definitions of agricultural Extension of which some are outlined below:

Agricultural Extension is an on-going process of getting useful information to farmers or rural

communities and assisting them to acquire the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes to effectively
utilise information acquired to improve their productivity and rural development in general.

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It is an informal educational process through which new knowledge and ideas are introduced into rural
communities to bring about change and improve the lives of farmers / farming communities.

Extension is a science of developing people’s capability for sustainable development in their quality of
life.

Agricultural extension is broadly defined as the process of developing agricultural knowledge and skills
amongst farmers, aimed at increasing their productivity and realising other desirable changes.

Therefore, extension is of great importance because without agricultural extension farmers would lack
access to support and services required to improve their agriculture and other productive activities.

From the said definitions of extension, the aim of extension is to bring desirable changes in the
behaviour, knowledge, skills, attitude, understanding, goals, and confidence through mutual learning.

Since extension is involved with helping people / farmers achieve their goals, there following are certain
attributes that extension agent must possess for effective service delivery, such qualities are as follows:

The first and most important aspect is that an extension agent must have experience of working with
people. Must be honest, sincere, and hardworking. Must have patience. Must have a thorough
knowledge of the work or subject matter. Be able to adjust to rural circumstances. Agricultural
background is also a must have. Be able to influence farmers in a positive way. Be able to listen and
respect. Search for new ideas and techniques

Origins of agricultural extension

The birth of the modern extension service has been attributed to events that took place in Ireland in the
middle of the 19th century. Between 1845–51 the Irish potato crop was destroyed by fungal diseases
and caused severe hunger to people. The Government arranged for "practical instructors" to travel to
rural areas and teach farmers how to cultivate alternative crops or crop varieties. This system attracted
officials in other countries, and they as well organised their own system of traveling instructors. As this
extension service spread and adopted by countries, its name changed.

Extension terminology in different countries

Country Term English Translation

France Vulgarisation Simplify the message for the common man
Spain Capacitation To improve people’s skills
Germany Aufklärung Erziehung Enlightenment Education
Netherlands Voorlichting To light the pathway

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 South Africa Voorligting Extension To light the pathway =A variety of meaning
Indonesia Penyuluhan Lighting the way
United States Extension education A form of adult education

So, the different international interpretations of the term “extension” imply that extension is mainly seen
as a function that exchange knowledge between farmers, researchers and extension agents. The
outcome of extension in today’s meaning would be described as “capacity building in individuals and
communities” so that people are more able to deal with issues affecting them and opportunities open to
them. In other word what is clear from above mentioned is that there is no single definition for agricultural
extension which is universally accepted to all situations.

Rural development

Meaning of rural development

There are different understandings attached to the concept of rural development. However, rural
development is more than agricultural development, it is about enabling people living in rural areas to
take control of their destiny, thereby dealing effectively with rural poverty through the optimum use and
management of natural resources. It is a participatory process through which rural people learn over
time, through their own experiences how to adapt their indigenous knowledge to their changing world.

The place of Extension in Rural Development

The processes of transformation in South Africa puts extension in a spotlight for service delivery. A new
policy on rural development and land reform called Comprehensive Rural Development Programme
(CRDP) has been pronounced. The CRDP has three major components:

The first is Agricultural Transformation which consists of the following: Land, Livestock, Cropping and
Commodity. Extension has a big role to play within this component.

The second component is Land Reform, which has the following sub programmes: Land tenure,
Redistribution, Restitution and Strategic Land.

The third component of CRDP is rural development whose focus includes: Economic infrastructure,
Social Infrastructure, Public facilities, and ICT Infrastructure. Extension will have little direct contribution
but can have an indirect influence for example in economic infrastructure such as markets can serve as
a link between the other two components of CRDP when farmers sell their products.

The functions of agricultural extension in development

It is important that farmers should know the specific functions of agricultural extension which are as
follows:

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  To encourage farmers, adopt new technologies introduced to them. For example, most farmers’
always find it difficult to take risk; hence they prefer to continue with their traditional methods.
Extension with knowledge of psychology tries to convince the farmers to accept the innovations
being introduced to them.
 Extension takes farmers ‘problems to research for technology development then farmers reaction
to the usage of new technologies to the researchers. The feedback system enables the
researchers introduce technologies that are economically viable, technically feasible and
culturally compatible.
 Provide farmer with farm management advisory services so that they can efficiently and
effectively combine all factors of production for good result. The aim is to enable farmers improve
their present level of production by doing the right thing at the right time.
 helps farmers to organize support services such as how to obtain credit facilities, best strategies
for marketing their products, how to form cooperative societies etc. Thus, Extension is not
involved in provision of credit and input facilities to farmers.
 Extension gives advice on the wise use and conservation of national resources. This is because
extension has the responsibility of environmental sustainability, and it is important to educate the
farmers in this area so that the environment is adequately protected.
 Extension helps with youth development by organizing various youth programmes and formation
of youth clubs such as young farmers club and other activities that could help both physical and
psychological development of the young ones. With the various youth programmes, it could be
possible to reduce rural-urban migration, most especially when the young ones are exposed to
sustainable livelihood activities that they could embark upon.
 Because extension education trains the youths and adults on leadership development.
Leadership development is essential in agricultural extension because it involves local
participation and as such local leaders are needed.

References 

National conference on revisiting agricultural extension strategies for enhancing food and nutrition
security, sustainable livelihoods and resilience to climate change towards transforming agriculture. 2019.
Agricultural extension and sustainable development goals. New Delhi: APH Publishing corporation.

National seminar on alternative extension approaches in technology transfer. 2008. Agricultural

extension systems: Issues and approaches. New Delhi. Concept Pub. Co.

Michael, M.C. et al. 1983. Agricultural Extension by training and visit: The Asian Experience.
Washington, D.C., U.S.A.: World Bank, ©1983.

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Swanson, B., & Sofranko, E. 2005. Improving agricultural extension: A reference manual. Rome: Food &
Agriculture Organisation of the United States.

Dileep KumarKhajan Singh. 2012. Agricultural Extension: Innovations and Dimensions. Delhi : Satish
Serial Publishing House.

Paul E McNamara. 2017. Building Agricultural Extension capacity in post conflict settings. Wallingford,
Oxfordshire; Boston, MA: CABI.

E-Books:
Paul E McNamara. 2017. Building Agricultural Extension in post conflict settings.
Suresh, C.B. 2019. Agricultural Extension Reforms in S. Asia.
Dixon. O.T. 2019. Global Agricultural Practices: Country by country Approaches

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 STUDY UNIT 2:

THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

Objective

To enable learners to enhance the quality and effectiveness of extension services in the range of
technical fields applying extension principles.

Outcome

After completion of this Unit, the learner should have a basic understanding of how different Principles of
agricultural extension are applied for effective service delivery

What are principles?

Principles are the rules that guides extension agent to effectively / successfully do extension work. The
following are the principles of agricultural extension:

Principle of Interest and Needs:

Farmers should voluntarily participate in extension projects.  Project that extension agent implement in a
specific community must be based on the needs and interests farmers/communities.  Farmers have
different needs and interest. It is the role of extension agent to understand these needs, extension
cannot just implement one development project for all. Many times, the interests of farmers are not the
interest of the extension worker. 

Principle of Cultural Difference:

Extension projects must consider farmers’ culture. Development can only begin when extension agent
knows farmers level of knowledge, skills they possess and tools they use to farm before starting the
extension project.

Principle of Participation:

 The participation of farmers in extension project is of fundamental importance.  People must have a say
in the development of a project and must feel that it is their own programme.  Good extension work helps
farmers identify their problems and then help them to solve these problems, people will not feel attached
to the work if they are given ready-made solution.  Extension helps farmers to help themselves.  Actual

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participation and experience of farmers in these programmes creates self-confidence and also they learn
more by doing.

Principle of Leadership:

Extension agent should utilise local leaders as they can easily influence or encourage farmers to
participate in extension projects, therefore, these local leaders need to be trained to best assist
extension agent in successfully implementing projects. Farmers have more faith in local leaders because
they are familiar with them therefore new idea will be accepted without resistance.

Principle of Co-operation:        

Extension programmes are for the people by the people. The idea behind the extension work is when
farmers work together for social upliftment. Any extension project should belong to the community

Principle of learning by doing

In extension work, farmers should be encouraged to learn new things by doing and also believe in
innovations or new ideas, until they see the results with their own eyes, they cannot adopt any
innovation, so extension agent have to develop their faith.
The motive for improvement must come from the people, and they must practice the new ideas by
actually doing themselves.  It is learning by doing, which is most effective in changing farmer’s behavior
and developing the confidence to use the new methods in future.

References

Kromah, A, T. 2016. Basic Extension Principles.

https://meas.illinois.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Kromah-Abibatu-2016-Basic-Principles-in-
Agricultural-Extension.pdf

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 STUDY UNIT 3

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

Outcomes

By the end of this Unit, the students should:

 Demonstrate understanding of the underlying dynamics that give rise to perceptions of diversity.
 Apply knowledge of Psycho-social factors that have relevance for intergroup relationships.
 Propose a course of action to bring about change in a community. 

Content

The role of an agricultural extension worker in any country involves disseminating information on
agricultural technologies and improved practices to farm families and ensuring farmers’ capacity building
using a variety of communication methods and training programmes. For extension service to be
successful, the extension agent needs to understand and be sensitive to social and cultural factors
existing in the area. However, by carefully selecting what he encourages farmers to do, and how to
convey the message, the effects of social and cultural barriers to extension service delivery can be
reduced. Therefore, extension programmes aiming at introducing new methods of farming should take
into account the possible effect on the whole society and its culture, and not merely the technical results
of the methods recommended.

Social and cultural barriers to extension service delivery

Although cultures and social structures are always changing, the process is often slow. In the short term,
there will be features of society and culture that may act as barriers to agricultural development. It is
important that the extension agent be aware of the existence of such barriers and to take them into
account in his service delivery. Such barriers are as follows:

Respect for tradition: Many rural societies look upon new methods with indifference and sometimes
with suspicion. Respect for elders often results in the attitude that the old ways are best. Farmers not
only fear the unknown and untried but they also fear criticism for doing something different from other
farmers. In such situations, the motives of extension agents and others seeking to promote change can
often be misunderstood.

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Community members may think that the extension agent is introducing changes to benefit himself. Such
attitudes explain the behaviour of farmers who seem to agree that a new method is good but are not
prepared to put it into practice.

Belief in one’s own culture: Members of all societies believe that their way of life is best. “These new
methods of farming may be all right for some people but they are no good for us.” This attitude results in
reluctance to try something new. “How can it be better than our way?” and “We know what is best for us”
are reactions that extension agents may meet in opposition to suggestions for change.

Pride and dignity: Farmers may be too proud to practice ways of farming that could result in other
farmers looking down on them. For example, they might be too proud to carry cattle manure to the fields.
Many young people leaving school look down on farming, even though some successful farmers earn
more than most government employees and schoolteachers.

Relative values: Extension agents often emphasize the improved yield or cash return that can be
gained by adopting new farm practices. However, farmers may value taste, appearance or some other
factor more than the level of output. They may also value their leisure time so highly that they are not
prepared to work longer hours on their farms. Certain improved varieties of maize have been rejected by
small-scale farmers in other areas because of their poor flavour, even though they have shown a much
better yield than local maize. Farmers and their families have to eat what they produce as well as sell
some of it, so taste and cooking quality are very important.

Psychological barriers to change.

Attitude toward government personnel - People sometimes regard government personnel as tax
collectors or law enforcers. Extension workers should not be involved in the collection of money, taxes or
repayment of loans, or in prosecuting people who break the law. The extension worker's job is to teach
the people better farming technologies to improve their quality of life.

Attitude toward gifts - People often think of gifts as things of little or no value, especially gifts from the
government otherwise why should anyone give them away? They think that a gift is given with the
purpose of gaining something in return.

Responsibilities and social obligations

Individuals within a society or a kinship group have responsibilities which they are expected to carry out.
People who avoid such responsibilities anger other members of the society. As an individual’s income
increases, so obligations to society or family increases. The more money a farmer earns, the more help
kinsmen will expect. This can be a very serious barrier to change if the individual sees little advantage in
improving his or her position because there is not much personal benefit from the improvement.
However, this may be overcome by concealing wealth, by distributing cattle among friends, or by burying
or banking money so that relatives can be told that no money is available to help them. This may result,

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for example, in a farmer being reluctant to carry out visible farm improvements such as fencing, buying
farm implements and other things which might suggest to kinsmen that the farmer is wealthier than they
think.

Traditional Ceremonies

Ceremonies such as weddings, funerals and religious festivals can take up so much time that the farmer
may be unable to work to the maximum efficiency. The farmer is, therefore, unlikely to adopt new
methods, which, while they might increase income, would mean that more time had to be devoted to
working the farm and less to ceremonial and social obligations. The extension agent needs to
understand and to be sensitive to these potential social and cultural barriers to change; however, by
carefully selecting what he encourages farmers to do, and how to convey the message, their effect can
be reduced. Winning the support of traditional community leaders, for example, may lessen the effects of
tradition. Furthermore, by making sure that popular food crops are included in agricultural programmes
and that the recommended varieties are acceptable on grounds of taste and cooking quality, the
extension agent can increase the likelihood of his advice being accepted. Extension programmes aiming
at introducing new methods should take into account the possible effect on the whole society and its
culture, and not merely the technical results of the methods recommended.

Conclusion

Agricultural Development Programs (ADP) plays the role of extension and delivery services in the
agricultural sector. ADPs liaise with the research institutes for improved technologies to effectively
deliver services to the farmers. For a success in extension service delivery in rural areas, the extension
agent needs to understand and be sensitive to social and cultural factors existing in the area. However,
by carefully selecting what he encourages farmers to do, and how to convey the message, the effects of
social and cultural barriers to extension service delivery can be reduced. Winning the support of
traditional community leaders, for example, may lessen the effects of tradition. Furthermore, by making
sure that popular food crops are included in agricultural programmes and that the recommended
varieties are acceptable on grounds of taste and cooking quality, the extension agent can increase the
likelihood of his advice being accepted. Extension programmes aiming at introducing new methods of
farming should consider the possible effect on the whole society and its culture, and not merely the
technical results of the methods recommended. Agricultural Development Programs (ADP) plays the role
of extension and delivery services in the agricultural sector. ADPs liaise with the research institutes for
improved technologies to effectively deliver services to the farmers. For a success in extension service

14
delivery in rural areas, the extension agent needs to understand and be sensitive to social and cultural
factors existing in the area. However, by carefully selecting what he encourages farmers to do, and how
to convey the message, the effects of social and cultural barriers to extension service delivery can be
reduced. Winning the support of traditional community leaders, for example, may lessen the effects of
tradition. Furthermore, by making sure that popular food crops are included in agricultural programmes
and that the recommended varieties are acceptable on grounds of taste and cooking quality, the
extension agent can increase the likelihood of his advice being accepted.

Extension programmes aiming at introducing new methods of farming should take into account the
possible effect on the whole society and its culture, and not merely the technical results of the methods
recommended.

References

Anugwa I, Q. 2018. Social and Cultural Barriers to Effective Agricultural Extension Service Delivery.
University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria,
https://juniperpublishers.com/artoaj/pdf/ARTOAJ.MS.ID.555930.pdf

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 STUDY UNIT 4

COMMUNICATION AS THE BASIS FOR EXTENSION

Objective:

To enable student’s, understand communication and education as essential dimensions of extension

work and build their capacity to facilitate extension teaching/learning events in different extension
situations

Outcomes:

After completion of this unit, the learner should:

 Define the concepts of communication in agricultural extension.

 Identify and define the stages/elements of communication.
 Identify the barriers affecting extension communication.
 Describe diffusion and adoption process.

Contents

Concepts of communication

Communication is the process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings, or
impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of the meaning, intent and use of
message OR Communication is the discriminatory response of an organism to stimulus OR the process
by which the message is transmitted from the source to the receiver.

Meaning of communication:

Communication is derived from a Latin word ‘communis’ which means common – It also requires a
degree of commonness between individuals for communication to occur. The purpose of communication
is to establish commonness. Communication, thus refers to the process of sharing information, feeling
ideas in a manner that there is common understanding of meaning, intent, and use of the message.
Communication involves the complete transfer of an idea or thought from one’s mind to that of another. It
is not, therefore, enough if you tell the farm people about a new idea. They must hear it, understand it
and remember it. In other words, communication is telling someone something in such a manner that he

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gets it. People get an idea when they receive it through one or more of their senses – when they are
seeing, hearing, smelling, feeling, tasting. When they get it, you say that your communication has
produced an interest in them, and it leads them to think and to act.

Communication is the process of unfolding understanding and meaning. It is about achieving a

communion of understanding – a coming together in mind. If understanding has not occurred,
communication has not happened.

The importance of communication in Agricultural Extension Service

In agricultural extension service, messages strongly rely on farmers experience as well as on agricultural
research findings. Government policies are important decision making by farmers. In this case,
agricultural administrators give directive through communication. This is done verbally, in written form or
both. Extension officers can only make farmers participate in the process by helping them identify the
problems they (farmers) face through effective communication together of farmers communicating
among themselves. It is through communication that collaboration can take place in agricultural
extension services. Planning of extension programmes/projects is made possible through
communication, this means there must be a problem that requires solution before planning can take
place.

Process of communication

Most of us are familiar with the process occurring between a sender and receiver when they
communicate Communication being a process, requires at least two persons — a sender and a receiver
—irrespective of the mode of communication. The sender conceives the idea, gives it a shape, decides
the mode of communication which may be used to convey the idea, and conveys it. The receiver
receives it, tries to understand it, and finally takes an action which may be either to store the information
or to send the message to the original source or take any other line of action as required by the source.
The whole process, discussed as follows:

Factors affecting communication:

The communication task thus consists of the skilful handling of six key elements. These elements will
now be considered in the light of the guides already mentioned and, in an attempt, to show their singular
function, their relationship to each other and how they are to be dealt with in the total process of
communication for rural development. The successful communication requires a skilful communicator
sending a useful message through proper channels effectively treated to an appropriate audience that
responds as desired. Extension Worker is the communicator who starts the process of communication.
The extension worker and mass media like radio are sometimes visualized as sources or originators of
messages, which is not correct. Knowledge generates through research and as such the Research

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Institutes, Research Projects, Universities are the originators of sources of message. The extension
worker obtains the required information from research and carries it to the audience, the farmers. The
extension worker is the communicator, a carrier of information. To enhance the process, extension
workers may take the help of some aids, known as audio-visual aids. They also carry back the reactions
of the farmers, their problems etc. as feedback.

Key elements of the communication process

The following essential elements are required for the communication process. Successful
communication requires a skilful communicator sending a useful message, through proper channels,
effectively treated, to an appropriate receiver (audience) that responds as desired.

The communication task thus consists of the skilful handling of six key elements:

Communicator: This is the person who normally starts the communication process and is sometimes
referred to as the message source. Credibility of a communicator as perceived by the audience is a
powerful determinant in communication. i. Who is he? ii. What are his motives? iii. What does he know?
Iv What does he look like? v. What are his skills and attitudes?

What makes a good communicator?

a. Knowledge of: Audience needs, interest, abilities, Message: content, usefulness,

importance, validity, Channels that will reach the audience and how to organise and treat the
message.
b. Interested in: • The Audience • Message and how it can help people • Results of
communication and their evaluation • Communication channels and the proper use of it.
c. Prepares: • A communication plan or strategy • Communication material and equipment • A
plan for the evaluation of
d. Skills in: • Selecting and treating of messages • Selection of useful channels • Understanding
the audience.

Messages

Communication takes place through the sending and receiving of messages. The message has the
content that is conveyed during the communication encounter. A message is the information a
communicator wishes his audience to receive, understand, accept and act upon.

A good message must be: In line with the objective to be attained clear understandable by the audience /
In line with the mental, social, economic and physical capabilities of the audience / Significant
economically, socially to the needs, interest and values of the audience / Specific – no irrelevant material
of facts / Simply stated: cover only one point at time / Accurate: scientifically sound, factual and current /
Timely: especially when seasonal factors are important / Appropriate to the channel selected •

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Applicable: audience can apply recommendations / Appealing and attractive to the audience :has utility
and immediate use / Manageable” communicator can handle with high professional skill and within the
limits imposed by time.

Medium and channels of communication

The medium is the physical means by which messages are transmitted or transported between people in
communication. Your voice and body movements, as well as technological and electronic means of
communication such as telephone, newspaper, or television are all mediums of communication. The
channel or the route by which the message travels. The light waves that carry the television image or the
airwaves that carry the sound of your voice are channels of communication, as your five senses:
hearing, sight, touch, taste, and smell. Both can be regarded as links between the communicator and
recipient.

The following communication channels are used in extension:

a. Individual methods of extension or face-to-face

Individual or face-to-face methods are probably the most universally used extension methods in
both developed and developing countries. The extensionist meets the farmer at home or on the
farm and discusses issues of mutual interest, giving the farmer both information and advice. The
atmosphere of the meeting is usually informal and relaxed, and the farmer is able to benefit from
the extensionist ‘s individual attention. The personal influence of the extensionist can be critical in
helping a farmer through difficult decisions and can also be instrumental in getting farmers to
participate in extension activities.

The individual contact between the extension agent and the farmer can take several forms:

i. Farm visits: Most common form of personal contacts between extensionist and farmer and
constitute over 50% of extensionists’ activities. Because it takes up so much time of an agent, it
is important to be clear about the purpose of such a visit and to plan it carefully.

Advantages of farm visits:

 Familiarise the extensionist with the farmer and his family, enabling him to give

specific advice or information to the farmer

 Build up the extensionists’ knowledge of the area and of the spectrum of

challenges and problems farmers experience

 Permit him to explain a new recommended practice or follow up and observe results

to date

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  Arouse general interest among farmers and stimulate their involvement in extension

activities

ii. Office calls: From time to time the farmer may visit the extensionists in his office. Such a visit is often a
reflection of the interest which the extension agent may have aroused among local farmers. The more
confidence farmers have in the extension agent, the more likely they are to visit him. Such office visits
are less time consuming for the extension worker. As with farm visits, the extension agent should
prepare for these visits.

Other individual methods:

iii. Telephone calls/use of SMS: serve a very similar purpose than office visits. It is improbable that the
extensionist will deal with many farmers in his area by telephone. The telephone or cell phone is used to
pass on specific advice or information. Important is to speak clearly, to note the main points discussed
and to enter them on farmer records.

iv. E-mails or letter: occasionally the extensionist needs to correspond with farmers by letter.

v. Informal contacts: informal contacts will occur continually during the extensionists’ stay in a particular
area. Market days, holiday celebrations or religious events will bring him in contact with the farmers with
who he is working and inevitably they will talk about agriculture and perhaps some specific problems
faced on the farm.

b. Group methods: The extensionists also use farmer groups, as groups have the advantage that new
ideas often emerged from group discussions. The cost of individual extension methods in terms of time
and scarce extension resources forced extension services worldwide to invest in group extension
methods. There is also the danger that too much emphasis is placed upon a few individual farmers
which can lead to a situation where there is only focused on the progressive farmers to the detriment of
the poorer farmers. The following group extension methods exist:

i. Demonstration: Farmers like to see how new ideas work, and also what effect it can have on
increasing farm production. Both purposes can be achieved by means of farm demonstrations. A good
practical demonstration is an invaluable method in extension work.

There are two types of demonstration used by extension agents namely:

Method demonstration: basically, show farmers how to do something. In this demonstration the farmer is
showed step-by-step how for example to plant seed in a field, or to calibrate a planter.

Result demonstration: where farmers are shown that a particular practice or recommendation is practical
under local conditions.

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ii. Field days: Opportunities to hold method or result demonstrations on a slightly larger scale, and are
usually run in a more informal and less structured manner. The purpose is often to introduce a new idea
and a new crop or technology, to stimulate interest, to as many farmers as possible. Field days can
range in size –from a very small group of farmers to annual events like NAMPO or seed company annual
field events where thousands of farmers are visiting. A few points to keep in mind with the arranging of a
field day are: Limit the numbers to the capacity of the field, to avoid overcrowding / Ensure a good lay
out of the field day activities, with easy access and facility of movement around the field / Encourage the
demonstrator farmer to take most of the initiative, give him support but do not take over the field day
form him / Provide suitably large visual material and also, if necessary, a loudspeaker to ensure that all
can hear. / Conclude the field day by bringing all participants together, reviewing the days proceedings
and the main items seen and discussed, and explain any future extension activities.

iii. Farm Tours: Farmers like to visit farms in other districts to see how they farm, what they grow and
what kind of challenges these farmers are facing. A tour is a series of field demonstrations on different
farms, or at different centres, and often attracts a lot of interest from local farmers. It is important to take
note of the following points:

. Encourage the host farmer to do all the explaining and to take charge of the tour / Visit an area that
farmers can associate with, the farms to be visited and the farming systems / Limit the tour to what is
possible. It is better to do a short tour in which visitors can have a good look than an extensive tour
where there is always limit time available for interaction and learning.

What is “NOISE in communication?

Any stimulus that interferes with the transmission and reception of messages is called “noise”. Noise
emerges from a wide range of sources and causes such as: Failure of a channel to reach the intended
audience / Failure on the part of the communicator to handle a channel skilfully / Failure to select
channels appropriate to the objectives of a communicator / Failure to use channels in accordance with
the abilities of the audience / Failure to avoid physical distraction (external noise) / Failure of an
audience to listen or look carefully / Failure to use enough channels in parallel / Use of many channels at
one time.

Problems in communication

Extension workers and farm advisers often find to their disappointment that farm people do not seem to
show the desired response after a message has been communicated.

There can always be something that can stand between you and the person with whom you are
communicating, which prevents the easy and complete transfer of the information. This is the problem in
communication. You must be to able to trace out what and where this block is and remedy it as soon as
you can. The following may be the barriers to communication:

Insufficient information: One common block occurs when you are not careful enough in preparing
yourself and your information for communication. Sometimes you fail to provide complete information.

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This happens when you take it for granted that the farm people already know some of the things, and
hence do not include them in the information you give out. One way out of this would be to put yourself in
the position of the receiver and ask yourself, if I were him, what is the information I would like to have on
this subject? This empathy or putting yourself in the shoes of someone else, and taking up the line of
thinking which he normally is expected to do, helps in overcoming the defect easily.

Information overload: When you provide information in detail covering all aspects of a subject without
any thought to whether it is needed or not. You will be creating a strong problem to the reception and
understanding of the information by the receiver. He would need both time and energy to sieve and sift
the material, and pick out and use it. A good advice often given to communicators is decide what you
want to say, say it, and then stop.

Not listening: Another common block occurs if your talk (person-to-person on the radio) when people
are not listening. Listening has to be preceded by a desire to listen. Besides, a listening audience is a
voluntary audience, not a captive one, and it is not bound to give you rapt attention. Even while seeming
to listen, the listener may be thinking of something else, in which case he is giving you as good as a deaf
ear.

Too ahead of audience understanding: The failure on your part to keep in mind that the level and
speed of understanding of your farm audience is rather low results in a problem. Farm people are not so
happily placed as you are not exposed to ideas as you are, not familiar with words that appear so
common to you. They may not think very far into the future as you do. The information you provide may
be far ahead of the situation they are in. If your information is on the treatment of seed, and if the
audience is not aware that the seed carries disease germs on its coat, you are one step ahead of their
understanding, and thus the information does not get taken in.

Ignoring the leaders: The key people or the leaders in a community exert a certain influence over a
others. If you ignore them or do not take them into confidence or do not direct your communication at
them, you are bound to fail. This block will be a strong one, and it is always good to keep in mind the role
these key people play in the community while preparing for your communication. This is also called the
concept of opinion leadership.

Physical environment: Noise due to telephonic interruptions, or noise created by the machines can
cause distraction. Whispers or even the movements of people can come in the way of effective
communication.

References

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Dipak De Basavaprabhu Jirli Shaik N Meera. 2012. ICT digital opportunities in Agricultural Extension.
Jodhpur: Agrobios (India)

Leeuwis, C & Van Den Ban, A.W. 2004. Communication for Rural Innovation. Blackwell Science ; Ames,
Iowa : Iowa State Press, for CTA.

Shri. B. Srinivas, IAS. 2013. Communication of agricultural innovations. National Institute of Agricultural
Extension Management. Andhra Pradesh, India.
https://www.manage.gov.in/pgdaem/studymaterial/aem102.pdf

STUDY UNIT 5

PROGRAMME PLANNING AND EVALUATION IN EXTENSION

Aim: To understand the extension programme planning process

Content

Steps of extension programme planning

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The principles of extension programme planning indicate earlier shall help us to develop the logical steps
in program planning process. There are 8 steps which form a continuous cycle of program determination
and programme implementation in extension. The steps are discussed with examples.

Collection of facts: It is the starting point of program planning process. Relevant information may be
collected from the available records or by survey of the area. Information relating to the people their
Enterprises, levels of Technology, facilities, and constraints values etc relevant to program building
maybe collected. Information also be collected from other organisations in the area. The program
planning process is explained with an example. There is a village where farmers are poor, and
something is to be done to improve the condition. We conduct a survey of the village and
collect information on the number of farm facilities, their occupations, land use pattern, utilization of
water resources, facilities for marketing availability of inputs and credit, their attitude towards
various Enterprise, the strength of extension services in the area etc. We also collect relevant
information from other organisations.

Analysis of situation: The data and information collected are then analysed in an unbiased way,
keeping in view the feeling expressed by the client system. This shall help in understanding the situation
in its proper perspective.

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Identification of problems: A correct analysis and interpretation of the data shall help in correctly
identifying problems. There may be many problems but only the urgent and significant ones which may
be solved with the available resources and within limits of time should be selected.  Selection of many
problems which cannot be properly managed may lead to a failure of the program and generate
frustration among the people. In the present example, after analysis of the data and relevant information
with the local people three most important problems are identified which need immediate solution. These
are, for example; low levels of income employment and nutrition in the farm families.

Determination of objectives and goals: The objectives are then set forth based on the significant
needs identified. The objectives should be direct and stated in the clear terms. In the present examples,
the objectives then become to increase levels of income, employment, and nutrition of the farm families
in the village. To make the objectives realistic and actionable, there is need to state them in terms of
specific goals.  In the determination of goals it may be necessary to again go through the data and
information analysed to find out what could actually be done in the existing situation with the available
resources and time which will be compatible and with which the shall people cooperate. It is necessary
to discuss with the local people and institution which shall also legitimize the program planning process.

Developing plan of work and calendar of operation: The plan of work should be in written form and
shall indicate who shall do what job. I.e., what the change agent system and thus line system shall do
which institutions, organisation, Service Department shall be involved what will be the
financial requirement and how it shall be met; what arrangements shall be made for marketing of the
produce, training of the farmers and so on. The plan should have all the essential details and no
important should be left out. The calendar of operation shall be prepared on the basis of the plan of work
and shall is specified when a particular work shall be done preferably mentioning data and time; how
much quantity of different inputs including credit shall be required and when these must be made
available when where and for how many days the farmers and farm women shall be trained. Who are the
specialist to be involved in training and preparing the handouts when the publication shall be ready for
distribution etc. that is the calendar of operation shall specifically state how and when all the
significance activities shall be performed. This should be at least for one season or for a period of one
year. In that case, they may be termed as seasonal plan or annual plan.

Follow through plan of work and calendar of operation: This is not a routine of work as
many people may think. Training of participants, communication of information,
conducting method demonstration, making regular visits and mentioning are some of the important
function the extension agent shall perform at this stage. The work shall include solving and unforeseen
problems and taking Cooperative steps where needed.  The performance of extension agent and the 
organisational support received at this stage may make the difference between success or failure of

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a program. Obtaining feedback information as to what is happening to the farmers after introduction
of new technology is extremely important at this stage.

Evaluation of progress: The main types of evaluation are process, impact, outcome, and summative
evaluation. Before you can measure the effectiveness of your project, you need to determine if the
project is being run as intended and if it is reaching the intended audience, thus, farmers. Evaluation is
the process of determining the extent to which we have been able to attain our objectives. All programs
must have an inbuilt system of evaluation to know how well the work is done. It should be a continuous
process not only to the measure the result but also to ensure what all the steps are correctly followed.
Evaluation maybe formal and informal depending on the importance of the program and on the
availability to trained manpower, funds, facilities, and time.

Reconsideration and revision of the program: On the basis the result of evaluation, the
program should be reconsideration and revised if needed. This reconsideration should be done not only
with the participants but also with the scientist, administrators in extension organisation and local
bodies.  Reconsideration shall help in making necessary corrections and modifications in the program.

References

Donaldson J. L., 2014. Extension Program Planning, Evaluation & Accountability. Department of
Extension Evaluation and Staff Development. Knoxville.
https://extension.tennessee.edu/eesd/Documents/StaffDevelopment/2014Orientation/
NewEmployeeOrientation_August2014.pdf.

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