A5) “Hunter” Fixture Units Development

Lawrence S. Galowin
[email protected]
Consultant

Abstract
“Hunter Fixture Units” appear tabulated and referenced in worldwide variations for
plumbing design for pipe sizing and capacity determinations. Dr. Hunter applied
binomial probability theory in application to simultaneous events of water usages and
drainage discharge events for design parameters of building plumbing systems. His
publications presented graphs/tabulations for pipe sizing. The derived basis from
binomial theory frequency analyses of usages resulted in tabulations that provided a
means for selecting pipe sizes for adequacy/functions. From limited actual building
usage patterns, data, and extended laboratory research the necessary piping
requirements for both supply and discharge emerged in tabulations and design curves.
Dr. Hunter at National Bureau of Standards undertook plumbing research 1921 to his demise in 1943.
The planned identified future reports were not undertaken.

Keywords
Plumbing design, building drainage, potable water systems; building pipe sizing;
plumbing codes; waste and water plumbing; plumbing detain methods; fixture units

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1. Introduction
Plumbing systems actuations occur randomly and intermittently with variable
magnitudes (probability for such events). Dr. Hunter introduced binomial probability
theory for simultaneous events for water pipe supply and drainage systems that set
sizing requirements. Improved procedures for loading tables were recognized as a
need by the Coordinating Committee for a National Plumbing Code. Codification
resulted from ‘fixture units’ (dimensionless) for probable instances in building pipe
sizing for water supply and drainage design. The water supply and drainage loading
tables in plumbing design applications were based upon loads in ‘dimensionless
fixture units’ as created from probability of simultaneous events introduced for water
supply and drainage design as applied in model codes and handbooks. Prolonged
illness and subsequent death of Dr. Hunter left barren the detailed descriptions applied
in preparing the technical paper on pipe sizes determinations/computation.

Design to codes for water supply and drainage requirements follow procedures with
tabulated “Hunter Fixture Units”. From mid-last century into this era, the uncertainty
factors in engineered systems sizing requirements demand for variations inherent to
design loading results from determinations for unknowns with variability
determinations from probability principals. Recent engineered sizing by adaptation of
probability determinations adapted from post-1940 plumbing systems loadings
variability concepts by Dr. Hunter found application to central air operations for
hood/air duct loads/power needs of station/plant loads with great uncertainty of
demand functions (2). That probability application of uncertainties drew on a referral
to Dr. Roy Hunters’ applications to plumbing systems’ fixtures user loadings (1).
Similarities for random events probability theory to engineered systems for sizing
water and waste piping systems relied on uncertainties from usage variations in
applications that led to a probability basis a means of quantifying a probable ‘not to
exceed’ failure rate. Uncertainty impacts from incalculable variables in many
engineering methods require probability - as developed for plumbing systems system
sizing parameters design approximations.

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Dr. Hunter in BMS 65 stated:
“INTRODUCTION” - Simplification and standardization must comply with
accepted health regulations and minimum requirements for plumbing, which in
turn should be based on scientific principles,
The report deals with one of the factors, on which minimum requirements should
be based, the maximum load to be provided for in plumbing systems. Other reports
are planned dealing with water supply and water distribution systems in buildings,
principles of building drainage, and principles of venting.
“PURPOSE” - Purpose of this series of papers is to collect in organized manner
information obtained by the author over a number of years (from 1921 to research
of 1937-1940) on plumbing, together with results from research (1937 - 1940) on
plumbing with intervening experiments and interpreting results in a form suitable
for direct and practical applications. It hoped that this series of papers will supply
logical answers to questions pertaining to pipe sizes and design of plumbing
construction.

Primary source documents (1, 3) present graphical (illustrated) and tabulated loads
results from probability theory applied to plumbing systems design requirements by

60
Dr. Roy Hunter. His research extended over more than two decades. His detailed
research/analyses and introduction from binomial probability theory applied to
specific fixtures functions/user demands. Currently details developed for pipe sizing
in plumbing remains applicable with modified details.

The “fixture units”

terminology appears
for pipe sizing of
plumbing systems
design and
regulatory
information in
“Hoover Code(s)” (5,
6, 7) with different
definition from the
1940 probability
concept. Use of the
terminology applied
to both design and regulatory requirements.

Observations (members of the committee) regarding use of water closets in public

places resulted in definition “… intent established rate of discharge of ordinary wash
basin at ..about 7.5 gpm, so near to one cubic foot minute that it was taken as the
definition of one fixture unit...in the initial usages. Terminology code changes
occurred after the research applications adopted from probability principles analyses
based upon actual fixture usages (supply or discharge) from defined user functions.

1.2 Secretary of Commerce - Herbert Hoover Recognition - 1924 (4)

Three sequenced reports (4, 5, 6) - recommendation of Dept. of Commerce Building

Code Committee. Reports - BH2, BH 13 – (same title – ‘24, ‘28, ’32 - known as
“Hoover Codes”) were initially requested by Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover
(later 31st President). Statement from the 1924 code “…Actual practice has been

61
governed by opinions and guesswork, often involving needless costly precautions
which many families could ill afford. The lack of generalized principles is responsible
to a certain extent for the contradictory plumbing regulations in different
localities …”. Illustrations are shown (1931) and cited elements made for continued
research at NBS were noted with identification for the historically significance from
NBS plumbing research by Dr. R. B. Hunter (he was a leader in plumbing research at
National Bureau of Standards from 1921 to 1943). The acknowledgment stated
“Especial commendation should be given to Dr. R. B. Hunter for his ingenious and
accurate physical investigations of the hydraulics and pneumatics of drainage
systems under various conditions of use” (Chapter 7 extended contents on “Sizes of
Soil, Vent and Waste”).

1.2 Earlier Competence - Back to 1924

Initial documentation published in 1924 from developments of team efforts

established a new Plumbing Code; examples form that initial report are illustrated.

1.3 Supplementary Information

The prolonged illness and death of Dr. Hunter left

barren details/descriptions applied in preparing the
report for fixture units based upon binomial
probability of simultaneous events. A July 29, 1946
draft report (following WWII) by John French (7)
undertaken to investigate Dr. Hunters’ files provided
indications of source materials but was not published.
Selected information for sources and basis of
formulation of fixture units as developed and
published were sought as set in a directive “...
examining Dr. Hunter’s files” dated. Selected
materials for information/suppositions from
records/assumptions attempted to establish the

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origins/resources and applications in Dr. Hunter’s developments. The primary focus
of the task was “.. to reconcile requirements of “A.S.A Plumbing Code and Plumbing
Manual BMS 66”. That apparently was not resolved although conclusion stated was
not to support the ASA version based upon differences between the methods form that
study. {Note - ASA – American Standards Association refers to a Standards
Committee (AESC) - AESC became the American Standards Association (ASA) in
1928. ASA was reorganized (1966); in 1969 became United States of America
Standards Institute (USASI) and now ANSI.

R. Wyly (8) comments related Fixture Units background developments and sources
that noted aspects of Dr. Hunter investigations. Comments provided limited
indications of tests that Hunter had previously
conducted and
selected testing
results. The research
efforts enlarged the
database from testing
and gave newer
design data for larger
and complex
plumbing drainage
system configurations
not previously
evaluated and data
tables presented in the report. Extension of fixture
units sizing for capacities of drainage systems was
proposed for needs future efforts for applications to larger drainage systems.

1.4 Other Research

Researchers at other U.S. and worldwide plumbing testing facilities were underway
(illustrated) but it is
unknown to what extent
collaborative
undertakings were
undertaken. U.S.
specialists shared inputs
and were involved in the
evolution of the “Hoover
Codes”. Referrals to the
studies of such
investigations appear in
the Hoover code
outcomes. Later efforts
by Dr. Hunter from
continuing research

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apparently led to advances for FIXTURE UNITS concepts developments with
probability basis from continuity of research activities on an independent path.

Elsewhere, plumbing systems applications for varied design methods continued. An

example from a 1962 report from Great Britain, twenty years following Hunter’s
report, maintained pipe-sizing methods from
earlier basis of flow designations that applied to
pipe sizing design as recommended practice.

2. Publications Noted
Background - Information preceding the 1940
Hunter report directed for pipe sizing designs
for plumbing systems based upon “Hoover
Code(s)” (4, 5, 6). Sample illustrations shown
indicate source basis applied to establishment of
plumbing requirements for designers’ purposes. Methods for plumbing system design
for system services capacities
buildings resulted from collaborative
efforts. Implementation to regulatory
purposes established systems’
requirements in locales for
regulatory acceptances (where codes
applied). Hoover Code terminology
applied “Fixture Unit” terminology
but not as Hunter later established as
integral with probability concept
usage.

The water closets served as a basis for fixture of supply and drainage parameters that
required detailed data input from test data for fixture discharge profiles (quite varied).
Sample illustration indicates use of a tracing technique for recording time varying
water closets’ discharges into a collection chamber that provided measurement
records noted in the figure. A test configuration balance (also shown) had provision
for elimination of water discharge loading impacts. Data for collected volumes as
function of discharge time indicated many profiles with multi-peaked outflow profiles
(formatted as flow rate vs. time).

Over time Hunter Fixture Units modifications occurred but with few detailed study
reports or detailed analyses/evaluations as codes/manuals adopted newer requirements.
Recent investigators applied probability Monte Carlo event computer methods to
random loadings, some for multistory buildings (reported at CIB W62 Symposia).
Such concerns need address. Extensive data sources reported by researchers to CIB
W62 on usages applicable to design requirements have been on diverse user-required
capacities and consumption in restaurants, exercise facilities, hot tubs/bath-houses and
tall buildings. Simultaneity usage patterns concerns from very recent water

64
conservation actions (significantly less duration times) may result in limitations for
simultaneous event history with reductions of ‘overlapping’ simultaneous
events/functions.

3. Target Documents
Subsequently the model codes adopted Dr. Hunter procedures that also appears in
handbooks for domestic and worldwide usages (often locally altered tabulations).
Current U.S. codes include similar tabulations
but now modified and altered for water
conservation needs, and appear in reference
handbooks by plumbing and water utility
sources. Frequent referral and terminology
identification to “Hunter” persists in current
times. Tabulated ‘fixture units’ for water
supply and drainage design for fixture loads
remain a primary dimensionless system for
established code applications requirements for
pipe sizing in buildings1.

From the report: The Foreword by Lyman J.

Briggs, Director of NBS, states: “… additive
reports in the Building Materials and
Structures series will be written”. “This
report deals with one of the factors which
must be considered in the selection of adequate yet economical sizes of pipes for
plumbing systems – namely, the load to be expected from a given number and kind
of plumbing fixtures”……“This report deals … in the selection of adequate yet
economical sizes of pipes for plumbing systems – namely, the load to be expected
from a given number of fixtures and kind of plumbing fixtures… ‘…..
“…estimating loads …, it will be understood that such numerical values, when not
the actual results of Bureau tests or experiments, represent the author’s judgment
in regard to the most suitable factor to use in the application of the method, and
that these are not to be regarded as standard values, unless after approved as such
by a representative and authoritative body.”

The author’s Abstract stated: “.. that a method of estimating the demand and sewage
loads for which the provision should be made in designing plumbing systems in
order that the service may be satisfactory. … The relative load producing values of
different kinds of commonly used plumbing fixtures are analyzed, and a table is
developed giving relative load weights in terms of a load factor called the ‘fixture
unit. An estimate curve developed by the means of the probability function is given,
and its use in conjunction with the table of fixture units is illustrated.”

1
Decades later “DRAINET” developed by Prof. Swaffield provides computer numerical solutions for
transient partially filled drainpipe attenuated drain flow dynamics (9) with solid(s) waste transport.

65
Section II - effort extent in “Purpose” provides:“…organized from the mass of
information obtained by the author over a number of years, beginning with the
investigation in 1921 of plumbing of small dwellings, and including……. current
research (1937-40) on plumbing for low cost housing, together with the results of
intervening experiments related to plumbing requirements, and to interpret the
results of these investigations in a form suitable for direct and piratical
application. …”

3.1 Associated Reports

Dr. Hunter provided application based utilizations based on Fixture Units descriptive
usages. Few
reports show
publication date
sequences that
vary, possibly
due to Institute
required review
procedures (3,
10). Example of
the Plumbing
Manual
applications
specific to water
distribution
systems
provides fixture
water supply application for sizing demonstrates that noted differences from existing
methods (at the time) for new Fixture Units utilization of Hunter method.

The figure compares demand estimates in gpm usage from the so-called probability
function in manual of 1923 with new mode. There, demand cited in gallons per
minute directly for several fixtures shows indicated estimated irregularities cited as
erroneous since “.. the estimates for given increments in numbers of fixtures should
gradually approach a constant
DESIGN WATER DEMAND CURVE
Fixture
Fixture
Type
Type
Table (Hunter) Flush Tanks
Table (Hunter) Lavatories
minimum as the total number
Fixture
Fixture
Type
Type
increases.”.
Federal Table (Req't @ Time) Flush Tanks
Federal Table (Req't @ Time) Lavatories
The discussion
1.6 suggested “… tendency to oversize
1.4 supply pipes does not lie in any
1.2
inherent fault in the probability
Demand (gpm)

1
function, but in the method …. but
a table which does not provide for
0.8

0.6

0.4
the probability, or rather the
0.2 improbability, of overlapping
0 between or among two or more
First 50 Second 50 Third 50 Fourth 50
Numbers of Fixtures
Last 100
groups of different kinds” (3).

66
Tabulated ‘fixture units’ for water supply and drainage design remained a primary
system established in code requirements (modified over time) as changes developed
for altered required fixture capacities.

4. Requirements - Loadings - References

Many design and code examples appeared for
required sizing practices in the tabulated listings
of Hoover codes. From the ’32 version tabulated
required drains and stacks loadings of drainage
elements from fixture units (definition of that
time) examples are shown. Later Hunter
developments from probable loading developed
listings based upon probability of simultaneous
event conditions differed substantially.

Fixture Unit applications of the method in

plumbing systems design were necessary for
implementations with explanatory introductions
and details/explanations to water supply and drainage systems. Differences cited
needs for achieving descriptive documentation for design and use in regulatory
applications with requirements and rules illustrated for applications to demonstrating
compliance. Even in the “Plumbing Manual” (3) there appears “…still a marked lack

of agreement among
recommended plumbing
requirements” and also the
purpose indicated that “..
intended to serve as a guide
in their own work and as
recommended procedure
where local codes do not
govern.”

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The undertaking by J. French (7) was an attempt to seek greater knowledge of the
basis for Hunter’s published reports.

4.1 Perspectives

Indicated research aspects noted on Dr. Hunter investigations by R. Wyly (..) in

related materials on Fixture Units developments are to the point of the topic.
Comments in the report
provided test series
limitations or indications
from certain historic parts
of past testing methods.
Report applications to
water demand pipe system
sizing from tabulated
fixture units were
described and special
concerns indicated in table
footnotes. For drainage
systems utilization of
Fixture Units ratings concerning implications from the earlier reports and results from
additional test series
introduced later
interpretations for
drain loadings as
derived from detailed
testing series and
results/conclusions.

From earlier Hunter

test efforts rather
unique experimental
developments were
noted and indicated
test experimental
illustrations. Water closet discharge profiles
and drain connected indicated attenuation of flows were determined.

That prior research demonstrated surge attenuation

from water closets interacting with other pipe flows.
The attenuation of surge waves combined with other
essentially steady fixture outflows (washbasins,
showers, and baths) had become an aspect of needed
data applied to developments in tabulated
correlations developed for fixture units. Newly
measured distributions of attenuated water closet
surges also were developed but shown as

68
normalized water depth to drain diameter but substantiated earlier measured data
forms. Extensions for tabulated loadings results to design applications for allowed
loadings in determining allowable total
drainage discharges (not in Fixture Units)
for design purposes was not made. The
methods extended scope of tables to
buildings greater than three stories or more
in height and for systems with relatively
small horizontal branches. The Wyly study
showed tabulated results that indicated the
extent of capacity increases in drains when
surges occurred. As stated: “capacities for
hydraulics in steady gravity driven flows
are constant” and “of limited value in
solution of problems of surge flow”.
Further, for surge flows “hydraulic
elements vary both with distance and time
at any cross-section”. The tabulated test
indications ranged over values from two to
five times the capacity for steady flow
conditions. Expanded series of tests for
branch drain discharges into main drain (few varied conditions) with unsteady flow
from branch loadings were undertaken. Compilations into broad tabular data listings
for applications to branch installation designs resulted.

5. Hunter BMS 65 (1)

The report Foreword by the Director L.J. Briggs, states “This report deals with one of
the factors which must be considered in the selection of adequate yet economical sizes
of pipes for plumbing systems – namely, the load to be expected from a given number
and kind of plumbing fixtures. Also, “..it will be followed by other reports in the
Building and Materials and Structures series dealing with other aspects of plumbing
problems”.

From the authors’ Introduction

“Simplification and standardization must
comply with accepted health regulations and
minimum requirements for plumbing, which
in turn should be based on scientific
principles, The report deals with one of the
factors, on which minimum requirements
should be based, the maximum load to be
provided for in plumbing systems. Other
reports are planned dealing with water supply and water distribution systems in
buildings, principles of building drainage, and principles of venting.” And in the
“Purpose’ there appears “ this series of papers is to collect in organized manner

69
information obtained by the author over a number of years (from 1921 to research of
1937-1940) on plumbing, together with results from research (1937 - 1940) on
plumbing with intervening experiments and interpreting results in a form suitable for
direct and practical application. It is hoped that this series of papers will supply
logical answers to questions pertaining to pipe sizes and design of plumbing
construction”.

Selected report materials indicate Fixture Units developments for the adopted
technique and methodical procedure adopted. Developed materials apparently resulted

from the depths of efforts from prior studies,

acquisition of vast amounts of test data,
analytical determinations and organized compilations of comprehensive sets of data
from many prior years of research.

Selection of minimum pipe size requires accurate flow capacities for conditions to be
used for load and to know accurately the

load the pipe will be called upon to carry. Pipe flow formulae (usual means of
estimating pipe capacities of pipes) expressions are based upon dynamic equilibrium

70
and applies only to the irregular and intermittent flows that occurs in plumbing
systems during that time (usually very short) and in that section of the pipe in which
the variable factors involved (velocity or volume rate of flow, pressure, or hydraulic
gradient, and hydraulic radius) are constant 2 and applies only to the particular
conditions – namely, condition of uniform continuous flow in the pipe. Hence,
conventional pipe formulae applies to irregular and intermittent flows that occur in
plumbing systems only during that time (usually very short) and in sections which the
variables involved (velocity or volume rate of flow, pressure, or hydraulic gradient,
and hydraulic radius) are constant. That descriptive explanation was an attempted
explanation for conditions of “steady state approximations” utilization.

6. Manual Report BMS 66 (4)

Applications of Fixture Units for practical implementation procedures were provided

in the Manual (3). Anticipated benefits
from newly developed procedures and
applications were indicated to be:
• Especially for large buildings;
• Better sewage transport
• More satisfactory operation
• More economical construction.

The report background had past committee

actions with input or reviews for the new
document. It is divided into two parts -
(1) General and basic requirements;
Subject matter not likely to need frequent
revision, and
(2) Matter likely to need revision to keep
abreast of current standards when revision
is advisable.

Detailed sample to both water supply and

drainage applications illustrate use of
Fixture Units. No distinctions or
differentiation for utilizations of Fixture
Units separately or for needs of
adjustments from initial developments.
The BMS 65, where the origins and

2
Early recognition for dynamics’ essential details were not readily established at that time of his
research

71
source indications were provided, the supply/discharge seemingly appear commingled
for further applications. That issue of whether there exists a need to distinguish or
utilize the aspects together or separately remains open and the subject requires
further considerations. Are there any limitations or assumed utilizations to both
aspects of piped plumbing applications? Scrutiny of those developed
bases/descriptions for developed and recommended Fixture Units from probability
of simultaneous events requires further study since of implied generalities to both
water supply and drainage does not appear or specifically addressed in published
discussion of the earlier developments as applied directly in BMS 66.

Report applications provide illustrative examples with discussion of usages to

applications for many aspects of
plumbed systems in small and large
buildings and extension to roof
drainage applications/combinations
with drains and storm systems.
However, the examples do not discuss

the aspects of load simultaneity of the

system but imply such states. Sample
from the report indicates the breadth.

7. J. FRENCH 1946 Report (7)

The task of researching Dr. Hunter’s
files following WW II was an attempt
to establish aspects from research and
developments in setting the new
method of Fixture units into
applications that had indicated

72
differences from the then accepted standard. The draft report was not published;
several aspects from a copy are indicated from materials assembled for the report.

A few examples are reproduced from that study to illustrate selected report findings.
That source indicated the limited extent of information found (or determined) from
the files and records and limited resource materials found. The study specific
“Conclusions” (shown in the reproduction) indicates “recommending that the Bureau
(NBS) should not concur in publication of the proposed (at the time) code”. Several
additional findings reported that newer considerations by Hunter after the initial
reports (BMS 65 & 66) publication seemed likely. Other selected indications are
provided in the copied materials.

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74

74
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8. Conclusions & Recommendations
The review provides an historical perspective for insights on methods developed that
introduced “Hunter Fixture Units” into practices for plumbing systems and continues
as a means for plumbing engineers/designers and as applied in adopted local
authorities’ applications for plumbing code requirements.

Considerations for further study involving probability analyses have broadly

expanded by computer numerical methods applications of Monte Carlo and other
techniques applicable to random event(s) theory and interpretations. Extensive field
usage data from CIB W62 colleagues’ presentations to W62 provide resources that
offer opportunities to generalize and further evaluate statistical loadings/simultaneity
aspects. Those efforts could contribute greatly to current thrusts for water
conservation.

Function times for water closets have decreased to about four seconds for water closet
discharges for new reductions of water consumption - down to about four or five liters,
or 1.28 gallons, that vastly alters probable simultaneous event overlaps. With that
factor for probable simultaneity a decrease of probable t/T value occurs (about 250 %)
and then simultaneity for concurrent events in usages may not correlate with the
fixture unit value of six as adopted in the Hunter curves/report.

77
Direct computational designs based upon numerical methods of solution for the
governing dynamic equations for flow in partially filled pipes (also full bore flow
techniques) also provides means for plumbing system designs (as advanced by Prof.
Swaffield and Heriot-Watt team with several others). This alternate method avoids
tabulated listings and provides great flexibility with competency for individual design
basis of many building applications and usage(s) for specifics applied to conventional
and individualistic design applications. Detailed study comparisons would be a useful
evaluation for decisions on applications from conventional tabulated values to more
exact method for plumbing systems designs.

9. Presentation of Author
Dr. Lawrence Galowin is a consultant, formerly a National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) leader in
plumbing research; now retired but serves as Guest
Researcher. Consultant in: desalination developments by
wave energy pumping for RO methods & potable water relief
by Slow Sand Filtering. He also serves on ASME national
plumbing standards committees, and continues performance
parameters research.

10. References
1. Hunter, R. B., Estimating Loads in Plumbing Systems, BMS 65, National Bureau
of Standards, December 1940
2. Using Probability to Determine Air Flows for Fume Hood Design, for Duct System
Sizing, Chiller Water Network Sizing, and HVAC Central Plant Loads, American
Chemical Society, Vol. 7, No. 5, Sept/Oct 2000
3. Hunter, R. B., Building Materials and Structures – Plumbing Manual, BMS 66
National Bureau of Standards, November 1940
4. Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing in Dwellings and Similar
Buildings, Report of the Coordinating Committee for a National Plumbing Code,
Dept. of Commerce, Domestic Series No. 28, July 1923 (Hoover Code ’24)
5. Hoover Code 28, Revised August 1928
6. Recommended Minimum Requirements for Plumbing, Report of the Subcommittee
on Plumbing, Dept. of Commerce, Elimination of Waste series, May 1931 (Hoover
Code ’32)
7. French, J. F., Design Flows and Fixture Unit Concept, Unpublished Draft Report,
National Bureau of Standards, July 1946
8 Wyly, Robert S., Investigation of the Hydraulics of Horizontal Drains in Plumbing
Systems, NBS Monograph 86, National bureau of Standards, December, 1964
9 Swaffield, J. A., Galowin, L. S., The Engineered Design of Building Drainage
Systems, Ashgate, Hampshire, England
10 Hunter, R. B., Building Materials and Structures Water-Distributing Systems for
Buildings, BMS 79, National Bureau of Standards, November,

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11. Appendix

I. From Section III Definitions and Symbols (1): Clarity of special defined elements:
A number of terms employed in the plumbing industry, and a few that are now
introduced for the first time, are defined in the sense to be used in this (and later
papers) of this series. Included are following listed elements and others in the report:

plumbing system horizontal branch

building main building drain
water distributing system building sewer
sanitary system primary branch; secondary branch
plumbing fixture vent or vent pipe
drain vent stack or main vent
fixture drain Demand load; Sewage load
waste pipe Charging load
soil pipe Receiving capacity
stack Terminal velocity

Design factor m is the particular value of r out of n fixtures that will be found in
operation a selected fraction of the time under the assumed conditions of use.
Fixture unit, or load fact, is a numerical factor which measures on some arbitrary
scale the load producing effect of a single plumbing fixture of a given kind. The use
of the fixture unit makes it possible to reduce the load-producing characteristics to a
common basis.
Specific symbols follow:
n = the total number of fixtures or supply openings of a given kind in the system.
r = the number of fixtures out of a total of n which at any given instant of observation
are found operating to impose a demand load on the supply system, or a sewage load
on the drainage system.
m = the design factor (definition above)
q = the average volume rate of flow, in gallons per minute, to or from a plumbing
fixture during actual operation. Q = the total volume of water in gallons that flows or
is discharged by a fixture at each use.
t = average duration of flow in seconds for a given kind of fixture for one use
T = average time in seconds between successive operations of any given fixture of a
particular kind
τ = time interval in seconds such that the event in question (for example, exactly r
fixtures will be found operating will occur for an aggregate off 1 second
C rn = number of combinations of n things taken r at a time
p rn = probability of exactly r fixtures out of a total of n fixtures being found in
operation at an arbitrary instant of observation
r =n

∑p
n
= the probability that some number of fixtures between r=m and r=n,
r
r =m
inclusive, will be found operating at an arbitrary instant of observation

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II. From (8) the Reference List provides some insights into topics that were of
interest in a selected number of plumbing research efforts following WW II.

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