A Self-learning Module for BS Criminology

COURSE CODE: Forensic 3

Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology

(Source: University of Central Oklahoma, 2020)

Prepared by;
RAMIL M. LAS-IGAN RCrim, CCS, MSCJSC
Instructor 1
COURSE INTRODUCTION
“Forensic chemistry” is a broad term that, if taken literally, would encompass most of the functions
within a crime laboratory. Techniques used in forensic chemistry are also used by the toxicology and trace
analysis sections. However, forensic chemistry generally refers to controlled substance or drug analysis.
Traditionally, an examiner enters a crime laboratory career through the forensic chemistry door. Working in this
area provides the opportunity for the new examiner to develop the tools required to move on to more complex
and subjective examinations. He has the opportunity to learn and master the fundamentals of evidence handling,
note taking, and report writing by processing the large volume of cases that pass through this section. Similarly,
the examiner also has the opportunity to learn and hone testimony skills. The analysis of controlled substance
exhibits is pretty straightforward. The examiner uses a series of nonspecific tests and deductive reasoning to
form an opinion concerning the contents of the exhibit under examination. He supports his opinion using
modern instrumentation that provides documentable confirmation. The thought process learned and developed
performing these black and white examinations will be invaluable experience to the examiner as he moves onto
types of examinations whose results are, at best, seen as shades of gray.

COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course provides an overview of the major disciplines of forensic chemistry and forensic toxicology,
with examples to demonstrate their specific contributions to identification, collection, preservation,
investigation, presentation, and biological and chemical analyses of physical evidence for the effective
dispensation of justice.

COURSE OUTLINE
CHAPTER I
• Module 1: Basic concepts of forensic chemistry and toxicology
CHAPTER II
• Module 2: History of Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology
Qualities of Light
CHAPTER III
• Module 3: Principles of forensic chemistry and toxicology
Chapter IV
• Module 4: Significance and value of forensic science in criminal investigation
Chapter V
• Module 5: Crime scene protocol on Forensic Chemistry related evidence
Chapter VI
• Module 6: Tests on Biological evidence:
✓ Blood and Blood Stains
✓ Semen
✓ Hair and Fibers
✓ Saliva, Urine and Feces
✓ DNA
Chapter VII
• Module 7: Tests on Physical Evidence:
✓ Gunpowder Residue
✓ Explosives
✓ Dust, dirt, debris, soil analysis
✓ Metallurgy
✓ Casting and Moulage
✓ Glass and Glass Fragments
✓ Inks and Paper
✓ Restoration of Tampered Serial Numbers
Chapter VIII
• Module 13: Drug Analysis
• Module 14: Nature of Toxicology
• Module 15: Poisons and its Classification
• Module 16: Antidotes and its Types
Chapter IX
• Module 17: Instrumentation in Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology
• Module 18: Documentation for case report
• Module 19: Legal aspect of Forensic Chemistry
 TAKE NOTE: The requirements that you have to comply in order to
evaluate your completion of this course are the following:
STUDENT PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

LECTURE AND LABORATORY

MIDTERMS
Assignment 10%
(Oral presentation, Reflective Writing, Reflective Essay and etc.)
Quiz 20%
Midterm Exam 40%
Laboratory 30%

FINALS
Assignment 10%
(Oral presentation, Reflective Writing, Reflective Essay and etc.)
Quiz 20%
Midterm Exam 40%
Laboratory 30%

Credit Grade= (Midterm Grade*.40 + Final Term Grade*.60) = 100%

TAKE NOTE: Your work shall be rated at the end of each term in accordance with the Grading System
documented in the Tarlac State University Student Manual.
1.0 – Excellent
1.25 - 1.5 – Very Good
1.75 - 2.0 – Good
2.25 - 2.5 – Satisfactory
3.75 - 3.0 – Passing
4.0 – Conditional Failure
5.0 – Failing
INC – Incomplete

OVERVIEW
The development of scientific crime detection is comparatively recent although this aspect of police
work has long been exploited in fiction, notably by Conan Doyle’s masterly creation of Sherlock Holmes.
Scientific crime detection as such may well be described as owing its birth to the St. Valentine’s Day massacre
which occurred in Chicago on February 14, 1929. A group of public minded individual was responsible for the
establishment of a scientific crime laboratory in that city which today has taken in the historical annals of police
science.
In the Philippines the first public recognition of the value of science in the proper administration of
justice was made when the position of “Medicos Titulares” was created in the Philippines by virtue of the Royal
Decree No. 188 of Spain to perform public sanitary duties and at the same time medico – legal aids to the
administration of justice. On December 15, 1884, Governor General Joaquin Javellar created a committee to
study the mineral waters of Luzon and appointed Anacleto del Rosario as chemist. Realizing the importance of
this work, the government established in September 13, 1887 the “Laboratorio Municipal de Manila” under the
inspection of the “Direccion General de Administration Civil” and the control of the “Gobierno de Provincias”
The functions of the laboratory were to make analysis, not only for food, water and others from the standpoint
of public health and legal medicine, but also of specimens for clinical purposes. Anacleto del Rosario was
appointed director after a competitive examination in June 17, 1888.

INSTRUCTION TO THE USERS

1. Ask your instructor what type of information they'll include on exams. Taking good notes is much easier
if you know what's important. Each instructor has their own way of designing their exams, so you may need to
change up your note taking strategy to fit their assessments. This information may also be included on the
syllabus.
2. Write down important information from your teacher and textbook. It may feel redundant to take notes,
since the information is in front of you. However, you’ll soon forget the facts and dates if you don’t write them
down straight away. The same goes for when you’re reading the assigned text(s) for the course/class. So, keep a
notebook dedicated to classes, and aim to take at least 1 page of notes per chapter read or 30 minutes of lecture
you've sat through. For example, you may not need to write down Abraham Lincoln’s exact height. But, you
should jot down the dates of the Civil War and the date of the Gettysburg Address, for example.
3. Organize your notes chronologically. Maintaining that chronology in the notes that you take while reading
will help you organize the information you receive. Always jot down the date of events in your notes and try to
keep things sequential.
4. Write down connections between the chronological notes you take. Studying history can often feel like
you’re memorizing a bunch of disconnected dates, names, and places. Avoid this by making the connections
explicit in the notes that you take. Then, when you’re preparing for a test or essay, you’ll be able to draw on
these connections and contextualize historical events.
5. Ask your instructor about any information you didn’t understand. Sometimes students feel embarrassed
to ask their teacher questions, but there’s no reason to feel that way. If you’re confused about a point in the
lecture or are struggling to remember any dates, names, or places, don’t hesitate to ask your teacher after class.
Or, send your teacher an inquiring email that night.
6. Reading is Not Studying. Simply reading and re – reading texts or notes is not actively engaging in the
material. It is simply re – reading your notes. Only ‘doing’ the readings for class is not studying. It is simply
doing the reading for class. Re – reading leads to quick forgetting.
Think of reading as an important part of pre – studying, but learning information requires actively engaging in
the material. (Edwards, et al. 2014)
Active engagement is the process of constructing meaning from text that involves making connections to
lectures, forming examples, and regulating your own learning. (Davis, 2007)
Active studying does not mean highlighting or underlining text, re – reading, or rote memorization. Though
these activities may help to keep you engaged in the task, they are not considered active studying techniques
and are weakly related to improved learning. (Mackenzie, 1994)
7. Ideas for Active Studying
a. Create a study guide by topic. Formulate questions and problems and write complete answers. Create your
own quiz.
Become a teacher. Say the information aloud in your own words as if you are the instructor and teaching the
concepts to a class.
b. Derive examples that relate to your own experiences.
Create concept maps or diagrams that explain the material.
Develop symbols that represent concepts.
c. Figure out the big ideas so you can explain, contrast, and re-evaluate them.
d. Work the problems and explain the steps and why they work.
e. Study in terms of question, evidence, and conclusion: What is the question posed by the instructor/author?
What is the evidence that they present? What is the conclusion?
f. Organization and planning will help you to actively study for your courses. When studying for a test, organize
your materials first and then begin your active reviewing by topic. (Newport, 2007)
g. Often subtopics are provided on the syllabi. Use them as a guide to help organize your materials. For
example, gather all of the materials for one topic (e.g., PowerPoint notes, text book notes, articles, homework,
etc.) and put them together in a pile. Label each pile with the topic and study by topics. The Learning Center
(2020)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The learning objectives include the following;
1. To be able to use a variety of brainstorming techniques to generate novel ideas of value to solve problems;
2. To have sufficient mastery of one or more media to complete the technical and formal challenges pertinent to
a body of original work;
3. To be able to clearly communicate the content and context of their work visually, orally and in writing;
4. To develop behaviors such as curiosity, initiative, and persistence that will help them engage with the world
in productive ways. Students will be able to work independently or collaboratively to achieve stated goals;
5. To know and understand significant aspects of the history; the nature; and characteristic;
6. To understand historical concepts such as continuity and change, cause and consequence, similarity,
difference and significance, and use them to make connections, draw contrasts, analyse trends, frame
historically – valid questions and create their own structured accounts, including written narratives and
analyses;
7. To understand the methods of historical enquiry, including how evidence is used rigorously to make
historical claims, and discern how and why contrasting arguments and interpretations of the past have been
constructed;
8. To gain historical perspective by placing their growing knowledge into different contexts, understanding the
connections between local, regional, national and international history; between cultural, economic, military,
political, religious and social history; and between short – term and long – term timescales;
9. To develop a better understanding of their own role;
10. To become more familiar with the concepts of interdependence, development, globalisation;
11. and to think critically.

DISCUSSION OF TOPICS
PART I
Chapter I
History of Forensic Chemistry

Development of the Scientific Crime Laboratory in the Philippines (Urbano, 2008)

The development of scientific crime detection is comparatively recent although this aspect of police
work has long been exploited in fiction, notably by Conan Doyle’s masterly creation of Sherlock Holmes.
Scientific crime detection as such may well be described as owing its birth to the St. Valentine’s Day massacre
which occurred in Chicago on February 14, 1929. A group of public minded individual was responsible for the
establishment of a scientific crime laboratory in that city which today has taken in the historical annals of
police science.
In the Philippines the first public recognition of the value of science in the proper administration of
justice was made when the position of “Medicos Titulares” was created in the Philippines by virtue of the
Royal Decree No. 188 of Spain to perform public sanitary duties and at the same time medico – legal aids to
the administration of justice. On December 15, 1884, Governor General Joaquin Javellar created a committee
to study the mineral waters of Luzon and appointed Anacleto del Rosario as chemist. Realizing the importance
of this work, the government established in September 13, 1887 the “Laboratorio Municipal de Manila” under
the inspection of the “Direccion General de Administration Civil” and the control of the “Gobierno de
Provincias” The functions of the laboratory were to make analysis, not only for food, water and others from
the standpoint of public health and legal medicine, but also of specimens for clinical purposes. Anacleto del
Rosario was appointed director after a competitive examination in June 17, 1888.

History of Crime Laboratory (Corpuz, 2015)

1858 The first medical textbook printed including pertinent
instructions related to medico-legal practice by Spanish
physician, Dr. Rafael Genard y Mas a Chief Army Physician,
the book entitled “Manual de Medicina Domestica”.
1871 Teaching of forensic medicine was included as an academic
subject in the foundation of the School of Medicine of the Real
y Pontifica Universidad de Santo Tomas on March 31.
March 31, 1876 By virtue of the Royal Decree No. 188 of the king of Spain, the
position of Medico Titulares was created and made in charge
of public sanitation and at the same time medico-legal in the
administration of justice.
December 15, 1884 Creation of a committee to study mineral waters of Luzon by
Gen. Joaquin Jovellar and Anacleto del Rosario as the
chemist
September 13, 1887 Laboratorio Municipal de Manila was created that has the
following functions;
Analysis of:
a. Food
b. Water
c. Materials from standpoint of Public Health and Legal
Medicine
d. Specimens for Clinical Purposes
June 17, 1888 Appointment of Anacleto del Rosario as Director
1894 1. Rules regulating the services of “Medico Titulares y
Forences”
2. Creation of Laboratorio Medico – legal under Judicial
branch of government, under the direction of a physician
assisted by a pharmacist – chemist, Ulpiano Rodriguez as first
chemist.
1895 1. Antonio Luna established a clinical laboratory that has the
function of Chemical Analysis paralyzed in 1896 because of
the revolution.
2. Medico – legal laboratory was established in the City of
Manila and extended at the same time its services to the
provinces.
1898 Preservation of the Spanish Forensic Medicine System by the
American Civil Government.
1899 Establishment of the first Crime Laboratory by the U.S. Army.
 First scientific laboratory on the banks of Pasig River under
Lt. R.P. Strong, an American who took charge for 2 years.
1901 Actual scientific work begun under the initiative of Dean C.
Worcester. Philippine Commission created the provincial,
insular and municipal Board of Health, as provided in Act. No.
157, 307 and 308, in the Philippines and assigned to the
respective inspectors and presidents of the same, medico –
legal duties of the ― Medico Titulares of the Spanish regime.
The Philippine Legislature maintained the pre – existing
medico – legal system in full force in the Administrative Code.
July 1, 1901 Bureau of Government Laboratories (BGL) was created by
virtue of Act No. 156 by the Civil Commission, and its purpose
is to;
a. Perform biological and chemical analysis
b. Reproduction of vaccines and sera
Dr. Paul C. Freer became the first director on June 21 but
assumed position on September 21.
1919 The University of the Philippines created the Department of
Legal Medicine and Ethics with the head having salary of Php.
4,000.00 per annum, half – time basis, with Dr. Sixto de Los
Angeles as the chief.
January 10, 1922 The head of the Department of Legal Medicine and Ethics
became the Chief of the Medico – legal department of the
Philippine General Hospital without pay.
March 10, 1922 The Philippine Legislature enacted Act. No. 1043 which is
incorporated in the Administrative Code as Section 2465
provides that the Department of Legal Medicine, University of
the Philippines, became branch of the Department of Justice.
October 14, 1924 Legal Medicine as branch of the DOJ and at the same time an
integral part of UP under Act No. 3043.
December 10, 1937 Commonwealth Act. No. 181 was passed creating the Division
of Investigation under the Department of Justice. The Medico
– Legal Section was made an integral part of the Division with
Dr. Gregorio T. Lantin as the chief.
March 31, 1938 Department of Legal Medicine was Abolished and was turned
over to the medico – legal section of the DI
March 3, 1939 The Department of Legal Medicine of the College of Medicine,
University of the Philippines was abolished and its functions
were transferred to the Medico – Legal Section of the Division
of Investigation under the Department of Justice.
October 1939 Philippine Constabulary having its own medico – legal office
with chemical laboratory assisting in the investigation of
crimes within their jurisdiction.
July 4, 1942 1. President Jose P. Laurel consolidated by E.O. all different
Law Enforcing Agencies
2. Creation of the Bureau of Investigation (NBI) on May 8,
1944 under R.A. 157.
1945 1. Creation of the Criminal Investigation Laboratory with the
office of the Medical Examiners by the Provost Marshall of
U.S. Army
2. Dr. Mariano Lara as the Chief Medical Examiner
3. Manila Police Department had its own Criminalistics
facilities and equipment several years back
4. National Bureau of Investigation performed medico – legal
works has activated
5. Philippine Constabulary Crime Laboratory in 1945
activated the Fingerprint Identification Unit of G – 2
(Intelligence) by the Armed Forces of the Western Pacific
(WESPAC) of the Military Police Command of the Philippine
Army and the contributors are;
a. U.S. Army Lt. Nathaniel Darby
b. Capt. Agapit Figueroa who was commended on the many
shortcoming in terms of equipment and facilities
Later 1. Forensic Chemistry added to the Fingerprints Unit
2. Criminal Investigation Services (CIS) was established in the
Constabulary.
1947 Ballistics, Photography and Fingerprint record unit was
changed to Criminal Laboratory branch of the Constabulary
headed by Capt. Agapit Figueroa
June 1947 Republic Act. No. 157, creating the Bureau of Investigation
was passed. The Bureau of Investigation was created by virtue
of an executive order of the President of the Philippines.
Under the bureau, a medico – legal Division was created with
 Dr. Enrique V. Delos Santos as the Chief. There exists a
Medico – Legal Division in the Criminal Laboratory Branch of
the G – 2 of the Philippine Constabulary. All provincial,
municipal and city health officers, physicians of hospitals,
health centers, asylums, penitentiaries and prisons, and
colonies are ex – officio medico legal officers. In remote places
were the service of a registered physician was not available, a
― Cirujano Ministrante may perform medico – legal work.
However, after the approval of Republic Act No. 1982 on June
5, 1954 which provided for the creating of rural health unit to
each municipality composed of municipal health officer, a
public nurse, a midwife and a sanitary inspector virtually
abolished the appointment of Cirujano Ministrante, thereby
making qualified physicians to perform medico – legal
functions.
June 18, 1949 Republic Act No. 409 which was later amended by Republic
Act No. 1934 provides for the creation of the Office of the
Medical Examiners and Criminal Investigation Laboratory
under the Police Department of the City of Manila.
1951 Medico – legal section was created under Col. Jesus T.
Mendoza and new sections are added like;
a. Mobile Unit
b. Lie Detection Section
c. Physical Identification Section
1959 1. Technical Laboratory branch got its independent status
designed as Philippine Constabulary Forensic Laboratory.
2. Philippine Constabulary Laboratory soon became the PNP
Crime Laboratory with the abolition of the Philippine
Constabulary.
December 23, 1975 Presidential Decree No. 856 was promulgated, and provides
the following: 1. Person authorized to perform autopsies: a)
health officers, b) medical officers of law enforcement
agencies, and c) members of the medical staff of accredited
hospitals. 2. Autopsies shall be performed in the following
cases: a) whenever required by special laws, b) upon order of
a competent court, a mayor and a provincial or city fiscal, c)
upon written request of police authorities, d) whenever the
Solicitor General, provincial or city fiscal deem it necessary to
disinter and take possession of the remains for examination
to determine the cause of death, and e) whenever the nearest
kin shall request in writing the authorities concerned to
ascertain the cause and nature of death.
At present Two (2) distinct crime laboratory in the Philippines;
a. Forensic Chemistry Division of the National Bureau of
Investigation
b. Philippine National Police Crime Laboratory

Chapter II
Introduction to Forensic Chemistry

A. Forensic Chemistry – This refers to:

a. The application of Chemical Principles in the examination of physical evidences. It is Chemistry applied in
the elucidation of legal problems. (Corpuz, 2015)
b. The branch of Chemistry that deals with the application of chemical principles in the solution of problems
that arise in connection with the administration of justice. (Urbano, 2008)
B. Scope of Forensic Chemistry – Forensic Chemistry embraces a large and diversified field. It includes not
only the chemical side of criminal investigation with which it is generally associated with the public mind but
also the analysis of any material the quality of which may give rise to legal proceedings. Forensic Chemistry is
not limited to purely chemical questions involved in legal proceedings. It has invaded other branches of
forensic sciences notably legal medicine, ballistics, questioned documents, dactyloscopy and photography.
(Urbano, 2008)

C. Roles of Forensic Chemistry (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Speedy Investigation
b. Solution of Crimes

D. Chemical Findings are used in: (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Convicting the guilty
b. Clearing the innocent

E. Scope of Forensic Chemistry (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Includes the chemical side of investigation
b. Analysis of material leading to legal proceedings
c. Not only purely chemical questions but aspects of Forensic Science

F. Stages in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry (Corpuz, 2015)

1. Collection or Reception of the specimen to be examined – It is most important that whenever possible
the chemist should personally collect the entire specimen necessary for the examination. Unless this is done,
something essential to the elucidation of the problem may be omitted and in some cases questions regarding
the collection and transit of the specimen are raised during the trial. In the collection of specimen the
following guiding principles must be observed in the practice of Forensic Chemistry:
a. Sufficiency of the specimen – Police is usually inclined to be niggardly in taking samples. This
mistake should be avoided.
b. Standard for comparison – If the evidence in question is found in the presence of foreign
substance, a sample of the foreign substance must be submitted for analysis.
c. Maintenance of individuality – Each evidence must be collected and preserved as a separate
sample. There must be no mixing or intermingling of unknown to known.
d. Labeling and Sealing – Evidence will have no value in court inspite of the good report of the expert
if the specimen cannot be identified and possibility of tampering excluded.
2. Actual Examination of Specimen – The first step in the examination of an article is to scrutinize it
carefully and write down in the laboratory notebook a complete description of its external appearance
including the manner in which it is secured and particulars of the sealing.
a. Scrutinize, document complete description of external appearance, manner of collection and
secured.
b. Take photographs if possible.
c. Weigh, measure, record.
3. Communication of Result – The results of the examination conducted will be communicated to the
requesting party in the form of a written report which must include an enumeration of the articles received for
examination with detailed description of the packing, sealing and labeling, date of receipt and from whom
received the purpose of the examination, the findings and conclusion. The findings should include a brief but
sufficient record of all significant facts noted during the examination.
4. Court Appearance – The written report of the chemist is usually supplemented at a later date by oral
evidence if the case is brought to court or fiscal’s office. In court appearance the witness must be composed
and as much as possible avoid being irritated by upbraiding of the opposite counsel.

I. Six Golden Rules (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Go slowly – Good work cannot be buried, therefore take all the time necessary to make the case complete,
no matter how urgent it may appear or how pressing others may be of the result; it is generally possible to
adjourn a case if the work cannot be finished in time. (Urbano, 2008)
b. Be thorough – Make a careful and minute examination of everything and do not be satisfied with a
qualitative analysis if a quantitative one be possible; it always pays to do too much rather than too little and it
is difficult to foresee what will or will not be requires in court. (Urbano, 2008)
c. Take notes – Keep a full, neat and clear record or everything seen and done.
d. Consult others – Many cases will lead the expert into paths with which he is not familiar, and when this
happens he should consult others who are most likely to know. (Urbano, 2008)
e. Use imagination – It enables and deductions to be made from slender and incomplete premise is very
useful. (Urbano, 2008)
f. Avoid complicated theories – The simplest explanation is usually the right one.
In the investigation of crimes, whether crime against person or property, or even crimes against the
state, physical evidence is one of the most important factors that should be given attention. The prosecuting
fiscal may win or lose a case on the physical evidence presented by the investigator. It is probably the most
damaging evidence which can break down the hardened criminal. However, these pieces of evidence that are
very valuable become lost as fast as prosecutive value is concerned. Factors Contributing to the loss of
Physical Evidence.
a. Lack of precautions preventing tampering of specimen
b. Failure in preservation
c. Failure in transport of specimen
d. Failure in identifying the specimen
e. Improper packing of specimen
In most instances the investigator mishandles the specimen without intention. An investigator
commits mistakes neither due to sheer negligence not thoughtfulness but rather due to ignorance of the
proper method of handling physical evidence. Sometimes these errors occur because the investigator is so
much occupied with the investigation and he has no time to take proper care of the specimen. (Urbano, 2008)

J. Types of Examination Used (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Qualitative Examination (What)
b. Quantitative Examination (How much)

K. Methods of Analysis (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Wet Method – Requires much time and effort.
b. High Precision Method – This refers to the utilization of UV and IR Spectrophometry.

L. Techniques Used in Forensic Chemistry (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Microscopy – This refers to the technical field of using microscopes to view samples & objects that cannot
be seen with the unaided eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye). (Edinburgh
Imaging, 2018)
b. Photography – (Preservation of evidence) this refers to the study concerning the duplication of images
through the action of light, upon sensitized materials (photographic paper or film) with the aid of mechanical
device (camera) and its accessories, and the chemical processes (film developing and printing) involved
therein. (Sarmiento, n.d.)
c. Invisible Rays – This refers to the use of invisible spectrum of light such as UV, IR, X-ray and etc. for the
identification and evaluation of pieces of evidence.
d. Chromatography – This refers to biophysical technique that enables the separation, identification, and
purification of the components of a mixture for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Proteins can be purified
based on characteristics such as size and shape, total charge, hydrophobic groups present on the surface,
and binding capacity with the stationary phase. (Coskun, 2016)
e. Electrophoresis – This refers to laboratory technique used to separate DNA, RNA, or protein molecules
based on their size and electrical charge. An electric current is used to move molecules to be separated
through a gel. Pores in the gel work like a sieve, allowing smaller molecules to move faster than larger
molecules. The conditions used during electrophoresis can be adjusted to separate molecules in a desired size
range. (Austin, n.d.)
f. Spectrography – This refers to the technique of using a spectrograph, an optical
device for breaking light down into a spectrum and recording the results
photographically. (The Free Dictionary, n.d.)
g. Laser Technique – This refers to methods of sampling and chemical analysis serve as less destructive
means to analyze precious sample specimens by requiring less material per measurement and providing
superior spatial resolution compared to traditional solution and/or bulk methods of chemical analysis. (Arevalo
Jr., 2014)
h. Mass Spectrometry – This refers to the field dealing with separation and analysis of substances according
to the masses of the atoms and molecules of which the substance is composed. (Counterterrorist Detection
Techniques of Explosives, 2007)
i. Spectrophotometry – This refers to a method used to estimate the level of an analyte in solution. It relies
on the principle that materials absorb light of a certain wavelength as it passes through the solution. Beer’s
Law states that the amount of light of a particular wavelength absorbed by a substance across a constant
distance (lightpath) is proportional to the concentration of that substance. (The University of Queensland, 2017)
j. Neutron Activation Analysis – This refers to a nuclear process used for determining the concentrations of
elements in a vast amount of materials. NAA relies on excitation by neutrons so that the treated sample emits
gamma – rays. It allows the precise identification and quantification of the elements, above all of the trace
elements in the sample. NAA has applications in chemistry but also in other research fields, such as geology,
archeology, medicine, environmental monitoring and even in the forensic science. (Canella, 2012)
k. XRD (X-ray Diffraction) – This refers to a rapid analytical technique primarily used for phase
identification of a crystalline material and can provide information on unit cell dimensions. The analyzed
material is finely ground, homogenized, and average bulk composition is determined. (Dutrow and Clark, 2020)
l. DNA Typing aka DNA Profiling – This refers to a laboratory procedure that detects normal variations in a
sample of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA typing is most often used to establish identity, parentage, family
relationship and appropriate matches for transplantation of organs and tissues. (Butler, 2001)
m. Forensic Entomology – This refers to the study of insects/arthropods in criminal investigation. Right
from the early stages insects are attracted to the decomposing body and may lay eggs in it. By studying the
insect population and the developing larval stages, forensic scientists can estimate the postmortem index, any
change in position of the corpse as well as the cause of death. (Joseph et.al., 2011)
n. Atomic Absorption spectrometry (AAS) – This refers to an analytical technique that measures the
concentrations of elements. Atomic absorption is so sensitive that it can measure down to parts per billion of
a gram (µg dm – 3) in a sample. The technique makes use of the wavelengths of light specifically absorbed by
an element. (Royal Society of Chemistry, n.d.)

M. Characteristics of Tools and Techniques Used (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Sensitivity
b. Specificity
c. Rapidity

N. Principle Used in Forensic Chemistry (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Law of Individuality – Every object, natural or man – made has an individuality which is not duplicated in
any other object.
b. Law of Progressive Change – Everything changes with the passage of time.
c. Principle of Comparison – Only “likes” can be compared.
d. Principle of Analysis – The analysis can be no better than the sample analyzed.
e. Law of Probability – All identifications, definite or indefinite, are made consciously or unconsciously on the
basis of probability.

O. Crime Scene Vocabulary (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Crime Scene – Any physical location in which a crime has occurred or is suspected of having occurred.
Type of Crime Scenes
1. Primary Crime Scene – The original location of the crime or accident.
2. Secondary Crime Scene – An alternated location, such as where additional evidence may be found.
b. Suspect – Person thought to be capable of committing a crime.
c. Accomplice – Second person associated with committing a crime.
d. Alibi – Statement of where a suspect was at the time of a crime.
e. Evidence – Is a means, sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a judicial proceedings the truth respecting a
matter of fact.
Kinds of Evidence
1. Testimonial Evidence – Would be any witnessed accounts of an incident or crime.
2. Physical Evidence – Any material items that would be present on the crime scene or the victims.
Presented in a crime investigation to prove or disprove the facts of the issue. E.g. DNA, Body itself, Weapon
used, Pieces of carpet, Blood and other body fluids, Fingerprints or casts of footprints or tire prints and etc.
3. Trace Evidence – Refers evidence that is found at a crime scene in small but measurable amounts.
f. Scientific Evidence – The means sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a judicial preceding the truth
respecting a matter of wherein scientific knowledge is necessary. (Corpuz, 2015)
The investigator is a fact – finder, but he must know laws concerning the nature of his activities. He should
procure evidence in such a way that findings can be admitted in court and remain impregnable to any attack
by the opposing counsel. The average investigator is in constant contact with various investigative and law
enforcement agencies and he should learn to speak their language. Scientific evidence, therefore, may be
defined as the means sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter
of fact wherein scientific knowledge is necessary. Evidence based on or conforming the principles and
techniques of science. (Urbano, 2008)
Forms of Scientific Evidence (Corpuz, 2015)
1. Real or Autoptic Evidence – Evidence which is addressed to the senses of the court.
2. Testimonial Evidence – Comes from people, e.g. Testimony of an expert witness in court
3. Experimental Evidence – An expert witness may be required to perform certain experiments to prove a
certain matter of fact.
4. Documentary Evidence – Any written evidence presented by an expert in court.
Basic Forms of Evidence
1. Direct Evidence – That which the senses perceive. Any fact to which a witness testifies based on what he
saw, heard, smelled, touched or tasted.
2. Circumstantial Evidence – A kind of evidence which seeks to establish a conclusion by inferences from
proved facts. An evidence which establishes a fact or circumstance from which the court may infer another
fact at issue.
3. Hearsay Evidence – A statement made by a witness on the authority of another and not from his own
personal knowledge or observation. Hearsay evidence is inadmissible except with certain well – defined
exceptions. Some of the common exceptions to the rules of exclusion generally applicable to hearsay evidence
are declaration against interest, dying declarations, res gestae, reputation, public records and statement
made at a prior time.
g. Witness – One who testifies in court and has personal knowledge or experience of something. A person,
other that the suspect who is requested to give information concerning an incident or person. He may be a
victim, a complainant, an accuser, a source of information and an observer of an occurrence. A witness in
court may be an ordinary or expert witness.
Types of Witnesses
1. Ordinary Witness – It refers to one who states facts and may not express his opinions or conclusion. The
rules of court require that the person must have the following qualifications:
1. He must have the organ and power to perceive.
2. The perception gathered by his organ of sense can be imparted to others.
3. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for by the law, Sec. 26, Rules 123, Rules of
Court.
2. Expert Witness – This refers to one who possesses a special skill, be it in art, trade or science or one who
has special knowledge in matters not generally known to men or ordinary education and experience. He is a
person skilled in some art, trade or science to the extent that he possesses information not within the
common knowledge of man.
Probative value of expert testimony whether courts are, or are not bound by the testimony of an expert,
depends upon the nature of the subject of inquiry. If the subject comes within the general knowledge of the
judge, the latter will not feel bound by the conclusion of the expert as for example when the question of the
genuineness of a handwriting as compared to a standard is in issue (Paras vs. Narcisio, 35 Phil. 244; Dolor vs. Diancin,
55 Phil. 479). When, however, the subject of inquiry is of such a nature that a layman can have no knowledge
thereof, as for example, the determination of parentage by blood test, the court must be dependent on expert
evidence. In weighing the testimony of an expert, all the circumstances of the case must be taken into
consideration, among them:
1. The degree of learning of the witness;
2. The basis and logic of the conclusion; and
3. The other proof of case.

P. Crime Scene Protocol (Corpuz, 2015)

1. Interview – First step in processing a crime scene is to determine what allegedly happened, what crime
took place, and how was the crime committed. May not be factual information. It gives the investigators a
place to start.
2. Examine – Second step in the investigating a crime scene. It will help identify possible items of evidentiary
nature, point of entry and point of exit, and getting the general layout of the crime scene.
3. Photograph – Third step in the protocol. It involves creating a pictorial record of the scene and record
items of possible evidence.
4. Sketch – Fourth step in the protocol. Drawing a rough sketch. Demonstrate the layout of the crime scene
or to identify the exact position of the deceased victim or evidence within the crime scene.
5. Process – Last step in the protocol. Crime scene technician will process the crime scene for evidence, both
physical and testimonial evidence. Crime scene technicians to identify, evaluate and collect physical evidence
from the crime scene for further analysis by a crime laboratory.

Chapter III
Blood and Bloodstains

A. Blood and Bloodstains (Urbano, 2008)

The significance of blood and blood stains as evidence in crimes of violence is very obvious such that
we need not place emphasis on this. The test for the identification of blood is employed as an important part
of the routine investigation in many case of violent death. The specimen usually submitted is fresh blood or
fluid blood, dried blood and clotted blood. Very often it is brought to the laboratory in the form of dried red or
brown stains on weapons, clothing or other objects.
Blood – This refers to as highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic substances. It is
the red fluid of the blood vessels. Blood is opaque. On treatment with either, water or other reagents becomes
transparent and assumes lake color. It is faintly alkaline. Normal pH is 7.35 to 7.45.

B. Importance of the Study of Blood (Corpuz, 2015)

a. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator
b. For disputed parentage
 c. Determination of the cause of death and the length of time the victim survived the attack
d. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant
e. Determination of the origin of the flow of blood
f. Determination of the approximate time the crime was committed

C. Nature of Blood (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Largest circulating tissue of the body
b. Consists of vital substances
c. Fluid that circulates into the Cardiovascular System (CVS)

D. Function of Blood (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Transport of gases (O2 and CO2), nutrients and wastes
b. Blood regulates body temperature
c. Blood regulates pH of the body fluids
d. Blood carries injected and otherwise given medicines to the affected parts of the body

E. Kinds of Blood (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Arterial Blood – aka capillary blood, bright red in color and which is oxygenated blood.
b. Venous Blood – dark red in color, contains increased amount of carbon dioxide and which is non-
oxygenated blood.
Hemoglobin is responsible for red color, normal Pilipino has 200cc, 6 glasses means loss of life, 3
glasses will cause anemia. Hemoglobin is responsible for red color of blood which contains iron protein called
globin (protein) and hematin (organic compound of iron). 14-17 grams of hemoglobin is present for each 100
cc of blood for adult.

F. Types of Hemoglobin (Corpuz, 2015)

1. Abnormal derivatives of HB
a. Methemoglobin (Hbm) – found in Nitrates and Nitrites poisoning which is chocolate brown in color.
b. Sulfhemoglobin (HbS) – found in the presence of bacteria (clostridium perfringens) in severe constipation,
enterogenous cyanosis and blood is lavender is color.
c. Carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO) – excessive inhalation of gas from defective stoves and from automobiles
which is cherry red color of blood.
2. Normal derivatives of Hemoglobin
a. Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) – hemoglobin that is combined with oxygen
That gives color to the arterial blood.
b. Reduced Homoglobin (HbCO2) – hemoglobin that is combined with carbon dioxide that gives color to the
venous blood.

G. Composition of Blood (Urbano, 2008)

1. 45% formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells.
a. Red blood cells (Erythrocytes) – this contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen to various cells in the body. It
is circular, biconcave discs or rounded edges.
b. White blood cells (Leucocytes) – this are masses of nucleated protoplasm. It defends the body from
invading microorganisms. It also fights infection.
Kinds of white blood cells
b.1. Monocytes. They have a longer lifespan than many white blood cells and help to break down bacteria.
b.2. Lymphocytes. They create antibodies to fight against bacteria, viruses, and other potentially
harmful invaders.
b.3. Neutrophils. They kill and digest bacteria and fungi. They are the most numerous type of white blood
cell and your first line of defense when infection strikes.
b.4. Basophils. These small cells seem to sound an alarm when infectious agents invade your blood.
They secrete chemicals such as histamine, a marker of allergic disease, that help control the body's
immune response.
b.5. Eosinophils. They attack and kill parasites and cancer cells, and help with allergic responses.
c. Platelets (Thrombocytes) – this are cells that are produced by the bone marrow and are necessary for
proper clotting of blood. It is normally responsible for the retraction of blood clot.
2. Liquid Portion – 55% Plasma is the fluid or portion of blood where the cells are suspended. It is principally
composed of:
a. Water (90%)
b. Solid (10%) – largely protein in nature and consist of albumen, several globulins and fibrinogen.
a. Albumen – the most abundant protein in the blood. It binds with many drugs.
b. Globulins – the important role in the immune mechanism of the body. The globins carry drugs as well as
sex and thyroid hormones, lipids and iron.
c. Plasma – the yellowish fluids of the blood in which numerous blood corpuscles are suspended. A Straw –
yellow liquid formed when blood to which an oxalate has been added to prevent clotting is allowed to stand.
d. Serum – A straw – yellowish liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for sometimes and the
blood contracts.

H. Methods of collecting Blood (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Capillary Blood Sample – Skin/Finger/Ring Puncture, arterial blood and small quantity of blood.
Puncture sites are;
1. Ring finger (Adult and Children)
2. Ear lobes (Adults)
3. Heal or Toe (Infants and Children) – use of lancet or pricker
b. Venous Blood Sample – Larger volumes of blood and blood taken from the vein
 1. Cephalic Vein
2. Medial Cephalic Vein
3. Basilic Vein
4. Jugular Vein
c. Arterial Blood Sample (Venipuncture Method) – Larger volumes of blood and blood taken from the
arteries
1. Radial Artery
2. Brachial Artery
3. Femoral Artery
4. Carotid Artery

I. The Chronological Test for Blood (Corpuz, 2015)

a. Preliminary Test for Blood
1. Benzidine Test – an extremely sensitive test that can be applied to minute stain. For many years the most
commonly used preliminary test for blood. Its use has generally been discontinued, as it is known carcinogen.
A very delicate test and will detect blood when present in dilution of 1:300,000 parts. The Benzidine test never
fails to detect blood even when very old, decomposed stain with all sorts of contamination is examined. This
test is more sensitive than guaiacum test and is valuable as a negative result. If the stain reacts negatively it
is not blood. The positive result is only indicative that blood may be present.
Reagent :
a. Benzidine solution (a small amount of powdered Benzidine dissolved in glacial acetic acid)
b. 3% solution of Hydrogen Peroxide
Procedure: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained material on a filter paper. Add a drop of Benzidine
solution and then a drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.
Positive Result: Intense blue color produced immediately.
Limitation of the Test: Benzidine test is not specific test for blood. Positive result may be obtained from the
substances as sputum, pus, nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, clay and gum. The reaction is weaker and
produces faint coloration.
2. Phenolphthalein Test – An alternative test to Benzidine test. It can detect blood in a dilution of
1:80,000,000 parts. A positive result with this test is highly indicative of blood. The negative result is
therefore valuable and is conclusive as to the absence of blood.
Reagent:
a. Phenolphthalein solution (1 to 2 grams of phenolphthalein to 100 ml of a 25% potassium hydroxide
in water added with one gram of zinc powder heated until colorless).
b. 3% solution of Hydrogen Peroxide
Procedure: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained material on a filter paper. Add a drop of
Phenolphthalein solution and then a drop hydrogen peroxide solution.
Positive Result: Rose color develops/deep pink/permanganate color.
Limitation of the Test: The test will also give positive result to copper salts, potatoes and horseradish.
3. Guaiacum Test – A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a solution of 1:50,000
dilutions. It may not react to very old stain.
Reagent:
a. Fresh tincture of guaiac resin (few lumps of this to 95% alcohol, then filter)
b. 3% Hydrogen Peroxide solution or few drops of turpentine
Procedure: Place a small pieced of a stained fabric on a porcelain dish. Soak with fresh tincture of guaiac.
Add a few drops of Hydrogen Peroxide.
Positive Result: Beautiful blue color that appears immediately.
Limitation of the Test: The test also reacts with saliva, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron, salts, cheese, glutten,
potatoes, perspirations and other oxidizing substances.
4. Leucomalachite Green Test – This test is not as sensitive as the benzidine test.
Reagent:
a. Leucomalachite green solution (1 gram leucomalachite green dissolved in 48 ml glacial acetic acid
and diluted to 250 ml water).
b. 3% Hydrogen Peroxide
Procedure: Place a small pieced of a stained fabric on a filter paper. Add a drop of Leucomalachite green
solution and after a few seconds add a drop of hydrogen peroxide.
Positive Result: Malachite green or bluish green
5. Luminol Test – An important presumptive identification for blood. The reaction of luminal with blood
results in the production of light rather than color. By spraying luminal reagent onto a suspected item, large
areas can be quickly screened for the presence of bloodstains. The sprayed object must be located in a
darkened area while being viewed for the emission of light. Luminol test is extremely sensitive test. It is
capable of detecting bloodstains diluted up to 10,000 times. Luminol is known to destroy many important
blood factors necessary for the forensic characterization of blood, so its use should be limited to seeking out
blood invisible to the naked eye.
Positive Result: Luminescence or emission of light.
The principle involved in the four preliminary color test for blood. The peroxidase present in
hemoglobin acts as career of oxygen from the Hydrogen Peroxide to the active ingredients of the reagents
(benzidine, guaiac, phenolphthalein and leucomalachite) and produces the characteristic colored compounds
by oxidation.
Peroxidase – This refers to an enzyme that accelerates the oxidation of several classes of organic compounds
by peroxide.
b. The Confirmatory Test for Blood
The actual proof that a stain is blood consists of establishing the presence of the characteristic of
blood pigment hemoglobin or one of its derivatives. Hemoglobin is the red coloring matter of the red blood
cells of the blood.
1. Microscopic Test for Blood – Microscopic test is useful for the demonstration and mensuration of blood
corpuscles for making the distinction between mammalian, avian, piscine and reptilian blood for the
investigation of menstrual, lochial and nasal charges.
Method of Microscopic Examination:
a. Take two small fragments of the dried blood.
b. Place each fragment on separate slides with a drop of 0.9% salt solution.
c. The slides are put in a covered dist to prevent evaporation and the preparation allowed to stand for 1-2
hours.
d. One of the slides is examined as wet preparation.
e. The other preparation is spread evenly over the slide, allowed to dry and stained by:
1. Fix preparation in absolute methyl alcohol for 3 minutes. Stain in a 0.5% aqueous solution of
eosin for 1-3 minutes. Loffer’s methylene blue is added for 1-3 minutes. Eosin stains the red blood cells, white
methylene blue stains the nulei.
2. Fix smear with methyl or ethyl alcohol for 3 minutes. Pour off alcohol and flood smear with
Geimsa’s stain. Stain for 15 minutes, cover to prevent evaporation, wash in water and dry.
3. Wright’s Stain – The smear is flooded with the stain and allowed to stand for a minute.
Distilled water is added until a metallic scum forms on the surface. Let stand for 3 minutes, wash with
water and dry.
Visible Result:
a. Mammalian red blood cells – circular, biconcave discs with nucleus. Appear as characteristics non –
nucleated discs. Exception is camel and closely related animal as llama whore red blood cells are oval but also
without nucleus.
b. Birds, fish and reptile red blood cells – larges, oval and nucleated.
c. Amphibian red blood cells – larger than mammals, oval and nucleated.
d. Lamprey eel red blood cells – circular and nucleated.
2. Microchemical Test and Microcrystalline Test for Blood – The identification of blood can be made more
specific if microchemical or microcrystalline test is applied or performed. Takayama test and Teicmann test
are the most popular ones.
2.1. The Teicmann Test – The test depends on the addition of the specific chemicals to the blood so
that characteristics crystals with hemoglobin will be formed.
Reagent: Sodium Chloride, Glacial Acetic Acid
Procedure: Place a minute fragment of the stain on a glass slide. Add a small crystal of sodium chloride and 2
to 3 drops of acetic acid. Place cover slip and heat gently over small flame to evaporate the acid. Cool and
examine under the high power objective.
Positive Result: Dark brown rhombic crystal of haemin or haematin chloride arranged singly or in cluster.
Limitation of the Test: The test will also give positive results for indigo – dyed fabrics. If the stain is old or
washed or is changed by chemical reagents, the crystals are not formed. The addition of too much salt or
presence or moisture in the acid or over – heating of the slide may result in failure.
2.2. Acetone – Haemin Test – The test depends on the addition of specific chemicals to the blood so
that characteristic crystal with hemoglobin will be formed.
Reagent: Acetone, Dilute Acetic Acid or Oxalic Acid
Procedure: Place dried stain on glass slide and cover with cover slip with a needle interposed to prevent direct
contact of the cover slip with the slide. Add a drop of acetone then a drop of acetic acid.
Positive Result: Small dark, Diachronic Acicular Crystals of Acetone Haemin.
2.3. Haemochromogen Crystal Test of the Takayama Test – A delicate test for the presence of
hemoglobin. The test depends on the addition of specific chemicals to the blood so that characteristic crystals
of hemoglobin derivatives will be formed.
c. Spectroscope Test for Blood – The most delicate and reliable test for the determination of the presence of
blood in both old and recent stains. This test is performed by means of an optical instrument known as
Spectroscope, an optical instrument for forming and examining spectra.
Procedure: Dissolved bloodstain in water or saline solution. Place in small chamber (glass) with parallel sides
so arranged that the rays of light will pass directly through it. The chamber is placed in the spectroscope and
the instrument is so adjusted that the spectrum is clearly visible.
Positive Result: Upon absorbing some of the rays from the spectrum, it produced characteristic dark colored
bands, which vary with the type of blood pigment.
Principle involved in the Spectroscopic Test is the absorption properties of translucent colored fluids
can be observed on the solar spectrum.
c. Precipitin Test for Blood – The precipitin test is the standard test used to determine whether the
stain/blood is of human or animal origin. The precipitin test is very sensitive and requires only a small
amount of blood for testing. Human bloodstain dried for as long as 10 to 15 years and longer may still give a
positive precipitin reaction. Even extracts of tissues from mummies four to five years old have given positive
reaction with the test. Experience has shown that human bloodstain diluted by washing in water and left with
only a faint color may still yield a positive precipitin reaction.
Reagent: Precipitin/Antiserum
Procedure: Scrape off bloodstain if on hard material. Powder the scraping and extract with saline solution. If
the stain is cloth, paper or similar material, cut a small portion and the place in a test tube and add extract
with saline solution. Allow mixture to stand overnight and centrifuge to clean the solution. Dilute with saline
solution. Layer an extract of the bloodstain on top of the human antiserum/precipitin in a capillary tube.
Positive Result:
1. Development of a white cloudy line at the contact point of the fluids that appears immediately or
within one or two minutes.
2. Human blood, or for that matter, any protein of human origin in the extract will react specifically
with anti – bodies present in the serum as shown by the formation of cloudy ring or band at the interface of
the two liquids.
Principle Involved in the Precipitin Test: When a rabbit is injected a human blood serum or whole human
blood, the precipitin that develops in its serum will react with the protein of human blood serum, other
human body fluids and other human proteins or any other protein as human origin.
Limitation of the Test: The precipitin reacts not only with blood proteins but also with other body proteins
as those on saliva, semen, mucus and other body fluids. For this reason the test does not identify specifically
human body but only a protein material from the specific animal type. In order that a conclusion of human
blood is arrived the precipitin test must be corroborated by supplementary chemical, microscopic or
spectroscopic tests. The specificity and delicacy of the precipitin reaction is great, but the reaction may be
inhibited or even destroy by a number of factors. Chemicals like acid, alkalis, alcohols, cresols, formaldehyde,
corrosive sublimate or other germicide may alter blood to such as extent that the reaction cannot be formed.
Heat had the same effect. Fluid blood loses its power may stand 150. Rust and postmortem decomposition
may react with it poorly. Old stains may be identified after long period of time.

J. The Blood Grouping Test of Fresh Blood

If the specimen is human blood the next question is did it come from the victim, the accused or from
other persons? So the origin of blood or bloodstains will be determined by the identification of the blood
groups to which it belongs, in short to what blood group does it belong? This identification is carried out on
both fresh blood and bloodstains. Human blood of all races can be divided into definite groups.
In the blood grouping of fresh blood A – B – O system is used. It was Land Steiner who discovered the
four blood groups namely group O, group A, Group AB. He named the four groups on the basis of the
agglutinogen or antigen content of the red blood cells. Antigens are characteristic chemical structures or
“principles” that are found on the surface of each red blood cell, which stimulates the production of
agglutinins. There are two agglutinogens classified as agglutinogen A and agglutinogen B on the other hand
serum contains proteins or “principles” known as antibodies or agglutinins, which cause agglutination or
clumping together of the red blood cells. They are antitoxin substance within the body, which reacts when
confronted with a specific antigen to protect the system. There are two agglutinins classified as anti – A and
anti – B in the serum. Agglutinogen A and B are present at birth while agglutinins are demonstrable in about
50% of newly born infants. If an individual belongs to group A this indicates that his red blood cells has
agglutinogen A located on its sureface. Similarly all group B persons have antigen B, all group AB persons
have antigen A and antigen B or group O persons have neither antigen A nor antigen B.
When the serum of group A blood was examined, anti – B was found present and no anti – A. Similarly
group B blood contains only anti – A, group O has both anti – A and anti – B and group AB blood contains
either anti – A or anti – B.

Blood Group Antigen/Agglutinogen on Antibodes/Agglutinin in

the Red Blood Cell Serum
A A Anti – B
B B Anti – A
AB A and B Neither Anti – A or Anti – B
O Neither A nor B (none) Anti – A and Anti – B

Identification of Blood Group with known Anti Serum

Anti – A serum + Anti – B serum + Antigen Blood
Whole Blood Whole Blood Present Group
+ - A A
- + B B
+ + A and B AB
- - Neither A nor B O

K. Heredity of the Blood Groups (Inheritance of Blood Groups)

Knowledge of the laws of genetics will make it easier to understand the principle involved in the
inheritance of blood groups. The inheritance of human blood groups is predetermined by the presence or
absence in the chromosomes of two factors or genes called gene A and gene B. Since each body cell has a pair
of chromosomes, each of which carries or fails to carry one of these factors, an individual’s genetics
constitution may be represented by AB, AA, AO, BB, BO, or OO where O represents the absence in the
chromosomes of either the A or B factor. In the joining of the ovum and spermatozoon during fertilization, a
new pair of genes is formed corresponding to the gene found in the chromosomes of the parents called zygote.
If the genes are homozygous or pure, the characters are transmitted unchanged from generation to
generation. If the two genes are not the same which is called heterozygous or hybrid a new combination will
arise in the next generation.

L. Beinsten’s Theory of Blood Group Inheritance

Beinstein’s theory postulates the presence of three allelic genes A, B and O. According to him the
blood group of any individual is determined by combinations of A, B and O in a particular pair of
chromosomes. One gene is derived from the father and the other gene from the mother. Genes A and B are
dominant over gene O. A and B determine the presence of the corresponding agglutinogens, while O
determines their absence. The possible combination of the three genes arranged in determines their absence.
The possible combination of this three genes arranged in pairs give rise to six different genotypes
corresponding to the four phenotypes or the blood groups. There are ten different mating possible between the
four blood groups.

The Ten Different Matings Possible Between the Four Blood Groups
Parents Group of Children Possible Not Possible
1. O x O O A , B , AB
2. A x O A,O B , AB
 3. A x A A,O B , AB
4. B x O B,O A , AB
5. B x B B,O A , AB
6. A x B O , A , B , AB None
7. AB x O A,B O , AB
8. AB x O A , B , AB O
9. AB x B A , B , AB O
10. AB x AB A , B , AB O

M. Definitions of Terms
1. Gene – This refers to any of the complex chemical units in the chromosomes by which heredity characters
are transmitted that occur in pair that is a factor occurring singly in a garmete. There are two genes or factors
called gene A and gene B, These are found in the chromosomes. Since chromosomes go on pair, each of which
carries or fails to carry one of these genes and an individual’s genetic constitution may be represented by AA,
AB, BB, BO, AO, OO which are called genotypes, where O represents the absence in the chromosomes of
either the A or B gene that is responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics.
2. Chromosomes – This refers to any of the microscopic rod – shaped bodies bearing genes responsible for
the transmission of hereditary characteristics are observed to occur in pairs.
3. Phenotypes – This refers to term used to denote the expression of the inherited characteristics as found in
the individual that is actually the blood groups.
4. Genotype – This refers to paired genes. It is either homozygous or heterozygous.
5. Homozygous genotype or pure genotype – This refers to paired genes that are similar.
6. Heterozygous genotype or hybrid – This refers to paired genes that are dissimilar or not alike.
7. Gamete – This refers to sexual cells; reproductive cell that unites with one another to from cell that
develops into a new individuals.
8. Sperm cell or microgamete – This refers to male sexual cell.
9. Egg cell or macrogamete – This refers to female sexual cell.
10. Zygote – This refers to pair of genes occurring in a gamete produced during fertilization. The cell formed
by the union of an ovum and sperm.
11. Alleles – This refers to pairs or contrasting genes, which determines the expression of the inherited
characteristics of an individual.

N. The M – N System of Blood Group

In 1927 Landsteiner and Levine discovered two new agglutinogens in human red blood cells that
define three types of blood, namely type M, Type N and Type MN. These are independent of the agglutinogens
A and B. The human sera, however do not contain natural agglutinins for M. The agglutinins can be
demonstrated only by heter – agglutination reaction with appropriate immune rabbit sera. So anti – M and
anti – N were produce by heter – agglutination reaction and just like Anti – A and anti – B, it determines the
presence of agglutinogen M and N in the Red blood cells.

Identification of Blood Type with known Anti – M and Anti – N

Anti – M + Whole Anti – N + Whole Antigen Present Type
Blood Blood
+ - M M
- + N N
+ + M and N MN

Inheritance of the Three M – N types

Six different matings are possible between the three blood types. Types MN are always heterozygous.
The heredity of agglutinogens M and N according to Landsteiner and Levine depends upon a single pair of
allelic genes and M and N which give rise to the three genotypes MN, M and N respectively.

The Six Different Matings Possible Between the Three Blood Types
Types of Parent Type of Children Possible Impossible
1. M x N M N , MN
2. M x MN M , MN N
3. M x N MN M,N
4. N x N N M , MN
5. N x MN N , MN M
6. MN x MN M , N , MN None

O. Grouping on Dried Bloodstains

Absorption technique or absorption – elution is an indirect grouping technique of bloodstains and it
depends on the detection of agglutinogen in the dried blood.
In dried blood grouping one cannot use the direct method as used in grouping of fresh blood because
in direct the identification of A and B antigens is accomplished by directly reacting the blood with Anti – A
and Anti – B serum. In dried blood, the red blood cells are already ruptured due to dying, leaving no cells in
the stain to be agglutinated. However, although the cells have disintegrated, the antigens present on their
surface remain and are still identifiable by indirect means.

Identification of Bloodstain with known Cells (Absorption Technique)

A cells + Anti – A + B cells + Anti – B + Antibody Blood
Bloodstain Bloodstain Present Group
+ - Anti – A B
 - + Anti – B A
+ + Anti – A and B O
- - Neither Anti – A or AB
Anti – B

P. Important of Blood Group Data

Question of illegitimacy and relationship in many cases may be solved by means of the blood groups
as determined by the agglutinogens A, B, M and N.
1. Determination of whether a man accused of fathering a child out or wedlock could or not be its parents.
2. Determination of whether a child born of a married woman could or could not have been fathered by her
legal spouse.
3. Determination of whether a child could or could not belong to a given set of parents in the case of
accidental interchange of infants in hospital.
4. Determination of whether a child who has been lost and later recovered after a long interval could or could
not belong to a given set of parents.

Chapter IV
Semen and Seminal Stain

A. Semen and Seminal Stain

The examination of semen and seminal stains is an important part in the routine investigation of
sexual offenses like cases of rape, adultery, sodomy, bestiality and sexual homicide.
Semen – This refers to a whitish fluid of the male reproductive tract consisting of spermatozoa suspended in
secretion of accessory glands.
Parts of the Semen
a. Seminal Fluid – has characteristic alkaline odor, it is viscid, gelatinous and sticky. It becomes more liquid
in character when exposed to air for one and half – hour due probably to enzymatic reaction that is slightly
alkaline in reaction.
b. Formed Cellular Elements which includes:
1. Spermatozoa or Sperm Cell – This refers to small objects with a pear – shaped head behind
is a short neck and then a tail of about ten times as long as the head.
2. Epithelial Cells
3. Crystal of Choline and Lecithin
One point five (1.5) ml to 3.5 ml is the normal quantity of seminal fluid in single ejaculation 400 to 500
million is the total number of spermatozoa contained in a single ejaculate from a healthy young man.

B. Cases where in Ejaculation has no Spermatozoa

1. Azoospermia – This refers to the complete absence of spermatozoa from the ejaculate. This diagnosis must
be confirmed by centrifugation of a semen specimen for 15 min at room temperature with high-powered
microscopic examination of the pellet and a centrifugation speed of at least 3,000g. (US National Library of Medicine
National Institutes of Health, 2004)
2. Oligospermia – This refers to an abnormally low concentration of sperms in the seminal fluid. Fertile
semen contains about 100,000,000 sperms per ml. Semen with less than about 20,000,000 sperms per ml
are likely to be infertile. (Youngson, 2005)
3. Necrospermia – This refers to a condition in which there are dead or immobile spermatozoa in the semen.
(Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary, 2012)
C. Collection, Preservation, Packing and Transit Semen Stained Specimens
1. Seizure of wearing apparel must be done as soon as possible. It often happened that washing the clothes,
chemise, panties and trousers has destroyed important traces.
2. In packing of wearing apparel there should be no friction between the apparel and the stain. The packing of
wearing apparel or objects carrying seminal stain must be made in such a manner that there is no friction
against the stain. Semen in dried condition is very brittle and is liable to break into small particles which can
be lost. Friction may cause the breaking of the spermatozoa.
3. Specimen should not be rolled for transit. Gently lay between two sheets of cardboard or similar material
which are tied together with a string to avoid friction.
4. Smaller objects like hair should be placed in a test tube and corked.
5. Specimen must be thoroughly dried before packing. Presence of moisture certain bacteria act on the
protein constituents of semen, digest the dried protein and thus destroy its stiffness.
6. Fluid semen should be placed in a test tube. It may be preserved by a few drops of 10% solution of formalin
during hot weather where there is danger of putrefaction.

D. The Examination Semen and Seminal Stain

a. The Physical Examination of Seminal Stains
1. Semen when dry gives stiff, starchy feeling to the cloth and produces slight deepening of the color with the
disappearance of the odor. Stiffness disappears if specimen is not properly dried in open air. Presence of
moisture, bacteria will act on the protein constituent or semen, digest the dried protein thus destroy its
stiffness. Also the bacteria will remove the albuminous matter and also disintegrate the spermatozoa.
2. Seminal stain exhibits bluish fluorescence under the ultraviolet light. Ultraviolet light is used to locate
invisible seminal stain on cloth. It gives bluish fluorescence provided the cloth is clean and not dark colored.
Bluish fluorescence is not specific for seminal stains and may be seen in some other albuminous materials.
3. Grayish white, sometimes yellowish stain which is typical of seminal fluid.
4. Have appearance or outline of contour map.
5. May have reddish tint in case of old man.
b. The chemical Examination of Seminal Stains
1. Florence Test – This is known after the name of Dr. Florence of Lysons, who first introduce it.
Reagent/Chemical:
Florence reagent (1.65 gram potassium iodide and 2.5 grams iodine in 30cc of water)
Procedure:
a. Cut a portion of the stain and divide into small bits then soak in saline solution.
b. Transfer into a slide, tease and evaporate the fluid.
c. Add a drop of Florence reagent and cover with cover slip.
d. Examine under microscope
Visible/Positive Result: Crystals of Choline Periodide, which are dark brown, rhombic or needle shaped that
occur singly or in cross or even grouped in clusters. It resembles haemin crystal in shape, size and color.
Negative reaction may be due to absence of seminal fluid or spermatic fluid may have not reacted with
the reagent due to the very low Choline content because of over dilution. Florence test is only preliminary.
Presence of spermatozoa confirms the presence of seminal stain.
Limitation of Florence Test:
a. Clothes with seminal stains are not dried thoroughly so Choline Periodide is decomposed completely, so
result is negative.
b. If stain is wet and mixed with blood.
c. After 24 hours it is negative due to rapid decomposition but still spermatozoa can be detected.
d. Even after a long period (2 ½ years) it will give positive result with Florence test provided thoroughly dried
and preserved and if free from blood and other albuminous substance.
If the seminal stain contains too much albumen as it is mixed with blood, the albumen interferes to
some extent in the test by reacting with so much of the iodine as to leave too little for the production of
Florence’s crystals.
2. Barberio’s Test
Reagent/Chemical:
Saturated Aqueous or Alcoholic Solution of Picric Acid
Procedure:
a. Soak a piece of stained material in a 2.5% solution of Trichloroacetic acid for one hour in a test tube.
b. Centrifuge the test tube.
c. Get the clear liquid part and add to an equal amount of a saturated Aqueous or Alcoholic solution of Picric
Acid on a glass slide.
d. Observe under a microscope.
Positive Results: Crystals that are slender yellow tinted, rhomboid needles with obtuse angle or appear as
ovoid crystals. These crystals are made of specimen picrate.
(Take Note: Barberio’s test is almost specific for human semen. The seminal stain as old as six years are said
to respond to the test. This test is carried out with fresh, dried or dissolved semen.)
3. Acid Phosphatase Test – This test is the best way to locate and at the same time characterized a seminal
stain. It has replaced the Florence test in reliability and was shown to be specific for human and higher apes.
The test is based fundamentally upon the extraordinarily high acid phosphatase content of human male
ejaculate. Phosphatase is the enzymes present in semen.
Reagent/Chemical:
100 mg of Alpha naphthyl phosphoric acid and 200 mg of Brentamine fast blue B (Raju and Iyengar, 1964)
Procedure:
a. Moisten with water a piece of filter paper.
b. Swab the stained area with the filter paper.
c. The acid phosphatase will be transferred to the filter paper.
d. Add a drop or two Alpha naphthyl phosphoric acid and Brentamine fast blue B.
Positive Results: Purple color. Purple color is indicative of Acid Phosphatase.
3.1. Alternative Acid – Phosphatase Test
Reagent/Chemical: 23 grams of sodium chloride, 0.55 ml of glacial acetic acid, 2 grams of sodium acetate
trihydrate in 90 ml water, a suspension of 30 mg of anthraquinone – 1 diazonium chloride and 50 grams of
calcium – 1 – napthyl phosphate in 1 ml of 1% aerosol.
Procedure:
a. Treat the stained area in a water bath a pH 5 containing Alpha naphthyl phosphoric acid as a substance
and anthroquinone – 1 – diazonium chloride.
Postive Result: Orange – red pigment.
Principle of the Test: Alphanaphtol by the acid phosphatase combines with the diazonium salt to form the
color. The reaction takes place for 30 seconds on fresh stains.
Limitation of the Test: Blood lengthens the time but does not interfere.
c. The microscopic Examination of Semen and Seminal Stains – The chief purpose of microscopic
examination is to determine the presence of spermatozoa. The identification of spermatozoa is at present the
only specific test for semen.
Procedure:
Determination of spermatozoa in fresh semen is relatively easier than in stains.
a. Transfer a drop of specimen to a glass slide.
b. Add a drop of water or saline solution and cover with cover slip.
c. Examine under the high power objective.
d. Observe for the presence of spermatozoa.
Determination of Spermatozoa in Seminal Stain:
a. A piece of material is teased on a slide in a drop of water.
b. Allow the smear to dry and then stain with Loffler’s methylene blue for a minute, wash with water, dry and
examine under the microscope.
Limitation of the Microscopic Test:
1. Absence of sperm does not prove that the stain have not been produced by human semen.
2. Elemenrs which may obstruct detection of Spermatozoa:
a. Nature of fabric
b. Age of stain
c. Condition to which the stain was exposed before reaching the laboratory.
d. Handling the specimen.
3. Some medical jurist believes that these can be no semen without the presence of spermatozoa, but not
true in case of Aspermia or Oligospermia.
d. Biological Examination of Semen and Seminal Stain – The spermato – precipitins are of value in the
identification of seminal fluid in certain cases like for examples, bestiality when it may be desirable to
differentiate between the human seminal fluid from that of an animal. This test was originally proposed by
Farnum in 1901. He injected human semen to a rabbit from five to eight times of intervals from six to eight
days. The serum obtained from the blood of the rabbit gave a precipitate with both recent and old emulsions
of human semen. In 1928, Hektoem and Rustinant showed that an antiserum produced by immunizing
rabbits with human semen is both specie specific and semen specific. e.i. It gives a positive reaction with
human blood.
Limitation of the Test: The bacterial action that produces disintegration of the spermatozoa in seminal stain
is equally effective in decomposing and digesting the protein constituents of protein constituents completely
disintegrated cannot possibly give a positive precipitin reaction.

E. Other Stains of Medico – Legal Interest

1. Obstetrical and Gynecological Stains – This refers to examination at the scene of the crime in cases of
criminal abortion, infanticide and sex offenses may lead to the discovery of bed linen, towels, chemise, skirts,
mattresses, and blankets etc. which have stains.
2. Excrements – This refers to waste matter discharged from the body especially feces. (Merriam –
Webster, 1928)
Adults – Yellowish Brown
Infant – Greenish Yellow
3. Paints – This refers commonly to as a pigmented coating. Paint can reveal vital evidence for the forensic
scientist as it is present in many surfaces. The examination of paint usually, although not exclusively,
involves the comparison of a recovered paint sample from a crime scene with a control sample of paint which
has been taken from known source. Some examples of being transferred include:
a. Paint recovered from the clothing of a road traffic victim with paint from a vehicle.
b. Paint from two or more vehicles involved in a collision.
c. Paint recovered from a tool that may have been used in housekeeping with paint from the point
of entry.
Paint is generally encountered in vehicle accidents. Newly manufactured vehicles have a specific layer
sequence of paints. (Scottish Police Authority, 2015)
Terminologies in Forensic Analysis of Paints (U.S. Department of Justice: Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Forensic Paint
Analysis and Comparison Guidelines”, (2000)
a. Coating – This refers to a generic term for paint, lacquer, enamel, or other liquid or liquefiable material that
is converted to a solid, protective, or decorative film or a combination of these types of films after application.
b. Solvent – This refers to the liquid that holds the sold particles in paint. This must be able to evenly carry
the paint particles for application and must provide adhesion to the desired surface. The solvent will
evaporate leaving behind the solid coating. Different solvents can be used to get different surface effects.
c. Binder – The binder holds the pigment particles together into a solid film after the solvent has evaporated.
This is the most significant component of paints as it "determines many of the necessary film properties such
as adhesion, gloss level, hardness, abrasion resistance, flexibility, speed of drying and durability.
d. Pigment – This refers to particles that are very small and are suspended in the binder and solvent system.
They are not soluble in the solvent and the binder holds them together to form the surface film. Extender
pigments are used in primers and primer surfacers to enhance film properties and to determine the filling and
sanding properties of the paint film.
e. Additive – This refers to a specialist components of paint, they are used in small quantities to improve
production and storage properties of the liquid paint product as well as application and other performance
properties of the paint film. Additives may be used as corrosion inhibitors, plasticizers, driers, UV absorbers
and various other things to improve the performance of the paints.
4. Rust Stains – This resembles bloodstains, reddish – brown in color, insoluble in water and soluble in
dilute acid.
5. Synthetic Dyes – This resembles old bloodstains but can be recognized by treating strong acids and
alkaline.
6. Stains of Vegetable and Fruit Origin: This resembles blood that may be produced by fruit juices and
vegetables.
Almost all the above can be differentiated from bloodstains by action of chemicals. The above give
reaction while blood does not.

Chapter V
Hair and Textile Fiber

Hair examination is one of the oldest forms of physical evidence. Its use is older than fingerprints. It is
valuable because the hair of each kind of animal is different and distinct for all others. Like fiber it is mostly
likely to be involved in contact between the victim and the suspect. Most crimes cause contact between one
person and another and there may be transfer of fibers and hairs from the victim to the criminal and vice –
versa. The successful investigation of crimes of violence such as rape, murder, assault, kidnapping, hit and
run, etc. are frequently materially assisted by the result of the examination of the hairs and fibers. Hairs are
very resistant to decomposition and putrefaction thus they often remain as a means of identification long after
others such as facial and fingerprints have been destroyed.
The work of Glaister Hussman and others has made relatively simple and quite positive the
identification of hair as to species. In the negative sense human hair may often be definitely shown not have
come from a particular individual. The obvious difference in color, length and texture can distinguish one hair
from another and served to eliminate a suspect. The use of hair as means of positive identification is more
uncertain and indeed no expert in his right mind/senses will venture to give a definite statement as to
individual origin of hair.

History of Hair Examination (Corpuz, 2015)

1847 First used as physical evidence.
1897 Rudolph Virchow become the first person to do an in depth study of hair.
1906 Hugo Marx wrote a paper on the use of hair in forensic investigation to
determine identity.
1931 Dr. Paul Kirk works on new ways to improve the use of hair in forensic
investigations.

A. Collection, Packing and Preservation of Hair

a. Collection of Specimen
1. Complete search at the crime scene must be done. Use vacuum cleaner.
2. All of the hair in the questioned specimens should be submitted but do not mix hairs at different places.
3. Search for and collection of hair evidence should begin as soon as possible. Hair evidence is easily
transferred to and from the crime scene.
4. Collection should be done by:
a. Hand if the location of the hair is important
b. Lint rollers
c. Special filtered vacuum cleaner – collect hairs and fibers in mass from carpet, bedding, etc.
(Take Note: If the evidence is stick to another object, the entire object should be packaged and labeled)
(Corpuz, 2015)
(Take Note: If lint rollers are used, the entire surface used should be packed into a polyethylene storage bag)
(Corpuz, 2015)
5. In vicious assault and murder cases, obtain the clothing of the victim from the hospital or morgue to avoid
the lost of evidence by careless handling and to prevent the clothing from being destroyed.
6. Representative samples of hair from the victim as well as the suspect should be obtained if possible. To be
a representative head hair samples from a particular individual it should consist of at least a dozen hairs from
different areas of the scalp and preferably full – length hair. Take from all pertinent regions of the body:
a. 50 head hairs
b. 24 pubic hairs (Corpuz, 2015)
(Take Note: Root still intact is preferable)
7. Don’t mix known samples of hair from different parts of the body.
8. Hair evidence should be looked for in the following: clothing, combs, weapons, pockets, fingers, hat and etc.
9. Get samples from both victim and suspect (Dead body: Head hair and pubic hair). It should be taken before
it is buried.
10. Best way to collect hair is by combing.
b. Packing of Specimen
1. Hair evidence should be packaged into paper packets.
2. The hairs should be placed in a folded paper or in a white mailing envelope, but the corners of the envelope
should be sealed with scotch tape.
2. Do not secure the hair samples to a piece of paper with scotch because this will damage the hair.
3. All foreign fibrous debris should be removed from the submitted specimen.
4. Fragmentary hairs or underdeveloped hairs are not suitable for examination.
5. Areas on an object containing hairs should be protected with cellophane or paper taped over the area
before wrapping the object from transmittal to laboratory.
c. Preservation of Specimen (Corpuz, 2015)
1. Methods of packing hair: Pill box or test tube.
2. Questioned specimens druggist powder papers.
3. Properly folded, sealed and labeled.
4. Big envelope containing all the papers with hair and fibers

B. Hair – This refers to a specialized ephitilial outgrowth of the skin which occur everywhere on the human
body except on the palm of the hands and the sole of the feet. It is an appendage of the skin. Hair is not
completely round but may be oval or flattened. Its width is not always the same along its length. It starts out
pointed and narrow and then strays or less the same.
a. Two Kinds of Hair (among mammals including human being)
1. Real Hair – This refers generally to long and stiff hair.
2. Fuzz Hair – This refers generally to short, fine at times curly and wooly hair.
b. Parts of the Hair
1. Root – This refers to portion of embedded in the skin.
2. Shaft – This refers to portion above the surface of the skin. It is the most distinctive part of the hair.
3. Tip – This refers to distal end of an uncut hair shaft. It is refers sometimes to point.

(Source: Paawanee, 2016)

C. The Human Hair

Parts of the Shaft
1. Cuticle – This refers to the outermost covering of the hair. It is consists of one layer of non –
nucleated polygonal cells which overlaps like the scales on fish.
2. Cortex – This refers to the intermediate and the thickest layer of the shaft and is compose of
elongated, spindle shaped fibrils which cohere. They contain pigment granules in varying proportion
depending on the type of the hair.
3. Medulla or Core – This refers to the central canal of the hair that may be empty or may contain
various sorts of cells more or less pigmented and begins more or less near the root.
 (Source: Kleffner, 2018)
Certain hair has medulla. Therefore hair can be classified into two categories namely:
1. Hair without medulla
2. Hair with medulla
Medulla can be interrupted, continuous, fragmented, solid or none/absent.

(Source: Bradford, 2016)

D. Microscopic Examination of Human Hair

Before performing the examination take note of any foreign material on the hair and should be
identified if present in sufficient quantity. Hair should be cleaned with a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and
ether.
1. Color – This can be examine using the naked eye or under the microscope.
Melanin – This refers to the brownish – black pigment in the hair, skin, etc. It is the chemical
responsible for the color of the hair. Black and brown hair differs only on the amount of melanin. Red hair is
thought to be due to iron.
2. Length by Actual Measurement
3. Character of the Hair – whether stiff, wiry or soft
4. Width Breath
5. Character of the Hair Tip if present – Tip of the hair may show whether a hair has been cut. Tips of body
hair become rounded from rubbing against the cloths. Hair of human usually shows a fine tip. Men’s hair tip
is apt to be cutoff square.

Split Ends

(Source: The Editors, 2016)

6. Manners by which Hair had been cut

 (Source: Texas Education Agency, 2011)

7. Condition of Root or Base or Bulb of Hair

(Source: Hikmet, 2019)

The roots do not five much information as to the origin of the hair. Very often the root is missing on
hair found on cloth at the scene of the crime, on weapon, etc. The examination of the root will only give clue
as to whether the hairs have been pulled away by force or have fallen out spontaneously and there are three
possibilities:
a. All hairs have roots – in this case they have not fallen out themselves but have been pulled
away by force.
b. All hairs have dry roots – in this case they have most certainly fallen out themselves.
c. Some hairs have living and some dry roots – in this case they have been pulled away by force,
the living hairs with dry ones.
8. Character of Cuticle – The size, the general shape and the irregularity of the scales are observed.
9. Character of Cortex – Structural features is studied under the microscope. Cortex is embedded with the
pigment granules that impart hair with color. It is the color, shape and distribution of these granules that
provides the criminalist with important points of comparison between the hairs of the different individuals.
10. Presence of Dye in Hair – Dyed hair can be distinguished from natural hair. Under the microscope dyed
hair has a dull appearance and the color tone is constant, whereas natural is not and the individual pigment
granules stand more shapely. If there has been subsequent growth of the hair since dyeing, the undyed root
end portion will stand out markedly. Bleached hairs have a rough appearance, are more uniform in shade and
contain less pigment depending on the amount of bleaching. Dye absorption and chemical tests have been
developed for the detection of bleached hair.
11. Determination of whether Naturally or Artificially Curled
12. Character of Medulla
Medulla – This refers to the innermost layer of your hair. It consists of a soft, thin core of transparent
cells and air spaces (Kingsley, 2016). The medulla and cortex is the most characteristic portion of the hair. It has
more distinguishing quantities, thus cortex and medulla yields the most reliable criteria in the diagnosis of
hair. Medulla or core or the central canal of the hair can be continuous or interrupted. It is continuous in
large number of animals, very often interrupted in human, monkey and horses.
Medulla’s diameter can be absolutely constant. At times alternately narrow and broader. The diameter
of the medulla is of very little importance but the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the
diameter of the whole hair is the great importance.

(Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2004)

E. Medullary Index (M.I.) – This refers to the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the
diameter of the whole hair usually expressed in fraction. Its determination is performed under a microscope
provided with micrometer eyepiece.
1. Hair with narrow medulla (less than 0.5) belongs to human and certain monkey hair.
 2. Hair with medulla (approximately 0.5) belongs to hair of cow, horse and others.
3. Hair with thick medulla (greater than 0.5) almost all animals belongs to this.
Based on the medulla examination it can be determined whether hair is human or animal origin. The
medulla is usually narrower in width in human hair when present. It has finer and more numerous cross
striations. Animal hairs usually consist of both heavy guard hair and finer fur hair whereas human hair does
not.
A comparison of the medullary index of the hair from the different parts of the body between man and
woman is given on the table below:
Body Parts Man Woman
Neck 0.115 0.163
Forehead 0.132 0.148
Eyebrows 0.236 0.233
Eyelashes 0.095 0.146
Beard 0.260 -
Genitals 0.153 0.114
Armpits 0.102 0.179
Comparison between Human and Animal Hair
Human Animal
1. Medullary index is less than 0.5 1. Medullary index is more than 0.5
2. Medulla may not be present 2. Medulla always present
3. Scale pattern is fine and each one 3. Scale is coarse and overlaps less than ½
overlaps the other more than 4/5
4. Pigment granuls are fine 4. Pigment granules are course

F. Other Aspects of Hair Examination

1. Determination of characteristics by race
In most instances it can be determined whether a human hair came from Negroid, Mongoloid or
Caucasian race.
a. Negroid Race Hair:
1. Contain heavy pigment distributed unevenly
2. A thin cross section
3. Hair is usually kinky with marked variation in the diameter along the shaft

(Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2004)

b. Mongoloid Race Hair:
1. Hair contains dense pigment distributed more evenly than Negroid race hair.
2. Cross section of the hair will be round to oval in shape.
3. Hair is coarse and straight with very little variation in diameter along the shaft of the hair.
4. Usually contains a heavy black medulla or core.

(Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2004)

c. Caucasian Race Hair:
1. Hair contains very fine to coarse pigment and more evenly distributed than is found in Negro or Mongolian.
2. Cross section will be oval to round in shape
3. Usually straight or wavy and not kinky
 (Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2004)
2. Determination of characteristics by sex
Sex cannot be definitely determined from a hair examination. Male hair is generally larger in diameter,
shorter in length, more wiry in texture than that of a female. Male hair average approximately 1/350 of an
inch in diameter. Female hair averages approximately 1/450 of an inch in diameter.
If a hair is as much as six inches in length and has a split end, these are good indications that the
hair is from a female, though not a positive proof. Pinning, curling, brushing and combing the hair will cause
the tip ends to split. Most males have their haircut often enough to prevent having head hair with split tip
ends.
3. Determination of the region from which the human hair has been removes
The region of the body from which the human hair has been removed can be determined with
considerable accuracy that is through length, size, color, stiffness, curliness and general gross appearance.
a. Scalp Hair – They are more mature than any other kind of human hair.
b. Beard Hair – Coarse, curve, very stiff and often triangular in cross section.
c. Moustache – Usually triangular in shape and very stiff.
d. Hairs from eyebrows, eyelid, nose and ear – short stubby and have wide medulla. Eyebrow and
eyelashes are usually very short and has a sharp tip.
e. Trunk Hair – Vary in thickness along the shaft and are immature but are somewhat similar to head
hairs. They have fine, long tip ends.
f. Limb Hair – Similar trunk hairs but usually are not so long or so coarse and usually contain less
pigment.
g. Axillary Hair – Fairly long with unevenly distributed pigment. They vary considerably in diameter
along the shaft and have frequently a bleached appearance. It has an irregular shape and structure. Looks
like pubic hair but the ends are sharper and the hair is not so curly.
h. Pubic Hair – Similar to axillary hairs but are coarser and do not appear bleached. Wirier, have more
constriction and twists and usually have continuous broad medulla. Have many broken end because the
clothing rubs off against it.
4. Determination of the approximate age of individual
The approximate age of an individual cannot be determined from hair examination with any degree of
certainty except in infant hairs. Infant hairs are fine, short in length, have the fine pigment and are
rudimentary in character.
Children’s hair through adolescence is generally finer and more immature than adult hair but cannot
be definitely differentiated with certainty.
If it is noted that pigment is missing or starting to disappear in the hair, it can be stated that the hair
is from adult. It is common for a relatively young person to have prematurely gray or white head hair but not
body hairs. The root end of hair from an aged person may show a distinctive degeneration.

G. Hair Microscopy
a. Light Microscopy
a. Identification of questioned hair
b. Comparison of questioned and known hair
b. Comparison Microscope
Link the suspect to a crime scene. Control hairs match that of the suspect. Exclude the suspect from a crime
scene, meaning that a control hair does not match the evidential hair.
c. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
Determine the species, race, and somatic origin of a hair. In addition:
a. DNA on the follicular tag
b. Drug Test – to test and determine whether a drug was used.
1. A drug that is ingested enters the blood stream and is broken down to a specific metabolite.
2. Hair strands normally grow at an average rate of 1.3 centimeters every month; they absorb metabolized
drugs that are fed to the hair follicle through the blood stream.
3. Drug will only disappear if exposure to the drug is ceased, and the hair containing the drug is cut.
4. Hair analysis can be used for the detection of many therapeutic drugs and recreational drugs, including
cocaine, heroin, benzodiazepines (Valium – type drugs) and amphetamines.
a. Two Assays Used in Forensic: Radioimmunoassay (RIA) and Enzyme – Linked Immunosorbent Assay
(ELISA)
b. DNA Analysis – it can be extracted from the root or follicular tag of on anagenic hair. Nuclear DNA (nDNA)
comes from both parents that lead to individualization. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) passed only from mother
to offspring.
c. Environmental toxins – Microscopic appearance is affected by natural biological fluctuations and
environmental influences. Pubic hairs are less influenced. Several years may not severely impact on
meaningful pubic hair comparisons.
 Textile Fibers
In general and broad sense the word “textile” is derived from the Latin word “textillis” and the French
“textere”, to weave, hence fiber means that can be converted into yarn. A yarn consists of fibers or filaments
that have been twisted together.

(Source: ISO, 2012)

Test for Textile Fibers

1. Burning or Ignition Test – It is a preliminary macroscopic examination. A test that determines whether
fiber is mineral, animal or vegatble fiber.
Procedure:
A single fiber is applied with flame at one end and the following are noted:
a. Manner of burning
b. Odor of fumes
c. Appearance of burnt end
d. Color of ash
e. Action of fumes on moisten red and blue litmus paper
f. Effect of litmus on a piece of filter paper moistened with lead acetate
For animals fibers – fibers smolders or burn slowly and give odor like that of burning feather. When
removed from the flame they do not continue to burn readily and a charred bead remains at the end of the
fiber. Fumes turn red litmus blue.
Wool – odor strong, disagreeable; fumes turn lead acetate paper black or brown.
Silk – odor not so pungent, fumes have no effect on lead acetate paper.
For vegetable fibers – fibers burn rapidly with a flame and give off but little smoke or fumes. Charred
bead not present when fiber is removed from the flame. Fumes turn blue litmus red.
2. Fluorescent Test – Frequently used to determine the general group to which a fiber belongs. It is not
reliable for positive identification of fibers. In general, the vegetables fibers exhibit a yellow fluorescence in
ultra – violet light, whereas the animal fibers show bluish fluorescence.
The fluorescence of some common fibers is given in the following table as obtained by Noptisch and
given by Mr. O’neil:
Material Color under Ultraviolet Daylight Color
1. Unbleached Wool Bright Light Blue Light yellow
2. Bleached Wool Bluish – white to bluish White
yellow
3. Bleached Cotton Light – yellow White
4. Mercerized Cotton Light – yellow White
5. Bleached Linen Brilliant yellowish – white White
6. Cuprate Silk Reddish white with blue – Brownish – white
violet shadow
7. Viscose Silk Sulfur yellow with blue Brownish – white
shadow
8. Nitro Silk Brilliant flesh yellow Yellowish
9. Acetate Silk Bluish violet White
10. Natural Silk Very bright light blue, White
much brighter and whiter
 than acetate silk
3. Microscopic Examination – In general, it is the most reliable and best means identifying fiber. The fiber is
placed on a glass slide, teased and covered.
The following are the characteristics of common textile fibers:
a. Cotton – Unicellular filament, flat, ribbon – like, twisted spirally to right or left on its axis, central canal or
lumen broad uniform in diameter; cell wall thick, covered by a thin, structureless, waxy cuticle. Fiber tapers
gradually to a blunt or rounded point at one end.
b. Mercerized Cotton – Straight, cylindrical, with occasional twists; evenly lustrous, smooth except for
occasional transverse folds or wrinkles. Cuticle mostly lacking, lumen irregular in width.
c. Linen – Multicellular filament, straight and cylindrical, not twisted and flattened, tapering to a sharp point.
Cell wall thick, the lumen appearing as a narrow dark line in the center of the fiber. Filament marked by
transverse lines at intervals causing fiber to appear jointed, resembling bamboo. Cross lines frequently
interest appearing like the letter x.
d. Cultivated Silk – Smooth, cylindrical, lustrous threads, usually single but often double, the twin –
filaments held together by an envelope of gum. More or less transparent, without definite structure.
e. Wild Silk – Similar to cultivated silk but broader and less regular in outline. Marked by very fine
longitudinal striations with infrequent diagonal cross – markings.
f. Artificial Silk – Cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod. Microchemical reactions, dissolved rapidly
by half saturated chromic acid; not colored by Millon’s reagent as in case of true silk.
g. Wool – Easily distinguished by presence of flattened, over lapping epidermal scales not found on silk or any
of the vegetable fibers. Fiber many – celled, cylindrical; shaft composed of three layers; central core or medulla
(seldom seen), cortex and scaly cuticle.

(Source: The Crown in Right of Tasmania, the Department of Education, n.d.)

4. Chemical Analysis of Fibers – If the sample submitted for analysis is fairly large, such as a piece of cloth
or a number or large threads, it is suggested that a chemical analysis be made to supplement the microscopic
examination and confirm the results obtained form that procedure.
a. Staining Test – The fiber is stained with picric acid, Millon’s reagent, stannic chloride or iodine solution.
Test Result
Picric acid + silk Dyed
Picric acid + wool Dyed
Picric acid + cellulosic fibers Unchanged
Millon’s reagent + silk Brown
Millon’s reagent + wool Brown
Millon’s reagent + cellulosic No reaction
reagent
Stannic chloride + cellulose Black
b. Dissolution Test – If the fiber is white or light colored it is treated with the following chemicals. If dyed, the
fiber is first decolorized by boiling in ether 1% hydrochloric acid, acetic acid or dilute potassium hydroxide.
Reagents:
1. 10% sodium hydroxide
2. 5% oxalic acid
3. Half saturated oxalic acid
4. Concentrated sulfuric acid
5. Conc. and dilute Ammonium hydroxide
6. Concentrated nitric acid
Results:
1. 10% NaOH + wool ----- Dissolved
2. 10% NaOH + cultivated silk ----- Dissolved
3. 10% NaOH + cotton linen, wild silk, cellulose silk ----- Undissolved
 Chapter VI
Glass and Glass Fragments and Fractures

Glass is important as physical evidence because it breaks and pieces are scattered at the crime scene and on
the suspect. It is a common type of thing carried away evidence in and burglary and vehicle hit and run
cases. The evidence maybe fragments of a headlight leads found at the scene of a hit and run accident,
window glass from the scene of robbery, or glass through which a bullet was fired.
Glass – This refers to a supercooled liquid which possesses high viscosity and rigidity. It is a non – crystalline
inorganic substance.
Composition of Glass
Glass is usually composed of oxides like SiO (silica), B O (boric oxide), P O (phosphorous pentoxide).
For commercial use silica is the most important oxide. It is the base of commercial glasses. It is made of silica
sand and other metallic oxides. Oxide is for fluxing, durability and reduction of viscosity. Glass, like window
and plate which are made in mass production is fairly uniform in composition. This may contain incidental
impurities and the presence of these substances is invaluable for the identification and comparison of glass
by spectrographic analysis. Gas has also presence of trace elements which may be sufficient to establish or
negate the fact of a common source for two samples of glass.
Common Oxides used in Glass Manufacture
Oxides Function
1. Silica (SiO2) ----------------- base of commercial glass
2. Soda (Na2O) ----------------- acts as flux for silica
3. Lime (CaO) ----------------- gives the glass chemical durability which it
otherwise lack because of the water –
soluble Na2O
4. Magnesis (MgO) ----------------- present as impurity or substitute for CaO
5. Alumina (Al2O2) ----------------- gives the glass greater chemical durability
lower coefficient of expansion, and greater
freedom from devitrification
6. Potash (KO) ----------------- for chemical durability and resistance to
devitrification

Analysis of Glass
The most important problem commonly referred to a forensic chemist is the comparison of two or more
samples of glass.
Test/Analysis for Glass
1. Spectrographic Test
2. X – ray Diffraction Test
3. Physical Properties Examination
4. Ultraviolet Properties Examination
5. Polish Marks Test

Discussion of Test
1.Spectrographic Test – an instrumental method of analysis which determines the presence of trace
elements. Shows the constituent elements of glass. It will not give sufficient information to establish is the
origin of the samples examined. A rapid examination and an adequate method for glass analysis since it
requires only a small amount of sample. In the absence of trace elements it may be difficult to determine
whether two samples of common type of glass are identical. If similar trace elements are found of both
samples it is obvious they come from the source.
2. X – ray Diffraction Test – not as effective as the spectrographic analysis. It determines the type of pattern
of glass. The type of pattern depends upon the composition of glass.

3. Physical Properties Examination – the most sensitive method of determining differences of composition
in glass samples and depends upon the study of the physical properties of glass. Properties like specific
gravity and density, refractive index. Density and refractive index can be measured with great accuracy.
Density or specific gravity is an especially important physical property from the viewpoint of the forensic
chemist.

Method of Measuring Density of Glass

Flotation Method – a rapid and convenient method of determining the density of small glass fragments.
Procedure and principle is the same as in soil
Method of Measuring the Refractive Index of Glass
Immersion Method – method use to measure the refractive index of a glass. It is difficult to distinguish
between two samples of glass by density and refractive index. It may be mentioned that two glass from
independent sources can vary conceivably have the same index of refraction or the same density but it is
quite improbable that they would have both index of refraction and density the same.
4. Ultraviolet Light Examination – determines the differences in the appearance of the fluorescent thus
indication of physical and chemical differences.
5. Polish Marks – optical glass and other fine glasswares are usually polished. In the polishing of glass fine
marks are often left on the surface which can sometimes served as a basis of comparison.

Procedure for the Determination of Fine Marks

The surface is cleaned with alcohol and then etched by spraying with 20 to 25% hydrofluoric acid. The act is
permitted to remain on the surface for several minutes. The glass is again washed with alcohol and dried. If
the surface is illuminated by oblique tight, a photograph can be made to show the polish marks.

Glass as Evidence of Crime

In the field of forensic chemistry emphasis is placed on.
1. Automobile glass in case of hit and run
2. Broken windows cause by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery.
3. Broken bottles, drinking glasses, spectacles found at the scene of an assault or other crimes of violence,
which would suggest examination of the soles and heels of a suspect for imbedded glass fragments.
How Glass Breaks
(How glass forms cracks when a blow or pressure is applied on one of its surface)
When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surface, the front for example, the glass first bends a little owing
to its elasticity. When the limit of elasticity is reached the glass breaks along radial lines starting from the
point where the portion or surface which is more subjected to stretching by bending. The front surface is only
pushed. While the radial fractures are taking place the newly created glass triangle between the radial rays
also bend away from the direction of the destroying force. By this bending the glass is stretched along the
front surface and when the limit of elasticity is reached, the glass breaks in concentric cracks. These originate
on the front of the glass because of stretching.

Analysis of Glass from Vehicles

Hit and run accidents represent a good percentage of crimes. In automobile or any vehicle for that
matter discovered in which fragments of the lens can be found, a comparison maybe made with the fragments
found at the scene of accident employing the methods of analysis for glass.

Analysis of Broken Windows

Examination of window fragments in robbery cases is important when there is a question of “as to
whether the glass was broken from the outside or inside.” Since our penal law specifically provides the mode
of entrance before a crime may be classified as robbery, this particular kind of examination becomes very
important. The general procedure to determine whether the glass was broken from the outside or inside or to
determine the side from which a pane of glass was broken is to collect and piece together as much of the glass
as possible in order to study the patterns of cracks and to be able to orient the pieces in their original position

Broken Window Caused by Bullet Holes

Generally it maybe said that the hole produced by a bullet of a strong charge has the sharpest edges;
but if a bullet has been fired from very long distance and has come to have a low speed it will break the pane
in the same manner as will a stone.
A shot from a very short distance will produce the same result the pressure of the powder gas itself will smash
the glass.
It is easy to determine the direction from which the shot was fired.
1. On one side of the hole numerous small flakes of glass will be found to have been blown away giving the
hole appearance of a volcano crater. Such appearance indicates that the bullet was fired from the opposite
direction of the hole from which the flakes are missing.
2. If the shot was fired perpendicular to the windowpane the flake marks are evenly distributed around the
hole.
3. If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will suffer more flaking than from the right.
4. Excessive flaking on the right side of a windowpane would indicate a shot fired at angle from the left.
(The direction is taken from the person shooting)

Broken Window Caused by Fist or Stone

The direction of the blow in case a fist or stone smashed the window is quite difficult but the principle of
radial crack and concentric crack or fracture will apply.
Glass fractures produced by a low – speed impact such as a rock (left) and by a high – speed projectile such
as a bullet (right)
The Principle of 3R's Rule for Radial Crack – states "stress lines on a radial crack will be at right angle to
the rear side of the glass."
The Principle of RFC Rule for Concentric Crack – states "stress lines on a concentric crack will be at right
angle to the front side”, that is the side from which the blow came rather than the rear side.
The rule for concentric crack is the reverse of the 3 R's rule provided the concentric cracks can be examined
is near, preferably adjacent to the point of impact.
Procedure: Piece together as many as you can gather of the glass fragments as possible. Select a triangular
piece bounded by two radial cracks and one concentric crack. The triangular piece must be adjacent to the
point of impact, if it is not available select a piece as close as possible to the point of impact.
The Bullet Holes in a Window
Where there are two bullet holes in a window, one from each side, the problem of which one was first becomes
important to determine who the aggressor is. It will be found that the fractures caused by the first will be
complete especially the radial cracks, whereas the fractures from the second will be interrupted and end –
stopped at point where they intersect those from the first.
Fractures on Safety Glass
Laminated glass that is now being used in automobiles does not shatter when struck sharply. Frequently the
cracking of safety glass is not complete. The radial crack do not extend to the side of impact and the spiral
cracks do not extend to the other side.
The Cracking of Safety Glass
The cracking into radial lines divides the plane into a number of triangles. This triangle re pushed out from
the point of impact by the initial impulse. The main body of the glass that is fairly rigid resists this pushing
out. The effect of a torque is produced, and if the force is sufficient, the glass is now pushed in the opposite
direction until again the limit of elasticity is exceeded and the glass begins to break on the side where the
blow was struck. The cracking now takes place along the quasi – circle concentric with the point of impact. It
was demonstrated that the number of spiral cracks present in a fracture depends upon the nature of
imprinting force. A rapid dynamic force produces more spiral pattern than a slow, relative static force even
though the total energy involved is the same in both cases.
If radial or concentric cracks cannot be definitely established the side from which the blow came cannot be
determined.

Chapter VII
Foot Impression and Tool Impression
 Traces left by a criminal in the form of foot impression, tool impression and tire impression in cases
like theft, robbery, etc. will be studied in this chapter. The evidential value of an impression made by shoe,
hand, tool or other articles is based in the theory that no two physical objects are alike and hence that
impressions made by such object often is marked by uniquely identifying characteristics. A given impression
can only be produced by one object.

Impression – a strong mark produced by pressure that goes below the surface. A stamp, form or figure
resulting from physical contact. It causes damage to object.
Imprint – weak mark made by pressure that stays on the surface.
In scientific criminal investigation the problem of reproducing the faithful representation of an object
is of great evidential value. In many cases reliance has been placed on photographic method. In cases
involving footprints, tool marks, tooth impressions, photographic representation may not serve the purpose.
Using a mold called moulage can only make a faithful reproduction of these objects.
Moulage – a faithful reproduction of an impression with the use of casting materials. It is admitted that
moulage cannot reproduce all characteristics of the object under all circumstances but whatever is mission in
a moulage it can be supplied by the photograph.
Casting Material – any material which can be changed from a plastic or liquid state to the solid condition.
For foot impression and tire impression, Plaster of Paris is the best casting material.
Sometimes it is desirable to hasten or retard the setting time of the Plaster of Paris.
Hastening – add one half teaspoonful of table salt to the plaster.
Retarding – add one part of saturated solution of borax to ten parts of water to be used in making the plaster.
One teaspoonful of sugar may also be used.
Hardening – to give a dried cast greater durability it can be placed in saturated solution of sodium
bicarbonate and allow to remain in the solution for sometime. It is then removed and dried
Drawback of Plaster of Paris – Poor mechanical strength. The fluid plastic flows into all the interstices of the
mark but when the cast is removed from the mark the finer details have a tendency to break off

Other Casting Materials:

1. Wood's Metal – used for small impressions as tooth impression, tool impression. It is a variety of solder
with melting 60o To 70°C. It is made of B – 50%, Pb – 25%, Sn – 12.5% and Cd – 12.5%.
2. Plastic Material – like plasticine and dental composition. Used for small impression. Dental composition is
the best casting material for making the cast of tool marks
Drawback – distorts when remove from the impression since plastic and never did and does not flow to
the very interstices of the impressions.
3. Negocoll – used for human body as cast of hand or face. It is rubbery gelatinous consisting material
consisting of colloidal magnesium soap.
It is rubbery
4. Celerit – brown substance used for backing and strengthening the hominid.
Cast of Human Body – It is sometimes required to make a cast of a human hand or face. It is
important that the temperature of the negative material should be below 110 F (43.3 C). A temperature higher
than this will be uncomfortable if not injurious to the subject.

Characteristics of a Good Casting Material:

1. It must be readily fluid or plastic when applied – so that it can penetrate into minute depressions or cracks
on the impression. Fluid materials are more satisfactory than plastic materials in this respect since even the
most plastic material does not enter into the crevices of all the minute depression.
2. Must harden rapidly to a rigid mass – so that no deformation of the cast takes place when it is being
removed from the impression. Rapid hardening is desirable as the time factor is often of importance.
3. Must not be deformable nor shrinks – so that if measurements are to made from the cast, it can retain
exactly its size and shape.
4. Must be tough – so that the minute lines and ridges in the impression do not break or disintegrate, so that
it will stand the wear and tear it will receive during examination.
5. Must be easy to apply – since casts have to taken under all kinds of difficult circumstances, it can readily
be seen that the simpler the method the better the result.
6. Must not have the tendency to adhere to the impression.
7. Should have fine, even composition and surface – the grain of the surface must be considerably smaller
than the smallest detail it is desired to show in the cast otherwise this detail is lost in the grain.
8. Should not injure the impression.
9. Should be easily obtainable.
10. Should be cheap.
(a)Shoe impressions in soil. Shoeprint examiners have difficulty analyzing low contrast photographs such as
the one on the left. The shoeprint on the right has been sprayed with colored paint to increase contrast, which
produces a more detailed photograph (b) Shoeprint cast in dental stone.
(a) Shoeprint collected using electrostatic device (b) Shoeprint collected using a gelatin filter
Tool Impressions
Tool impressions may be classified into two general classes
1. Those produced by such instruments like axe, hammer, pliers and cutters which touch the area only once
in producing the impression.
a. Compression Marks – produced by a single application of the tool in one area of contact. Example
is the impression of a single blow of a hammer.
b. Friction Marks – these are series of scratches or striations produced by pushing a tool across the
surface such as those produced cutters, axe and jimmy.
2. Those produced by such instruments like saw or file that is applied in repeated strokes over the same area.
It is hard to identify since one – mark overlaps the other
Examination of Tool Impression
 Examination of tool impression is done by comparative examination the purpose of which is to
determine or to show that the particular tool made impression in question.

Chapter VIII
Metallurgy (As Applied to Crime Detection)

In criminal investigation, the branch of science known as metallurgy will in most instances be of great
help in the solution of baffling problems involving pieces of metal or metal articles. Robbery, Arson, Murder,
Kidnapping, Hit and Run, Counterfeiting are examples of this investigation work.
Metallurgy – the art of extracting and working on metals by the application of chemical and physical
knowledge.
Metallography – branch of metallurgy that involves the study of the microstructures of metals and alloys. All
metals are composed of minute grains or crystals, under the naked eye and when viewed from a distance a
metal appears to be homogeneous but when viewed under a metallography microscope the crystal structure is
visible. These crystals of the metal are tightly packed.
Application of Metallurgy in Criminal Investigation
1. Robbery
2. Theft
3. Hit and run
4. Bomb and explosion
5. Nail examination
6. Counterfeit coins
7. Restoration of tampered serial number
Counterfeit Coins
Counterfeit coins are coins made to imitate the real thing and used for gain.
Two Kinds of Counterfeit Coins:
1. Cast coins – coins made in molds.
2. Struck coins – coins made by striking or stamping method.
How are Counterfeit Coins Made
1. Cast Coins – An impression of genuine coin is taken by use of Plaster of Paris, clay or bronze. The plaster
molds bearing the image of a good coin are filled within a low temperature alloy made with lead or tin. Sand
molds are used for high temperature metals such as copper or silver alloys. Cast coins have poor imitation. It
can be easily detected. The surface is usually pitted and uneven. The edge of letterings and designs are
rounded instead of sharp.
2. Stuck Coins – Made by striking or stamping method. Consists of making an impression of a coin on a metal
blank by pressure. Stamping is done by way of steel dies. Often well executed. Its detection is not easy since
weight, specific gravity, composition may all be good. Careful comparison of smaller details of the design with
those of the genuine should be made.
Examination of counterfeit coins involves chemical and physical method.
Tampered Serial Numbers
Tampered serial numbers are restored by the application of etching liquid. Etching fluid is a fluid used
to restore tampered serial numbers. Choice of etching depends on the structure of the metal bearing the
original numbers.
Etching Fluids
1. For cast iron and cast steel – 10% sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate.
2. For wrought iron and forged iron – solution no. 1 (hydrochloric acid is 80 ml, water is 60 ml, cupric
chloride is 2.9 grams and alcohol is 50 ml) Solution no. 2 (15% nitric acid)
3. For aluminum – glycerin is 30 ml, nitric acid is 10 ml, and hydrofluoric acid is 20 ml.
4. For lead – 3 parts glacial acetic acid and one part water.
5. For stainless steel – dilute sulfuric acid or 10% hydrochloric acid in alcohol.
6. For copper, brass, silver and other copper alloy – ferric chloride – 19 grams, hydrochloric acid – 6 ml, and
water – 100 ml.
7. For tin – 10% hydrochloric acid.
8. For zinc – 10% sodium hydroxide.
9. For silver – concentrated nitric acid.
10. For gold and platinum – aqua regia (3 parts hydrochloric acid and one part nitric acid)
11. For wood – subject to a jet of steam.

Chapter IX
Soil (Petrography as Applied to Crime Detection)

Soil
Soil as evidence in murder, homicide, mat, robbery, kidnapping, hit and run accident has been
overlooked by most investigators, probably because it is such a common place substance and is more or less
taken for granted. Very few persons have realized upon which they stand may have a different composition
from the soil a few yards away. Researchers have shown that soil are greatly diversified and vary considerably
over the surface of the earth not only from widely separated points but also from points quite close together.
This is expected because soil represents not only original earthy constituents derived from the parent rock of
the natural forces and the activities of living organism over millennia.
Soil varies rapidly with depth. The admixture of soil from below the surface with surface soil is taking
place constantly in excavating for pipes, paving and in agricultural operations. Surface variations may arise,
therefore due to admixture with surface soil of the same region. Addition for fertilizer and soil conditioning
material and human, animal, and plant waste would cause further variations of local nature. In view of this
variation in compositions soil can only be used as circumstantial evidence in crimes of violence.
There is the remote possibility that another soil from some part of the country would be identical,
although this has never been found to happen.
Petrography – is the branch of geology that deals with the systematic classification and identification of
rocks, rock forming minerals and soils. Also includes study of dust, dirt, safe insulation, ceramics and other
such materials both natural and artificial.
Soil means different things to different people. A farmer plants crops in it. An engineer builds with it. A
miner takes mineral from it. Criminalist regards soil as the top layer of the earth. It may include any
substance on the earth that may stick a person's clothing or shoes.

Types of Soil
1. Alluvial Soil – formed from soil particles that were washed, blown, or moved by gravity to the lowlands.
Earth, sand, gravel, etc. are deposited by moving water and wind. Its particles may be derived from an almost
infinite number of sources, and since the action of water and wind would in few cases be identical over long
periods of time in different spots, great variations in composition would be expected.
2. Colluvial Soil – formed from the decomposition of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, the
decomposed particles moved by gravity. Soil in which some movement and intermingling of parts has
occurred would be expected to be less variable.
3. Sedentary Soil – inactive, not migratory soil.
Collection and Submission of Soil
1. Soil usually in form of mud is usually recovered from shoes, slippers, clothes, tires, tools and furniture.
2. If found on the above the soil should remain in place and the whole submitted to the laboratory
3. Should be wrapped in a clean paper or filter paper and placed in a box.
4. Known soil samples should be taken at different places around the point or reference.
Constituents of Soil
The basic component of soil originates primarily from mechanical and chemical decomposition of
igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. Rocks are almost infinite variable in composition containing
usually many different minerals.
Igneous Rock – produced by volcanic or intense heat.
Metamorphic Rock – has undergone changed in structure, texture through pressure, heat and chemical
reaction. Like limestone into marble.
Sedimentary rock or sandstone – Rocks formed by sediments.

Constituents of Soil
1. Primary minerals – includes undecomposed rock fragments ranging from stone down through pebbles,
sand and silt.
Important Minerals
a. Quartz – a form of silica. Crystalline mineral usually colorless and transparent. Also called quartz
sand. It originates primarily from igneous rock but much of the soil quartz is contributed directly by
metamorphic and sedimentary rock. A common mineral. An almost universal component of soil
b. Calcite (Limestone – CaCO) – white reacts with acid with evolution of carbon dioxide. Occurs
widely particularly in calcareous soil.
c. Feldspar (Silicate of Aluminum or Sodium, or Barium, Calcium, Potassium) – their composition
gives rise to clay along with more or less soluble salts of the metals named.
d. Dolomite Limestone – white mineral obtained from sedimentary rock. Similar to Limestone.
e. Mica – a mineral that crystalline in thin, flexible layers, resistant to heat.
f. Other primary minerals: Gypsum, Talc, Kaolinite, Limonite, Magnetite.
2. Clay minerals – a product of decomposition of primary minerals. Found nearly all soils and is the major
constituent of most heavy soil. It imparts to soil cohesiveness and plasticity and becomes hard and adherent
on heating. Pure clay is considered by criminologist to be hydrated aluminum silicate. The color of clay soil
varies from white through red, yellow, green, or blue depending on the nature of the admixed impurities.
3. Organic constituents – one of the most variable of all soil constituents and are of peculiar importance in
the identification of soil. Agricultural land is likely to be particularly rich in organic constituents both from
growth occurring on the land and from added materials such as manure, peat and cover crops. Richest of all
are the peat and muck soils which have been formed primarily from the constant decay of organic matter and
contain only a small amount of residual mineral deposits mostly by flooding. Humus constituents are the
most important black coloring matter of soil. It alters texture markedly, making clay soil less cohesive and
sandy soil more so.

Analysis of Soil
The identification of soil is never necessary that all constituents be identified as such or that they are
separated. Any method which quantitatively distinguishes particles of characteristics appearance of properties
will be successful in providing identity or non – identity depending on whether the distribution found in two
soils are the same or different.
There are several methods of petrographic analysis that are being used in the laboratories to establish
the identity of two or more samples of soils. There is no procedure which is specially recommended. In the
crime laboratory the use of Density Gradient Apparatus is utilized. A simple procedure of determining the
identity or non –
identity of soil samples based on the density distribution. The procedure is rapid, requiring a few hours of
completion. Consists of simple apparatus and is indeed so sensitive to small changes in composition.
Other Methods of Analysis for Soil
1. X – ray diffraction
2. Spectrographic Analysis
3. Thermal Analysis
The above methods are extensively used in commercial and private laboratories us general procedure.
Application of Soil Analysis to Scientific Crime Detection
The value of soils as evidence depends wholly upon the fact that soils differ in various characteristics
over the surface of the earth. This difference makes it possible to establish the identity where about of a
person under investigation.
Dust and Dirt
Dust and dirt has been described as "matter in the wrong place”. The study such piece of evidence
may often provide the investigator with clues as to the occupation of previous where about of a person under
investigation.
Dust – matter which is dry and in finely divided form.
Mud – dust mixed with water.
Grime or (Heavy Dirty) – when dust is moved with the sweat and grease of the human body this formed.

Composition of Dust
Whatever is the origin of dust and wherever it is found it always contain substances derived from
substances of plant and animal origin and substances of mineral origin.
Classification of Dust
For purposes of criminal investigation dust may well, be classified from their
source.
1. Dust Deposited from the Air – extremely fine dust particles present in the air everywhere. More abundant
in thickly populated and industrial regions. Settle very slowly and ultimately deposited on an exposed surface.
Its value in crime detection is insignificant.
2. Road and Footpath Dust – produced by the wear and tear of the road surface by vehicular and pedestrian
traffic together with particles of soil carried by the wind or rain from adjoining regions.
3. Industrial Dust – industries like cement, button, powdered gypsum and plaster of paris factories, flour
milling paint pigments, involves industrial processes impart a pronounce local character to the dust on the
neighboring roads and buildings.
4. Occupational Dust – some of the finely powdered material may be found on the clothing and footwear of
employees engaged in such industries. Aside from this for example, bricklayer will yield brick dust, sand and
lime on his clothes. Coal miner will have coal dust on his clothes.
From the forensic chemical point of view the identification of occupational dust is of great importance.
In criminal investigation the identification of the person through the articles of clothing left in the scene of
crime or in a vehicle may place him in an identifiable class and thus serves to distinguish him from the great
majority of other persons. Such observation does not serve to distinguish the wearer of the cloth from all
other persons.
Collection and Submission of Dust and Dirt
Dust and dirt present in clothing or objects that can readily transport should be left in situ. The whole
article is packed in a clean box with proper protection and shipped to the laboratory. If the object is
immovable or too big to submit as a specimen like sofa, piano, dresser, the specimen may be removed by the
use of a vacuum cleaner with paper bags used in the dust sack to collect the dirt. If a vacuum cleaner is not
available the clothes may be placed in a clean paper bag and beaten to remove dust and dirt.
Analysis of Dust and Dirt
The identification of dust/dirt is usually made for the purpose of determining the occupation of the
suspect or finding evidence that maybe similar o identical with that found at the scene of crime.
Quantitative examination is rarely necessary but qualitative test should be made for metals present. If
the sample is very small, microchemical test or s spectrographic analysis maybe employed. If the amount of
specimen is sufficient following is employed.
1. Examine the sample under the ultraviolet light.
2. Treat a small quantity with a drop of water on a spot plate.
a. Observe color of aqueous drop with hand lens
b. Note the proportion of the solid matter which remains in suspension and proportion which
settles rapidly
c. Reaction with litmus settles rapidly
3. Treat a small quantity with a drop of 0.1 N Hydrochloric Acid
a. Note the evolution of gas
b. Note formation of precipitate
c. Note change in color
d. Note materials dissolved by acid
4. Treat a small quantity with Ethanol
a. Note color of alcohol drop
b. Note difference between the color of an aqueous solution in process 2 and that in color solution
c. Note other changes
 Chapter X
Gunpowder and Other Explosives

In the investigation of crimes involving the use of firearms, three most important problems may arise.
The first and probably of primary importance is the problem of determining whether or not person has fired a
gun with bare hands within a pertinent period of time. The other is the means of determining the probable
gunshot range e.i., the distance the firearm held from the body of the victim at the time of discharged. A third
problem may come up when the time of the firing of the from the body of the victim at the gun becomes an
issue.
Two kinds of Gunpowder
1. Black Powder – because of its inherent defects modern ammunition plants abandoned the use of this
2. Smokeless Powder – is the most widely used propellant. It can either be single base propellant or double
propellant.
 Black Powder – possibly the oldest known explosive. It is consists of an intimate mixture of charcoal –
15%, sulfur – 10% and potassium or sodium nitrate 75%. When exploded in open space the following reaction
occurs:
2KNO3 + 3C + → 3CO2 + K2S + N2
This reaction holds true if the composition of the powder is uniform, pure and no either side reactions
take place. Slight difference in composition cannot be avoided as well as side reactions cannot be controlled.
Smokeless Powder – the most widely used propellant. It is consists of Cellulose Nitrate or Glyceryl
Nitrate combined with Cellulose Nitrate and some stabilizers. Among the stabilizers used are Nitrates,
Bichromates and Oxalates. Some of the organic stabilizers are Nitrobenzene, Graphite and Vaseline.
Stabilizers are added to reduce side reactions. These combine with the products of decomposition and may
have a negative or positive catalytic effect. When exploded the following reactions occur:
C12H14O4(NO3)6 → 9CO + 3N2 + 7H2O +3CO2
(Cellulose Nitrate)

4C3H3(NO3)3 → 12CO2 + 10H2O + 6N2 + O2

(Glyceryl Nitrate)

Possible Locations of Nitrates when Black Powder and Smokeless Powder Explode
It will be noticed that nitrates are present in both gunpowder so that one will expect to find nitrates
(NO) in the following:
1. Residue or the barrel of the gun
2. In or around the wound
3. On the clothing of the person fired upon at close range
4. On the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing the gun
Factors That Affect the Presence and Amount of Gunpowder Residues
a. Type and Caliber of the Ammunition – different types of ammunition fired in the same weapon and from the
same distance may give different pattern.
b. Length of the Barrel of the Gun – a weapon with 2 inches barrel will deposit residues over a larger area
than a weapon having a five inches barrel even though they are fired at the same distance and with the same
type of ammunition.
c. Distance of the Muzzle of the Gun from the Target.
d. Humidity – affects the speed with which powder burns. Powder having lesser amount of moisture will burn
more rapidly and completely within a given time yielding greater amount of residue.
e. Wind Velocity and Direction – in high winds the residue will be blown in the directions of the wind yielding
a scattered pattern.
i. Direction of Firing – firing vertically, slightly greater than firing horizontally from the same distance. Powder
residues have weight. When gun is fired downward o vertically all of the residence will fall on the target, but
when fired horizontally some of the residues are likely to fall short of the target.
I. Determination of Whether or not a Person Fired a Gun with his Bared Hands
The burned residues are partially burned particles may escape around the breech of the gun and
implanted on the exposed surface of the hand firing the gun and the presence of this particles serves as a
basis for the diphenylamine – paraffin test (DPA – Paraffin Test).
Theory upon which the Diphenylamine Paraffin Test is Based
At the instance of discharge there is a certain amount of gases and mixture of burned residues and
partially burned particles that escape from the breech of the gun. These particles strike the exposed surface of
the hand holding the weapon and became implanted into the sin.

Diphenylamine Paraffin Test or Dermal Nitrate Test or Lunge

Diphenylamine Test – a test to determine whether a person fired a gun or not with bare hands.
Procedure:
a. Paraffin Test – the taking of the cast to extract the nitrates embedded or implanted in the skin.
b. Diphenylamine Test – the chemical aspect of the test. It determines the presence and distribution of
nitrates.
Reagent: Diphenylamine reagent (0.5 gram diphenylamine crystals dissolved in 100 ml of sulfuric acid and
20 ml of water).
Visible Result: Deep blue specks that develop when nitrates come in contact with the diphenylamine reagent.
Limitation of the Diphenylamine – Paraffin Test:
1. The test is not specific for nitrates since the role of nitrate is simply oxidizing agent. The test cannot
determine the source of nitrate.
2. There are other substances which contain nitrate oxidizing agents that are not in the ordinary course of life
like fertilizers, explosives, tobacco, firecrackers, urine, cosmetics and detergents.
3. In general persons do not have nitrates or other oxidants on their hands as a matter of common
occurrence.
4. Hands contaminated with nitrates from other sources other than gunpowder or any oxidant one will expect
to find either a smear blue color or conglomeration of blue specks located at the different places of the hand
both dorsal and palmar aspects.

Possibilities That a Person may be Found Positive for Nitrates even if he did not Actually Fire a Gun
1. It is possible that the gunpowder particles may have been blown on the hand directly from the barrel of the
gun being fired by another person.
2. An attempt to shield the body by raising the hand would in some instances result in the implantation of
powder particles on the hand of a person close to one firing a gun.
Possibilities That a Person may be Found Negative for Nitrates even if he did Actually Fired a Gun
1. Use of automatic pistol
2. Direction of the wind
3. Wind velocity
4. Excessive precipitation
5. Use of gloves
6. Knowledge of chemicals that will remove the nitrates
The leakage of powder is apt to occur when the gun fired is old weapon where the breech mechanism
is no longer tightly titled and when the gun used is of the revolver type.
In cases involving shooting incidents where paraffin test is required, the person suspected to have
fired a gun should be subjected to diphenylamine – paraffin test immediately and in no case should it be
postponed seventy – two (72) hours after shooting. It is possible to detect nitrates as late as three days even
though the hands have been washed. In the Philippines the period is reduced to two days only due to
excessive perspiration.
II. Determination of the Probable Gunshot Range or the Distance the Firearm was held from the body
of the Victim at the Time of Discharged
The clothing of the victim with bullet perforation should be submitted for possible gunshot range.
How to Collect, Preserve and Pack Clothing
Clothing removed from the victim should be cautiously and carefully handled to prevent powder
residues for becoming dislodged.
a. A large area as possible surrounding the gunshot hole should be made available for the test. If the
condition and appearance of the wound point to a contact shot at all of the clothing in the path of the bullet
should be collected and submitted for examination.
b. Do not wad the specimen or pack it loosely for shipment. Secure the areas to be tested between two layers
of heavy cardboard fastened together tightly prevent the specimen from becoming jostled about in transit.
c. Each specimen should be wrapped separately
d. Clothing heavily smeared with blood should be dried thoroughly before packing. If wet, they may become
mildewed or stick together in such a way that they will be unsuitable for the test.
The letter transmittal should contain all information as to existing circumstances and conditions
known to the investigator which may become helpful in making the test.
How to Determine the Probable Gunshot Range
The clothing is examined microscopically for possible powder residue, singeing.
burning, smudging and powder tattooing.
a. Singeing – slight burning
b. Smudging – blackening of area around the bullet hole
c. Tattooing – individual species of nitrates around the bullet hole visible to the naked eye. It is a black
coarsely peppered pattern.
Three Zones of Distances from which a Firearm was Discharged
1. Those in which the muscle of the gun was held directly in contact with the body or practically so.
2. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held 2 inches to 36 inches away.
3. Those in which the muzzle of the sun was held beyond 36 inches
Held directly in contact: The characteristic patterns observed are as follows:
1. Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn;
2. Smudging;
3. Singeing of the fibers at the entrance;
4. And tattooing.
Presence of partially burned powdered residues around the entrance hole that may be embedded in
the fabric. This could be present originally but may have become dislodged by rough handling of the specimen
or may have been blown into the wound or may have been wasted by bleeding.
Held from 2 inches to 8 inches (maximum): The smoke and soot from the burned powder will be deposited
around the hole of entrance producing a dirty grimy appearance (covered with soot, dirt adhering or
embedded on the surface). More pronounced when the ammunition used contains black powder. Smudging
around the perforation will be found to diminish in size as the muzzle of the gun is held a distance of eight
inches all the blackening around the hole completely disappear and few individual specks of tattooing will be
visible with the naked eye. The size of the smudge depends upon the caliber of the gun, type of powder used,
length of the barrel, distance of the muzzle of the gun was held from the body. The size of the area of the
powder tattooing will also depend on the caliber, powder charge and distance of firing. A close observation of
the area surrounding the gunshot hole will show that the granule mark or powder tattooing is not distributed
evenly around the hole. A greater bulk of them is deposited on one side of the hole. This is due to the fact that
when cartridge is fired, the bullet leaves the muzzle of the gun first, followed by the expanding gases and the
burning powder. This cause the gun to kick, throwing the muzzle off the target and this kick is always
towards the direction of the sights. The kick of the gun causes the smudge and powder tattooing to be
deposited more on one side of the hole than on the other, and the side of the greatest deposit indicates the
side on which the sights of the gun was mounted. This observation is helpful in determining whether the
wound was due to suicide or murder. If the gun was discharged from a position in which the victim could not
easily have held himself, intends to indicate a murder. The size of the area of powder tattooing will also
depend on the caliber, powder charge and the distance of firing.
Held from 8 inches to 36 inches: Tattooing is visible. The partially burned and unburned powder particles
will be driven into the surface around the gunshot hole producing a black coarsely peppered pattern called
tattooing.
Held beyond 36 inches: Evidence of powder tattooing is seldom present.
Chemical Test for Gunpowder Residues
There are two methods of determining the presence of gunpowder residues around the gunshot hole
namely:
1. A method patterned after the Diphenylamine – Paraffin Test.
Procedure: Coat a piece of clean gauze with a sufficient amount of parallax to produce a layer of about 1/8
inch. Press this layer of paraffin while still warm against the area to be examined.
2. Walker's Test – This test is used if the powder particles are deeply embedded.
It is based on the conversion of nitrates to a dye.
Procedure:
1. Immerse the photographic paper in a new hypo solution for 15 minutes so that all the silver salts are
dissolved.
2. The paper is washed in running water for one hour.
3. The desensitized paper is immerse in a 5 to 10% aqueous solution of C – acid (2 –
Naphthylamine – 4, 8 – disulfonic acid) for ten minutes and then dry.
4. Lay a clean towel on the table and the prepared C – paper is laid face up on this.
5. The fabric to be examined is then laid face – down on the photographic paper.
6. Place thin dry towel of cotton cloth moistened with 20 to 25% acetic acid.
7. Place another layer of dry towel.
8. Press the illuminated arrangement with warm electric iron for ten minutes.
Visible Result: A number of orange red spots are imprinted on the photographic paper.

Gunshot Range of Weapons Other Than Pistol and Revolver

1. Rifle – A weapon on high velocity projectile: Gunshot range is difficult to estimate due to high velocity of
the projectile and the wide variation produced on the wound of entrance. The tissue through which the bullet
passed is usually bruised in varying degree. As a general rule the size of the wound closely appreciate the size
of the bullet.
2. Shotgun or Sporting Gun – The projectile is a collection of small shot consisting of lead pellets that vary in
size with types of cartridge.
a. The pellets disperse soon after their exit from the barrel and the dispersion increases with the
range.
b. The shot discharged from the average cylinder sporting gun will cluster together and not separate to
any appreciable extent until the cluster has travelled approximately 3 to 4 feet from the muzzle of the weapon.
c. If a shot is fired closed to the body up to a few inches the shot enters as a mass and the liberated
gas and flame lacerate the tissue around the hole and show evidence of burning, carbon deposit and powder
tattooing.
d. When fired from 3 feet from the body a more or less irregular circular wound about 1 ½ inches to 2
inches in diameter will be produced. There will be scorching, carbon deposit and powder tattooing.
e. At a range over a yard and up to about 3 yards evidence of burning disappears and probably only
faint tattooing will be found
f. Beyond a yard the entering shot produces an irregular wound and as a result of commencing
dispersion of the shots individual pellet holes may be detected.
III. Determination of the Probable Time the Gun has been Fired
In the determination of the approximate time of last discharge the specimen firearm is needed in the
examination.
At the Crime Laboratory, if the gun is examined immediately after the shooting the chemistry rely
more on the odor of the barrel. A characteristic smell will be present that decreases in intensity with lapse of
time, as smell of hydrogen sulfide. If the gun is examined later presence of nitrates, nitrites, rust soot and
metallic fragments are determined.
Procedure – The barrel is swabbed with cotton with the aid of a barbecue stick and the presence of the
following is determined microscopically and chemically.
1. Soot – a black substance that is formed by combustion rises in fine particles and adheres to the side of the
barrel conveying the smoke.
2. Metallic Fragment
3. Rust – formation of rust inside the barrel after the gun has been fired is good indication for the
determination of the approximate time the gun has been fired.
If a gun has not been fired at all, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of the gun.
If a gun has been fired, Iron salts are formed and are found inside the barrel. This iron salts are soon
oxidized resulting in the formation of rust.
4. Nitrite – presence of nitrite (NO) is determined by the addition of diphenylamine reagent. If the color
becomes blue, nitrites are present and we may say that the firearm could have been fired recently.
5. Nitrate – presence of nitrates (NO) is determined by the addition of diphenylamine reagent. If the color
becomes yellow green, nitrates are present and we may say that the forearm could have been fired but not
recently.
Explosives
The Crime Laboratory does not only examine explosive confiscated from some lawless elements of society that
they utilize for criminal purposes, but also explosives used in illegal fishing.
Explosive – is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion. A
material either a pure single substance or mixture of substances which is capable of producing an explosion
by its own energy. When exploded always accompanied with the liberation of heat and almost with the
formation of gas.
Explosives Can Be Classified as follows:
1. From the viewpoint of chemical composition
2. With respect to functioning characteristics
Classification of Explosives from the Viewpoint of Chemical Composition
A. Inorganic Compound
Examples: Lead Azide Ph (N) Ammonium nitrate NH NO
B. Organic Compound
Examples: Trinitrotoluene (TNT); picric acid (trinitrophenol nitrocellulose; mercury fulminate Hg(ONC)
C. Mixture of oxidizable materials and oxidizing agents that is no explosives separately
Examples: Black Powder – used today mainly as igniter for nitrocellulose gun propellants and also in
pyrotechnics.
Classification of Explosives with Respect to Functioning Characteristics
1. Propellants or Low Explosives – are combustible materials containing within themselves all oxygen
needed for their combustion which burn but do not explode and function by producing gas which produces
explosion.
 Examples: Pyrotechnics, Black Powder, Smokeless Powder, Firecrackers and Pyrotechniques
2. Primary Explosives or Indicators – explode or detonate when they are heated or subjected to shock. They
do not burn. Sometimes they do not even contain the elements necessary for combustion. The materials
themselves explode and the explosion results whether they are confined or not.
Examples: Mercury Fulminate and Lead Azide
3. High Explosives – explode under the influence of the shock of the explosion of a primary explosive. They
do not function by burning, in fact not all of them can be ignited by a flame and in small amount generally
burn tranquilly and can be extinguished easily. If heated to a high temperature by external heat of by their
own combustion, they sometimes explode.
Examples:
1. Ammonium Nitrate (AN) – most readily available and cheapest salt of nitric acid. White compound used as
a solid oxidizer in explosive mixture.
2. Dynamite – made by mixing nitroglycerine with powdered clay or sawdust.
3. TNT – or Trinitrotoluene – the most widely used explosive. Used mostly for military explosive. A safe
explosive, it will burn but does not explode set on fire.
4. Nitroglycerine (NG) – widely used in industrial explosive. Has been the main component in many
dynamites. It is a mixture of Nitric Acid, Sulfuric Acid and Glycerine. Oily liquid that is very dangerous
because the slightest shake will cause it to explode.
5. Plastic Explosive – a military explosive that looks like ordinary putty or molding clay. Military explosives
are chiefly solids or mixtures formulated as to be solid at normal temperature of use.
6. Picric Acid – also called trinitrophenol.
Other Explosives:
1. C – 4 – often referred to as a plastic explosive. White and dough like in consistency. It is commonly
encountered of the RDX based explosive.
2. RDX – (1,3,5 – trinitro –1,3,5 triazacyclophexane) – Also called hexagon or cyclonite,
cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine. A plastic explosive. Most important military explosives used today.
3. Chloroacetophenone (CN) – the principal constituent in the filter used in tear gas solutions. Commonly
used tear gas.
4. Fire Bombs
a. Molotov Cocktail – is an incendiary device, not a bomb. Easily constructed of the most common
materials. Consists of frangible container, like glass bottle filled with gasoline or any inflammable mixture and
having a piece of absorbent cloth for a wick or fuse. To function the container is turned upside down and the
wick absorbs the flammable mixture, the wick lighted and thrown. On impact the bottle breaks scattering the
flammable mixture which is ignited by the burning wick.
b. Modern Molotov – consists of 2/3 and 1/3 gas and sulfuric acid respectively. A blotter which has
been saturated in potassium chlorate and sugar is wrapped and secured to the bottle. A snowball consists of
potassium chlorate and sugar mixture embedded in a wax mold using a length of safety fuse for an ignitor.
c. Acids mixed with the gasoline and wicks attached to the outer bottle
d. Mixture of alcohol and gasoline using a chrome oxide strip taped to the bottle which when
thrown will burst violently
5. Demolition and Fragmentation Explosives
1. Composition A – mixture of RDX and beeswax, Semi plastic in nature.
2. Composition B – is a mixture of RDX, TNT and beeswax.
3. Composition C – sometimes referred to as plastic explosive, is RDX and inert plasticizer
composition.
4. C – 2 – is RDX and explosive plasticizer. Contains no tetryl.
5. C – 3 – RDX and an explosive plasticizer with tetryl substituted in part of RDX.
6. C4 – is RDX and plastic explosive composition.
Chapter XI
Chemical Aspect of Document Examination

At first impression it seems that the examination of questioned documents is hardly within the
province of a forensic chemist, but if we consider the fact that the essential materials in a document
examination of any kind are the paper and ink or pencil, and the chemical examination of inks, erasures,
alterations and sequence or writing are often associated with such examination, it will be very evident that
there is a large amount of purely chemical work in document examination.
Document – An original or official written or printed – paper furnishing information or used as a proof of
something else. Is any object that contains handwritten or typewritten markings whose source or authenticity
is in doubt.
Packing, Preservation and transportation of documents.
Documents are precious things and therefore should be treated accordingly.
1. Documents should be handled, folded and marked as little as possible.
2. If folding is necessary to send to the laboratory, the fold should be made old lines. Place it in Manila paper
envelope or brown envelope since it is sufficiently hard paper or it can be placed in a transparent plastic
envelope.
3. On receipt the document should be placed between two sheets of plain white paper in a folder.
4. Documents should not be touched with pencil, pen or anything that could be possibly marked them.
The Examination of Questioned Documents
Examination and Comparison of Paper
The essential materials in a document examination of any kind are the paper and ink or pencil or
writings. The examination of paper may be necessary if we want to know the age of the document, the
presence of alterations, erasures and other forms of forgery.
Problem encountered in the Analysis of Paper
a. Determination of whether two pieces of paper originated from the same source
b. Determination of the probable age of paper.
c. Determination of the composition of the paper.
1. Fiber Composition – Practically all papers maybe classified from the standpoint of their basic fiber
composition into sets of fiber mixtures namely:
a. Mechanical Pulp – group wood sulfite mixture, this is pulp from coniferous and dicotyledonous
wood in combination with sulfite chemical pulp from conifers.
b. Soda – Sulfite Mixture – chemical pulp from dicotyledonous woods.
c. Rag Sulfite – cotton rag or linen rag.
2. Sizing Material – added to paper to improve its texture. Examples of sizing materials are rosin, casein,
gelatin and starch.
3. Loading Material – added to paper to give weight. It partially fills the pores between the fibers of the paper.
Examples of loading materials are calcium sulfate and barium sulfate.
The Examination of Paper
The examination and comparison of paper may determine the following:
1. The age of the paper as compared with the age of known document.
2. Whether a paper is identical with or different from another paper whose history is known.
3. Whether two sheets of paper of the same manufacturer were made at the same time. In this case we have
to know when the form was printed or when the paper was first made that bears a particular mark.
The Four Tests for Paper
a. Preliminary Examination
b. Physical test causing no perceptible change
c. Physical test causing a perceptible change
d. Chemical test
1. Preliminary Examination – deals with the appearance of the document and the following are observed:
a. folds and creases
b. Odor
c. Impression caused by transmitted light – gives indication of color, translucency where tampering is
made, change in tint which indicated substitution of sheets of paper, watermarks and wire marks.
d. Presence of discoloration in daylight and under the ultraviolet light.
Watermark – if present is one of the most important features in the comparison of paper. It is distinctive
mark or design placed in the paper at the time of its manufacture, by a roll usually covered with wire cloth
known as dandy roll which serves as a means whereby the paper can be identified as the product of a
particular manufacturer.
Wiremark – marks produced on paper by the flexible wire soldered to the surface of the dandly roll that
carries the watermark.
2. Physical Test Causing No Perceptible Change – a test applied on paper without perceptible changing or
altering the original appearance of the document.
a. Measurement of length and width – to indicate that they originated from the same manufacturer of
two pieces is found to be exactly the same.
b. Measurement of thickness
c. Measurement of weight/unit area
d. Color of the paper – it is closely related to its brightness. A side – by – side comparison maybe made
in well – diffused light. Observation of color is influenced by the texture, gloss, finish, type of illumination and
the element of human error.
e. Texture
f. Gloss – gloss and texture maybe determined by visual observation in good daylight or under different
kinds of illumination.
g. Opacity – the quality of paper that does not allow light to pass through or which prevent dark
objects from being seen through the paper.
h. Microscopic examination/inspection – for possible presence of dirt, foreign particles, imperfections,
wiremarks or certain unusual fibers. There may be deciding factors in determining whether or not the same
manufacturer made two pieces of paper.
3. Physical Examination Causing a Perceptible Change – this is done only if sufficient samples are
available and if prior authorization from the court is required this can be done.
a. Bursting strength or “Pop” test – the apparent pressure necessary to burst a hole in a sheet when
properly inserted in a suitable instrument.
b. Folding endurance test – it is obtained on an instrument that registers the number of alternate
folds the paper will stand before breaking.
c. Accelerated aging test – there are some methods of aging a document artificially namely:
1. Soaking in coffee solution
2. Soaking in tea solution
3. Exposure to charcoal
4. Ironing
5. Heating in an oven
6. Exposure to ultraviolet light
d. Absorption test – maybe made to determine either the rate of absorption or the total absorption of
the paper. A strip of paper is suspended in water or ink or other liquid.
4. Chemical Test – this test determines the fiber composition, the loading material and sizing material used
in the paper.
a. Fiber Composition – the examination is purely microscopic and it determines the material used
and nature of processing. This may be determined by boiling a small piece of the document in 5% sodium
hydroxide. The liquid poured off and the fragment of paper washed and teased out on a glass slide and
stained with the following and the color observed under the microscope.
Reagents:
a. 2 grams potassium iodide, 1.5 grams iodine, 2 ml glycerine and 20 ml water
b. 1.) 20 grams zinc chloride and 10 ml water
 2.) 2 grams potassium iodide, 1 gram iodine and 5 ml water mix 1 and 2 allow the mixture to stand and
decant clear supernatant liquid for use (the solution is zinc chloriodine).
c. 1 gram phloroglucine, 25 ml water and 5 ml conc HCL
d. 10% solution of aniline sulfate.
b. Sizing Material – the sizing material may be tested by:
Procedure and Results:
1. Gelatine – is extracted by boiling the paper in water. The solution is tested with dilute tannic acid solution.
Positive result is yellow precipitated.
2. Rosin – this is extracted by heating the paper on a water bath with 95% alcohol. The solution obtained is
evaporated to dryness and the residue dissolved in acetic anhydride, cooled, transferred to a porcelain dish
and strong sulfuric acid is added. Positive result s reddish – violet color that quickly changes to red brown.
Simple test for rosin – place a few drops of ether on the paper and if rosin is present a brown ring will
be formed when ether evaporates.
3. Starch – add a dilute iodine solution on the paper. Blue color is produced if starch is present.
4. Casein – it can be detected by addition of Millon’s reagent on the paper. Pink color appears if casein is
present.
The Analysis of Ink
Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of ink are:
1. Whether the ink is the same or like or different in kind from ink on other parts of the same document or on
other documents.
2. Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made with identical ink, or inks of different
qualities or in different conditions.
3. Whether an ink is as old as it purports to be.
4. Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently dated book entries show natural
variations in ink writing or whether the conditions point to one continuous writing at one time under the
same condition.
Type of Ink
1. Gallotanic Ink or Iron – Nutgall Ink (Blue) – today the most frequently used ink for making entries in
record books and for business purposes. Gallotonic ink is made of a solution of iron salt (ferrous sulfate) and
nutgall (iron gallotannate). This ink can penetrate into the interstices of the fiber and not merely on the
surface thus making its removal more difficult to accomplish. The color changes undergone by this ink in the
process of oxidation provides a valuable means of estimating the approximate age of the writing.
Blue – with the naked eye; very recent
Violet – less recent
Black – still less recent
Changes undergone by Gallotonic Ink:
a. First reaching a maximum degree of blackening within the first year or two.
b. Then fades gradually over a period of many years until only a rust colored deposit remains.
This period of time can be stated only approximate since the oxidation processes are retarded or
accelerated according to the degree of atmospheric humidity, the light, the quality of the ink itself, the paper,
the condition of blotting, condition of storage, etc.
2. Logwood Ink (Black) – the color is dependent on the inorganic salt added, but on drying and standing they
turn black. It is made of saturated solution of logwood to which very small amount of potassium dichromate
is added. Hydrochloric acid is added to prevent formation of precipitate. Phenol is added as preservative. The
ink is inexpensive, does not corrode steel pen. Will not washed off the paper even fresh, flows freely.
3 Nigrosine Ink or Aniline Ink (Blue Black or Purple Black) – made of coal tar product called nigrosine
dissolved in water. It easily smudge, affected by moisture, maybe washed off from the paper with little
difficulty.
4. Carbon Ink or Chinese Ink or India Ink – the oldest ink material known. Today, finely divided carbon is
held in colloidal suspension and used to produce deep black drawing and writing ink. Made of carbon in the
form of lamp back. Does not penetrate deeply into the fibers of the paper so that it may easily be washed off.
Not affected by the usual ink testing reagents.
5. Colored Writing Ink – today most all colored inks are composed of synthetic aniline dyestuff dissolved in
water. In certain colored inks ammonium vanadate is added to render the writing more permanent.
6. Ballpoint Pen Ink – made of light fast dues solution in glycol type solvents like
carbitol, glycol or oleic acid. Paper Chromatography can best analyze this ink.
Test for Ink
The different classes of ink may be determined by many different methods such as the use of reagents
on the ink lines, the spectrographic method and the photographic method. For our purpose only the physical
and chemical methods will be discussed.
1. Physical Method/Test – applied to determine the color and presence of alterations, erasures, destruction
of sizes with the use of stereoscope, hand lens and microscope Chemical Test or Spot Test – a simple test
wherein different chemicals or reagents are applied on the ink strokes and the chemical reactions or
characteristics color reactions or other changes in the ink are observed. The following table shows the
chemical reactions of the different types of inks:
Gallotonic Gallotonic
Ink Ink
Reagent With Without Logwood Nigrosine Carbon
provisional provisional
color color
5% HCl Blue Disappear Red Maybe No Effect or
with slight Smudged smudged with
yellow color blotter
10% oxalic Acid Blue Disappear Voilet – Maybe No Effect or
Red Smudged smudged with
 blotter
Tartaric Acid Blue Disappear Light Maybe No Effect or
Brown Smudged smudged with
blotter
2% NaOH Reddish – Reddish – Brown Runs, Dark No Effect or
Brown Brown Violet at smudged with
Edges blotter
10% NaOCl Disappears Disappears Disappears Brown No Effect or
smudged with
blotter
Chlorine Water Disappears Disappears Disappears Brown No Effect or
smudged with
blotter
K Fe(CN) (a) Blue Blue Red No Effect No Effect or
smudged with
blotter
KCNS (a) Red Red - No Effect No Effect or
smudged with
blotter
(Take Note: (a) means after iron has been dissolved by a drop of HCl)
Determination of Approximate Age of Document
1. Age of Ink – no definite procedure which can be given for this determination except when the color is
black, because on the observation that within a few hours the color of ink writings becomes darker the dye
contained therein is influenced by the light of the room, oxygen of the air, acidity or alkalinity of the paper.
There are several methods of determining the degree of oxidation of the ink writing and apparently
these methods depend upon:
a. Physical phenomena such as matching the color of the ink writing with standard colors or with itself
over a period of time.
b. Chemical reaction that may reveal some information concerning the length of time the ink has been
on the paper.
2. Age of Paper
a. Through watermarks
b. In certain cases from the composition of paper
Other Aspect of Document Examination
The detection and deciphering of illegible writing is one of the major problems in document
examination.
Illegible writing – is unnecessary writing is not capable of being read usually made on checks, birth
certificate, passports and transcript of records.
Example of Illegible Writing:
1. Erasures – This refers to the removal of writing from the paper. It can be made mechanically or chemically.
2. Obliteration – This refers to the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink, pencil or other marking
materials.
3. Sympathetic Ink – This refers to substances used for invisible writing.
4. Indented Writing – This refers to the partially visible depression appearing on a sheet of paper underneath
the one that the visible writing appears.
5. Writing on Carbon Paper – This refers to the use of sheets of carbon paper that can be made readable.
6. Contact Writing – This refers to blank paper may contain traces of ink because of previous contact with
some writings.
 Chapter XII
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

During the mid 1980s DNA analysis was first recognized as having application to forensic science by
the British molecule biologist Alec Jeffreys. From work in his laboratory, as well from others, it was realized
that DNA has been utilized as a new powerful tool for human identification. It offers the following advantages:
1. DNA is stable – it can be isolated from material that is months or even years old.
2. DNA can be replicated in the laboratory – from a very small amount of initial material through the
process of PCR (POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION).
3. DNA shows greater variability from one individual to the next.
What is DNA?
DNA is functionally the hereditary material that contains the genetic information necessary for the
duplication of cells and for the production of proteins. Chemically, it is an acid, is phosphorous rich, it
contains a deoxyribose sugar, it contains the four bases show the unique property of pair wise equivalency. It
is a double helix composed of two complimentary strands.
Facts About DNA
1. DNA – de – oxy – ri – bo – nucleic acid is a chemical substance found in all cells whose composition have
been passed on from parents to their children. All cells in the body have the same DNA composition slept
individual egg and sperm cells.
2. Biological Evidences that can be submitted for DNA analysis:
a. Blood and bloodstain
b. Semen and seminal stain
c. Hairs and follicles or root
d. Saliva or buccal swabs
e. Bones and organs
f. Tissues and cells
3 Line up of cases where DNA analysis is of help:
a. Sexual assault case like rape
b. Murder
c. Homicide
d. Robbery
e. Hit and run
f. Extortion
g. Paternity case
h. Identification of remains from mass disaster cases and missing persons.
4 How DNA analysis is used to identify with accuracy the perpetrators of crime? Human tissues such
as hair, blood, semen is often left in places where a crime has been committed. By carefully collecting such
bits of tissues, their owner can be identified from the DNA pattern obtained.
Guidelines for the Collection and Preservation of Sample Evidence for DNA Analysis
There are hundreds of varieties of physical evidence commonly submitted for examination for forensic
science laboratories by law enforcement agencies. Evidence that could be subjected to DNA analysis is
generally limited to substances that are been successfully isolated and analyzed:
1. Blood and bloodstains
2. Semen and seminal stains
3. Saliva and buccal swab
4. Hairs and follicles
5. Tissues and cells
6. Bones and organs
In addition, there are reports indicating that DNA has been isolated from urine samples with nucleated
cells; however, it is extremely rare to be able to obtain sufficient DNA to type from urine samples. Other types
of biological evidence, such as tears, perspiration, serum and other body fluids without nucleated cells are not
amenable to DNA analysis. It should be kept in mind that not all biological materials listed above in case work
submitted to a forensic laboratory are in such a state that DNA can be successfully extracted and analyzed.
When collecting any type of body fluid or tissue, the universal precautions for body fluids should be
taken. Wear gloves anytime these specimens are handled and additional protective equipment when
appropriate. All body fluids and tissues must be assumed to be infectious regardless of the source.
Collection and Preservation of Biological Evidence
The ability to perform successful DNA analysis on biological evidence recovered from a crime scene
depends very much on what kinds of specimens were collected and how they were preserved. Thus, the
technique used to collect and document such evidence, the quantity and type of evidence that should be
packaged, and how the evidence should be preserved, are some of the critical points for a forensic DNA testing
program. Unless the evidence is properly documented, collected, packaged and preserved, it will not meet the
legal and scientific requirements for admissibility into a court of law. If the DNA evidence is not properly
documented prior to collection, its origin can be questioned. If it is improperly packaged, cross –
contamination may occur and the DNA evidence is not properly preserved, decomposition and deterioration
may occur. Any of these effects will seriously affect the outcome of DNA typing. The following are general
guidelines for the documentation, collection and packaging and preservation of DNA evidence.
Guidelines for Documentation of DNA Evidence
The initial stages in physical evidence examination encompass activities that take place at a crime
scene as well as the forensic laboratory. Documentation is important from two points of view in forensic
science; the legal one, and the scientific one. Nothing should ever be altered until its original condition and
positions have been recorded. Several different means of documentation are available. Generally, the use of
more than one method is recommended. Every major piece of evidence should be documented.
Collection of DNA Evidence at the Crime Scene
Evidence Condition Location Collection
Blood Liquid Person Collect in EDTA tubes
Liquid Scene Use syringe, collect in EDTA tubes.
Transfer onto cotton cloth. Air dry.
Blood Cloth Scene Collect cloth in test tube. Transfer
onto cotton cloth. Air dry.
Blood Wet Clothing Air dries at room temperature.
Package in paper bag.
Wet Object Air dries at room temperature.
Package in paper bag.
Wet Water Collect sample with syringe. Place
sample in plastic container. Freeze
sample.
Dried Crust Person, Scene, Scrape crust into paper packet.
Blood Object Collect control blank.
Stain Weapon Collect item directly.
Stain Small Object Collect entire item.
Stain Vehicle, Cut out stained area. Package
Upholstery, separately. Collect control.
Carpet,
Wallpaper,
Wood
Stain Unmovable a.) Scrape into paper packet. Collect
Surface, control.
Concrete Wall b.) Transfer onto moistened cotton
thread. Air dry thread.
Spatters Unmovable Tape lifting. Place in container.
Surface
Semen Liquid Victim a.) Collect sample with rape kit.
b.) Collect sample with swabs. Keep
in refrigerator.
Liquid Object, Scene a.) Collect liquid semen into tube.
b.) Transfer onto cotton cloth. Air
dry.
Wet Clothing Air dry. Package separately.
Dried Stain Clothing, Carpet Collect as is. Package separately.
 Upholstery Cut out section with stain. Collect
control.
Unmovable Scrape sample into paper packet.
Surface Collect control.
Urine Liquid Person Direct deposit in container. Keep
refrigerated.
Collection of DNA Evidence at the Crime Scene
Evidence Condition Location Collection
Saliva Liquid Scene Use syringe transfer into test tube.
Keep refrigerated.
Clothing, Object Collect as is.
Tissue, Fresh Scene Place in container. Keep cold.
Organ
Dried Scene Place in container.
Bone With Scene Collect hair with tissue in
Tissue container. Keep refrigerated.
Hair With Blood Scene Separate hair from blood. Collect in
paper packet.
Intact Hair Scene Pick up sample with clean forceps.
Place in paper packet.
Fragments Scene Tape lift. Package in container
Control Person Pulled (at least 20)
DNA Analysis
There are many types of DNA testing that are presently available. One detects Presence of RFLPs
(Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) in the DNA. This commonly known as "DNA Profiling" of "DNA
Fingerprinting” and in most cases results in either a positive of exclusion of an individual as a donor. This
analysis requires approximately 100 nanograms of high quality DNA for a successful determination. DNA
analysis in forensic casework was first performed using this technique. In this approach, purified DNA is first
cut with certain restriction endonucleases and then run on an agarose gel. The separated DNA fragments are
subsequently blotted on to a membrane and exposed to radioactivity - labeled probes specific for regions
located between the restriction sites, which vary in length within the population. Autobiography then reveals
labeled restriction fragments, the banding pattern of which is used for comparison between victim and for
comparison between victim and suspect for comparison with a database.
The advent of of PCR technology and its application to forensic science, brought a new way of
examining biological evidence and has paved the way for the other technique – the PCR amplification and
typing of the HLA DQAO1 and 5 Polymarkers (PM) loci which requires only 2 nanograms of DNA. PCR analysis
of biological evidence was first used in a criminal case in the United States in 1986 and has been used in a
large number of court cases and has proved a reliable and widely accepted method for the examination of
human identity.
One of the most important developments in the field of human identity testing is the use of DNA typing
to analyze biological evidence. In particular, the powerful PCR used to analyze samples which cannot be typed
by other methods, such as samples containing minute amounts of human DNA and very old and/or degraded
DNA.
How DNA Analysis is done?
DNA Typing is done by first carefully extracting the DNA from the evidentiary samples. The DNA is
then analyzed to give a particular pattern. The patterns are compared with that of a known individual to
determine a match. In individual identification, the pattern obtained from the evidentiary sample is compared
with that of a suspect. If the patterns are different the evidentiary sample definitely has not originated from
the suspect. The DNA pattern of the evidentiary sample is similar to that of sample obtained from the suspect,
the probability that the evidentiary sample is similar to that sample arose from the suspect, and not from a
random individual in population is calculated from a formula based on well – accepted concepts of statistical
probabilities and population genetics using an established population genetic database. Probability
calculations must show that no other person in the country or in the world could possess such DNA pattern
except the suspect. For example, the probability of a matched DNA pattern being present in the Philippines
indicates how many people are expected to possess such pattern. If probability of pattern is 1 per 20,000 this
means that there could be as many 3,600 (72 million/20,000) people having that pattern. Therefore, the DNA
test is inconclusive. However, if DNA pattern has a probability of 1 to 100 million, since there are only almost
80 million people in the Philippines then the forensic sample must have come from the suspect.
 Part II
Forensic Toxicology

Toxicology – This refers to the branch of science that treats of poison, their origin, physical and chemical
properties, physiological action, treatment of their noxious effect and methods of detection. The etymology of
toxicology came from “toxico” that means poison and "ology that means study or science.
Poison – This refers to a substance that when introduced into the body and is absorbed through the blood
stream and acting chemically is capable of producing noxious effect.
Classification of Poison
1. According to Kingdom
a. Animal – ex Cantharides
b. Vegetable – ex. Strychnine
c. Mineral – ex. Hydrochloric acid
2. According to Chemical Properties
A. Inorganic Poison – poison without carbon
a Volatile – ex Bromine, Chlorine and lodine
b. Non – volatile – ex. Sulfuric acid
c. Mineral acid – ex. Hydrochloric acid
d. Mineral alkalis – ex. Sodium hydroxide
B. Organic Poison – poison that contains carbon
a. Volatile – ex. Alcohol, Chloroform
b. Alkaloid – ex. Strychnine
Alkaloids – are nitrogenous organic basic compound with bitter containing usually oxygen that occurs
especially in seed plants.
c. Animal Poison – ex. Snake venom
d. Bacterial – ex. Ptomaine
e. Organic Poison – ex. Salicylic acid
f. Glucosides – ex Digitalis
3. According to Physiological Action
A. Corrosives – highly irritant poisons that cause local destruction of tissues and characterized by nausea,
vomiting, and great local distress. E.g. strong acids and alkalis.
B. Irritants – one that produces irritation or inflammation of the mucus membrane and characterized by
vomiting, pain in the abdomen and purging. E.g. arsenic.
C. Narcotics – one that produce stupor, complete insensibility, or loss of feeling. E.g. opium, Demerol and
cocaine.
D. Neurotics – one that act chiefly on the nervous system producing delirium, convulsion and respiration as
the outstanding symptoms. E.g. alcohol, opium, and strychnine.
E. Tetanics – substance that act chiefly upon the spinal column producing such spasmodic and continuous
contraction of muscles as a result of stiffness or immobility of the parts to which they are attached.
F. Depressants or Sedatives – agents that retard or depress the physiological action of an organ. E.g.
Nicotine and cocaine.
G. Asthenics or Exhaustive – agents that produce exhaustion, marked loss vital or muscular power. E.g.
hydrocyanic acid.
4. According to Pharmacological Action
A. Substance characterized by local of action – ex. Volatile oils and skin irritants.
B. Substances characterized by their action after absorption – ex. Alkaloid.
C. Heavy metals and metalloids – ex. Phosphorous, arsenic and mercury.
5. According to Methods of Isolation
A. Volatile poisons are those isolated by distillation with or without current or steam. E.g. alcohol, phenol and
chloroform.
B. Non – volatile poisons are those isolated by extraction with organic solvents. E.g. alkaloids and organic
acid.
C. Metallic poisons that are isolated by refluxion. E.g. arsenic and mercury.
D. Substances for which special method of isolation are required. E.g. acids and
alkali metals are extracted with water.
Two Types of Poisoning:
I. From Medical Point of View
1. Acute Poisoning – This refers to one that there is prompt and marked disturbance of function death
within a short period of time. Due to either a strong poison in excessive single dose or several doses at short
interval.
2. Sub – Acute Poisoning – This refers to cases of short and extreme violence that may include symptoms of
chronic poisoning.
3. Chronic Poisoning – This refers to kind of poisoning in which there is gradual deterioration of function of
tissues and may or may not result in death. Either taking several doses at long intervals or taking only toxic
doses of the drug produces it.
II. From Legal Point of View
1. Accidental Poisoning – This refers to those in which the poison was taken without intention to cause
death. It may be taken by mistake or without knowing that it is poison.
2. Suicidal Poisoning – This refers to those in which the victim voluntarily for the purpose of taking his own
life took the poison.
3. Homicidal Poisoning – This refers those in which the poison was given willfully, wantonly and with intent
to cause death to the victim.
4. Undetermined – This refers to those in which the history is hazy as to how the poison was obtained and
why it was administered.
Action of Poison
1. Local – This refers to the changes or disturbance produced on the part with which the poison come in
contact. Ex. The corrosion produced by corrosive poisons.
2. Remote – This refers to the changes or disturbance produced in distant parts away from the site of
application. Ex. Dilation of the pupils when belladonna is taken orally.
3. Combined – This refers to the effect of the poison is not only localized at the site but affects remote organs.
Ex. Phenol causes corrosion of the gastro – intestinal tract
(local) and causes convulsion (remote).
Conditions Modifying the Action of Poisons
1. Those attributed to the individual
a. Age and sex
b. Health
c. Habit – the repeated taking of small dose of drug
d. Idiosyncrasy – This refers to a term applied to individuals’ reactions to certain substances who exhibit.
e. Diseases
f. Food
g. Sleep
h. Exhaustion
2. Those attributed to the poison itself
a. Physical state or form of the poison
b. Dilution
c. Solubility of the poisons
d. Mode of administration
e. Chemical combination
f. Mechanical combination
g. Dose – This refers to the quantity of a poison to be administered at one time
Posology – This refers to branch of medical science that concerned with form and quantity of medicine to be
administered within a certain period.
Kind of Dose
1. Safe Dose – This refers to one that does not cause harmful effect.
2. Toxic or Poisonous Dose – This refers to one that is harmful to both healthy and sick
3. Lethal Dose – This refers to one that kills.
4. Minimum Dose – This refers to the smallest amount that will produce the therapeutic effect without Ham
5. Maximum Dose – This refers to the largest amount that will cause no harm but at the same time produce
desired therapeutic effect.
Entrance of Poison
Poison May Enter the Body Through:
1. Mouth and are absorbed into the circulation after passing the stomach and intestinal wall.
2. Nose and enter the blood from the upper respiratory passages or lungs.
3. Eyes
4. Rectum, vagina, urethra, bladder and ureter by injection
5. Hypodermic Injection
6. Intravenous Injection
Elimination of Poison
Poison May be Eliminated by:
1. Emesis
2. Respiration
3. Feces
4. Urine
5. Milk
6. Saliva
7. Sweat
8. Tears
Diagnosis of Poisoning from Disease
Diagnosis of poisoning before death is very difficult because of:
1. The large number of poisons and the factor modifying them;
2. Some of the symptoms observed in cases of poisoning are also seen in certain diseases.
Distinguishing Poisoning from Disease
1. Symptoms of poisoning come suddenly a person who previously has been in good health, while disease is
usually preceded by a number of hours, days or even weeks of local or general disposition
2. In case of poisoning, the symptoms commonly make their appearances after taking food or medicine.
3. If several poisons take the same food and drinks, they should all show similar symptoms.
4. Diseases are generally much slower in their progress and are preceded by circumstances as exposure,
recognized symptoms and general or local indisposition of longer duration.
Symptoms Cause by Poisoning and Disease
1. Vomiting (frequently associated with purging and abdominal pain)
Poisons: Arsenic, Antimony, Corrosive Acid and Alkali, Barium, Cantharides, Digitalis, Copper, Iodine,
Mercury, Phosphorus, Phenols and Wood Alcohol.
Diseases: Gastritis, Gastro – Enteritis, Cholera, Acidosis, Early Stage of Pregnancy, Brain Tumor.
2. Convulsion
Poisons: Cyanide and Strychnine
Disease: Tetanus, Epilepsy and Uremia
3. Coma
Poison: Opium and most of its derivatives, Chloral Hydrate, Paraldehyde, CO2, Chloroform, Atropine,
Various Alcohols and Phenols.
Diseases: Uremia, Acidosis, Cerebral Thrombosis, Brain Injury, Epilepsy and other Brain Diseases.
4. Dilation of Pupils
Poisons: Belladonna, Cocaine and Nicotine
Diseases: Certain Nervous Diseases causing Optic Athropy
5. Contraction of Pupils
Poisons: Opium and its derivatives, Physostigmine and its derivatives
Diseases: certain Nervous Diseases
6. General and Partial Paralysis
Poisons: Cyanides, CO2 and Botulism
Diseases: Brain Tumor and Meningitis
7. Slow Respiration
Poisons: Opium and its derivatives
Diseases: Uremia, compression of the brain as from Hemorrhage.
8. Rapid Respiration
Poisons: Atropine Group, Cocaine and CO2
Diseases: Acute Respiratory Disease
9. Delirium
Poisons: Atropine Group, Cannabis and Cocaine
Diseases: Epilepsy, Insanity and Meningitis
10. Cyanosis
Poisons: Nitrobenzene, Aniline, Acetanilide and Opium
Diseases: disease of Cardiac and Respiratory System
Effects of Blood Alcohol (Ethanol) Concentration
Stage of Percent of Alcohol Clinical Manifestation
Intoxication (Ethanol) in Blood
Stimulation 0.01 – 0.10 Normal by ordinary observation
Apparent 0.05 – 0.20 Decreased inhibition Emotional
Stimulation instability
In coordination
Slowing reaction to stimuli
Confusion 0.10 – 0.30 Disturbance of Sensation
Decrease pain sense
Staggering gait
Slurred Speech
Stupor 0.25 – 0.40 Marked decrease to stimuli
Approaching paralysis
 Coma or Death 0.35 – 0.50 Complete unconsciousness
Subnormal temperature
Anesthesia
Impairment of circulation
Stertorous breathing
General Treatment of Poisoning
i. Removal of poison from the stomach – if the poison is taken orally the removal of the poison is brought
about by:
a. Inducing vomiting using emetics
Emetics – are substances or agents that produce vomiting.
b. Use of stomach pump or stomach tube
- if poison is applied or instilled – wash
- if the poison is injected – ligatures and bleeding
ii. Administration of antidotes
a. Mechanical Antidote – an agent that removes the posing without changing it or coats the surface of the
organ so that absorption is prevented. E.g. Stomach tubes or pumps; emetics; Cathartics; demulcents and
precipitants.
Classes of Emetics:
1. Local Emetic – produce their effects by their irritation of the terminal nerve filaments of the pharynx,
esophagus or stomach.
2. System or General Emetics – produce their effects through the medium of circulation.
Cathartics – agents that produce intestinal evacuation
Demulcents – substances that soothe and protect that part which they are applied.
Precipitants – these are substances that prevent absorption of poisons by precipitating them and
rendering them insoluble.
b. Chemical Antidote – substance that make the poison harmless by chemically altering it.
c. Physiological Antidote – sometimes called “antagonist”. An agent that acts upon the system to counteract
the effect of the poison. It merely masks the symptoms produced.
iii. Elimination of poisons by excretion – poisons are eliminated through excretory organs. Made by
intravenous infusion of saline solution, dilute alkali solution or dilute solution of glucose. The poison is
generally excreted through the urine, feces, vomitus or saliva.
iv. Stimulation and other symptomatic treatment
a. For excessive pain – morphine or another analgesic
b. For convulsion – chloroform
c. For shock – oxygen inhalation
v. Special treatment
a. if the poison is gas – immediate need is fresh air and artificial respiration.
b. if poisoning is external (like burn on the hand by concentrated acid) – wash with plenty of water or with
Alcohol, Sodium Bicarbonate, Lime Water or Milk of Magnesia.
c. if alkali burn – wash with lemon or other citrus fruits.
d. if the poison has come from a bite or injection – the poison can be checked from spreading through the
body by applying tourniquet or a restricting band tightly above the wound. This retards the absorption of
poison by the blood.
Investigation of Fatal Cases
In the investigation of fatal cases, it is not necessary that an investigator should be an expert on the
poisons, since a medico – legal officer and a toxicologist will assist in the investigation, but it is important and
will be of great help if the investigator knows the following:
1. Symptoms of various kinds of poisoning;
2. The lethal dose of the poison;
3. The length of time that may elapse after the poison has been taken before death occurs;
4. Where the poison was obtained;
5. The chemical formula of the poison;
6. Other names it is known in the market;
7. Uses of poison; and
8. Antidote for the poison.
Evidence of Poisoning in the Living Body
The evidence of poisoning will depend upon whether the poisoning is acute or chronic. In acute
poisoning the symptoms appear suddenly while the individual is in good health. The person is usually
affected with a group of symptoms of definite characteristics out of consonance with his previous state of
health. In chronic poisoning, the onset of symptoms is more gradual and insidious due to the small quantity
of poison that has been administered on such occasion since the intention is to kill his victim slowly in order
to avert suspicion.
Evidence of Poisoning in the Dead
In all cases of poisoning whether homicidal or suicidal, fatal or not, the presence of poison must be
proven and proofs of poisoning in the dead may be obtained from:
1. Presence of Dye in Hair – an examination of a dead body especially to determine the cause of death.
2. Evidence from the chemical analysis of the organs from the body – the most important proof of
poisoning is the detection of the poison within the body. In some cases, however, on account of the
decomposition of the tissue, the lapse of time between death and examination, and the instability of some
poisons, negative results may be obtained even if at the time of death certain poisons are present.
Post – Mortem Appearance Poison Indicated
1. Lesion of the mouth Sulfuric Acid
a.) Blackening and Sever Corrosion
b.) Brownish yellow stain Strong Mineral Acids,
Oxalic Acids, Lysol and
 Carbolic Acid
c.) Corrosion and Softening of tissue of mouth and throat Alkalis
d.) Severe corrosion without blackening Hydrochloric Acid
e.) Severe corrosion and yellow stain Nitric Acid
f.) Lips swollen, tongue raw, esophagus with red cracks, Ammonia
bronchopneumonia if death is delayed
2. Lesion of the gastric – intestinal tract Strong Acids
a.) Corrosion
b.) Soapiness Caustic Alkalis
c.) Dark brown gelatinous mass in stomach Oxalic Acid
d.) Stomach grayish white Acetic Acid
e.) Stomach yellow or reddish yellow Picric Acid
f.) Stomach green or bluish green Copper Salts
3. Other lesion Hydrocyanic Acid,
a.) Bright red spots on skin Cyanides, CO
b.) Tissue abnormally red Potassium or Sodium
Nitrate, CO
c.) Odors marked upon opening the body Opium and some of its
derivatives in some cases
d.) Pupils contracted Belladonna
e.) Dry gangrene or extremities Ergot
Specimen/Organ to be submitted for Chemico – Toxicological Analysis
Specimens/Organs Minimum Amount Poison for which Best Suited
1. Stomach Content All available In case of poisoning in which it is
suspected that the poison was taken
2. Stomach The whole stomach For all types of poisoning taken by
mouth
3. Intestinal Contents All available For cases in which the poison was
taken by mouth within one or two
days
4. Liver 300 grams Metals, barbiturates, fluorides,
oxalate, sulfonals and many other
poisons
5. Kidney One Kidney Metals, especially Hg, Sulfonamides
6. Blood At least 10 ml All gas poisons, sulfonamides,
bromides, alcoholism, drowning for
chloride contents
7. Brain 500 grams Volatile poisons, barbiturates,
alkaloids, alcoholism
8. Urine All available Nearly all types of poisoning
9. Bone 200 grams Lead, arsenic, radium
10. Muscle 200 grams In most acute poisoning and internal
organs are badly putrefied
11. Hairs 5 grams Chronic Arsenic Poisoning
Interpretation of Toxicological Analysis
Reasons for Negative Results of the Toxicological Examination:
1. Some poisons maybe altered in the body to a form that is not detectable by the methods of analysis
employed.
2. Some poisons with or without previous chemical change maybe rapidly excreted although its toxic effect
remains and may only be detectable in the urine but not in the body tissue or organ.
3. Sometimes symptoms of poisoning may appear, which may be fatal following the administration of even
small and ordinarily harmless quantity of a substance class as poison
Forensic Questions for the Toxicologist to Answer/Explain
1. Was the death or illness of the subject caused by the poison?
2. What poison produced the illness or death?
3. When and how was the poison administered?
4. Could the substance administered cause illness or death?
5. Was the poison found by the toxicologist in the body the poison that caused death?
6. Is the substance given in minute quantity a poison?
7. Was the poison taken in sufficient quantity to produce death?
8. May the poisoning have occurred and the poison either be or become undetectable?
9. May the poison extracted from the body have an origin other than that of poisoning?
10. May the poisoning be stimulated?
Preservation of Specimen for Toxicological Examination
1. Blood – place in a test tube with sodium oxalate or anticoagulant.
2. Refrigerated with solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) good for 72 hours.
3. Chemical preservatives – 100 ml of ethyl alcohol (95%) for each 100 grams of sample and extra 250 ml for
analysis.
4. Do not use denatured alcohol, rubbing alcohol or similar preservative since denaturants will give false and
misleading results in the analysis.
5. Formalin – extremely undesirable as preservative of specimen for toxicological examination since it will
seriously interfere with the test for most organic poisons.
Laboratory methods used in the Toxicological Analysis
1. Physical Test
2. Crystalline Test
3. Chemical Test
4. Spectrographic Test
5. Chromatographic Test
Laws regarding sale and storage of Poisons
1. Sec. 755 – provision relative to dispensing of violent poisons like aconite, cyanide, atropine, morphine and
strychnine.
2. Sec. 756 – provision relative to dispensing of less violent poisons like aconite, belladonna, cantharides,
digitalis, carbonic acid and chloroform.
3. Sec. 757 – receptacle for poisonous drugs.
Three stages in Chloroform Poisoning and Metallic Poisons
1. Stage of Excitement
2. Stage of Surgical Anesthesia
3. Stage of Paralysis
Common Volatile, Non – Volatile and Metallic Poisons
1. Benzane – This refers to a solvent for rubber gums, resins and fats. It is also called as Benzol.
2. Carbon Disulfide – This refers to a solvent for sulfur. It burns with bluish flame giving carbon dioxide and
sulfur dioxide.
3. Nitrobenzene – This refers to a pale yellow, only liquid with sweet odor. It resembles oil of bitter almond.
4. Acetone – This refers to a colorless liquid that is characterized by a fruity color. It is use as solvent for
cellulose acetate and nitrocellulose.
5. Ether – This refers to a highly volatile and inflammable liquid. It is a transparent, colorless and mobile
liquid that is used as general anesthesia and safer than chloroform.
6. Caffeine – This refers to a bitter alkaloid found especially in coffee, tea, cacao and kola nuts and used
medicinally as a stimulant and diuretic.
7. Formalin – This refers to a clear aqueous solution of formaldehyde and methanol used especially as a
preservative or most commonly utilized as embalming liquid.
8. Salicylic Acid – This refers to a crystalline phenolic acid that is used medicinally especially as a skin
exfoliant and in the form of salts and other derivatives as an analgesic and antipyretic.
9. Cocaine – This refers to a bitter crystalline alkaloid obtained from coca leaves that is used especially in the
form of its hydrochloride medically as a topical anesthetic and illicitly for its euphoric effects and that may
result in a compulsive psychological need.
10. Picrotoxin - This refers to a poisonous bitter crystalline stimulant and convulsive substance obtained
from the berry of a southeast Asian vine (Anamirta Cocculus) locally known as “Lagtang” and used
intravenously as an antidote for barbiturate poisoning.
11. Ethyl Alcohol or Ethanol – This refers to a colorless volatile flammable liquid that is the intoxicating
agent in liquors and is also used as a solvent and in fuel.
12. Ergot – This refers to the black or dark purples sclerotium of fungi (genus Claviceps) that occurs as a
club – shaped body replacing the seed of a grass (such as rye).
13. Barbiturates – This refers to any of various derivatives of barbituric acid (such as Phenobarbital) that are
used especially as sedatives, hypnotics and antispasmodics and are often addictive.
14. Strychnine – This refers to a bitter poisonous alkaloid that is obtained from nux vomica and related
plants (genus Strychnos) and is used as a poison (as for rodents) and medicinally as a stimulant of the central
nervous system.
15. Nicotine – This refers to a poisonous alkaloid that is the chief active principle of tobacco and is used as
an insecticide.
16. Morphine – This refers to a bitter crystalline addictive narcotic base that is the principal alkaloid of
opium and is used in the form of a soluble salt (such as a hydrochloride or a sulfate) as an analgesic and
sedative.
17. Physostigmine – This refers to a tasteless crystalline alkaloid that is an anticholinesterase obtained from
the Calabar bean and is used in medicine parenterally in the form of its salicylate especially to reverse the
toxic effects of an anticholinergic agent (such as astropine) and topically in the form of its sulfate as a miotic
in the treatment of glaucoma. It is also called as eserine.
18. Chloral Hydrate – This refers to a bitter white crystalline drug used as a hypnotic and sedative or in
knockout drops.
19. Carbolic Acid or Phenol – This refers to a corrosive poisonous crystalline acidic compound present in the
tars of coal and wood that in dilute solution is used as a disinfectant.
20. Arsenic – This refers to a poisonous trivalent and pentavalent solid element that commonly occurs in a
brittle, metallic, steel – gray, crystalline form and is used especially in wood preservatives, allots, and
semiconductors. Arsenic used especially as an insecticide or weed killer.
21. Lysol – This refers to a disinfectant consisting of a mixture of cresols and soft soap.
22. Methyl Alcohol or Methanol – A light volatile flammable poisonous liquid alcohol used especially as
solvent, antifreeze or denaturant for ethanol and in the synthesis of other chemicals. If it is consumed by
human it will cause blindness.
23. Chloroform – This refers to a colorless, volatile, sweet – smelling liquid that has a suffocating odor used
as a solvent formerly as a general anesthetic.
24. Carbon Tetrachloride – This refers to a colorless nonflammable toxic liquid that has an odor resembling
that of chloroform and is used as a solvent and a refrigerant. It is also found in “pyrine” fire extinguisher.
25. Formic Acid – This refers to a colorless pungent fuming vesicant liquid acid found especially in ants,
spiders and in many plants and used chiefly in dyeing and finishing textiles.
26. Hydrogen Cyanide – This refers to a poisonous usually gaseous compound that has the odor of bitter
almonds that is locally found in “Kamoteng Kahoy”. It is also called hydrocyanic acid or prussic acid.
27. Acetic Acid – This refers to a colorless pungent liquid acid that is the chief acid of vinegar and that is
used especially in synthesis (as of plastic).
28. Aspirin – This refers to a white crystalline derivative of salicylic acid used for relief of pain and fever.
29. Atropine – This refers to a racemic mixture of hyoscyamine obtained from any of various solanaceous
plants (such as belladonna) and used especially in the form of its sulfate for its anticholinergic effects (such
as pupil dilation or inhibition of smooth muscle spasms).
30. Smygdalin – This refers to a bitter crystalline compound in bitter almonds and the stones of peaches,
apricots, and other fruit.
31. Phosphorus – This refers to a poisonous, combustible nonmetal which exists in two common allotropic
forms:
a. White Phosphorus – This refers to a yellowish waxy solid which ignites spontaneously in air and
glows in the dark.
b. Red Phosphorus – This refers to a less reactive form used in making matches.
32. Peyote – This refers to a hallucinogenic drug containing mescaline that is derived from the dried discoid
tops of a cactus (Lophophora williamsii) and is used especially in the religious ceremonies of some American
Indian peoples.
33. Ptomaine – This refers to any various organic bases which are formed by the action of putrefactive
bacteria (dead or decaying matter) on nitrogenous matter and some of which are poisonous.
34. Isopropyl Alcohol – This refers to a volatile flammable alcohol used especially as a solvent and rubbing
alcohol.
35. Cannabinoids – This refers to any of various naturally – occurring, biological active, chemical
constituents (such as cannabidiol or cannabinol) of hemp or cannabis including some (such as THC) that
possess psychoactive properties.
36. Methamphetamine Hydrochloride – This refers to hydrochloride salt form of methamphetamine, an
amphetamine and sympathomimetic amine with central nervous system simulating properties. It is locally
called as “Shabu”.
37. Heroin – This refers to a light brown powder that is strongly physiologically addictive narcotic made by
acetylation but is more potent that morphine and that is prohibited for medical use but is used illicitly for its
euphoric effects. It is also called as diacetylmorphine.
38. Potassium Cyanide – This refers to a very poisonous crystalline salt used especially in gold and silver
extraction from ore.
39. Opium – This refers to a bitter brownish addictive narcotic drug that consists of the dried latex obtained
from immature seed capsules of the opium poppy.
40. Mescaline – This refers to a hallucinatory crystalline alkaloid that is the chief active principle in peyote
buttons.
41. Cyanides – This refers to a rapidly acting, potentially deadly chemical that can exist in various forms. It
can be colorless gas, such as hydrogen cyanide (HCN) or cyanogens chloride (CNCI), or a crystal form such as
sodium cyanide (NaCN) or potassium cyanide (KCN). It is sometimes described as having a “bitter almond”
smell, but it does not always gives off an odor, and not everyone can detect this odor and it is also known by
the military designations AC (hydrogen cyanide) and CK (cyanogens chloride). (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, n.d.)
42. Codeine – This refers to a morphine derivative that is found in opium, is weaker in action than morphine,
and is used especially as an analgesic and antitussive.
43. Conine – This refers to a poisonous colorless liquid alkaloid found in the poison hemlock.
44. Quinine – This refers to a bitter crystalline alkaloid from cinchona bark used in medicine.
45. Cantharide – This refers to a preparation of dried beetles (such as Spanish flies) used in medine as a
counterirritant and formerly as an aphrodisiac.
46. Carbon Monoxide – This refers to a colorless, odorless and very toxic gas that is formed as a product of
the incomplete combustion of carbon or a carbon compound that is found in exhaust of automobile.
47. Bufotoxin, Bufotalin or Bufotonin – This refers to a moderately potent poison secreted in the skin of
many anuran amphibians, especially the typical toads (genus Bufo).
48. Scopolamine – This refers to a poisonous alkaloid found in some plants of the nightshade family and
used as “truth serum”.
49. Toluene – This refers to a liquid aromatic hydrocarbon that resembles benzene but is less volatile,
flammable, and toxic and is used especially as a solvent, in organic synthesis, and as an antiknock for
gasoline.
50. Hydrogen Sulfide – This refers to a flammable poisonous gas that has an odor suggestive of rotten eggs
and is found especially in many mineral waters and in putrefying matter.
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