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Theory of machines

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ACPL ITEM
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THEORY OF MACHINES
 THE THEORY
OF MACHINES
A Text-book for Engineering Students

By
THOMAS BEYAN
M.Sc. TECH. (MANCHESTER), A.M.I. MECH. E.
Senior Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering in the University and in the
College of Technology, Manchester.

WITH DIAGRAMS

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FIRST PUBLISHED 1939

REPRINTED BY NOVOGRAPHIC PROCESS . 1942
NEW IMPRESSION 1942
SECOND EDITION 1943
NEW IMPRESSION 1944, 1945, 1946, 1948 (twice)
and 1950
NEW IMPRESSIONS WITH MINOR CORRECTIONS

1953, 1954, 1955

THIRD EDITION 1956
NEW IMPRESSION 1957

MADE AND PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY

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 990818

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

In this edition the general arrangement of the book remains
unchanged, but the opportunity has been taken of revising and
amplifying certain sections and of redrawing some of the diagrams.
Most of the additional matter will be found in the sections on
gyroscopic motion, velocity and acceleration diagrams, toothed
gearing, epicyclic trains, inertia forces in mechanisms and
vibrations.
The author is grateful to all those who have pointed out errors
or misprints in the earlier editions, or who have offered suggestions
for the improvement of the book. He will welcome any similar
intimations in connection with the new edition.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

In writing this book I have chiefly had in mind the needs of the
student who is preparing for a University degree in engineering
or who intends to sit for the membership examination of one of
the Engineering Institutions, but I hope that many of the sections
will appeal to the draughtsman and designer. In order to allow
space for a detailed treatment of the various sections of the
Theory of Machines, I have cut down that devoted to elementary
mechanics to a minimum, although certain fundamental prin-
ciples have been emphasised and extended where it appeared
desirable.
The book is largely based on lectures given at the Manchester
College of Technology. The lectures cover a period of one hour
a week for three sessions. It seemed better, however, not to
adhere to the order followed in the lectures, but to group both
the elementary and the more advanced treatments of each section
in the same chapter.
As so many of the problems which arise may be solved more
quickly and easily by graphical methods, particular care has been
vi PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION
taken to draw the diagrams correctly to scale. Sometimes, how-
ever, the scale is unavoidably small, and the student is advised
in his own interests to redraw these diagrams to a larger scale.
I have carried out the whole of the work involved in drawing the
diagrams and in working out the numerical answers to the
problems. I do not expect that there will be no mistakes, but
I hope that they will be few and not serious ones.
My thanks are due to the Senates of the Universities of London
and Manchester for permission to include questions taken from
the final papers set for their degree examinations; to the Con-
troller of H.M. Stationery Office for permission to include questions
from the papers set for the Whitworth Scholarship and Senior
Scholarship Examinations; to the British Standards Institution
for permission to include abstracts from their Standard Specifica-
tions and to Messrs. Heenan and Froude for permission to include
the illustration of their well-known hydraulic dynamometer,
Fig. 179. Other acknowledgments are made in the text, and I
sincerely hope that none have been overlooked.
Finally, I have great pleasure in expressing my indebtedness
to Professor Dempster Smith for his help and encouragement;
to my colleagues, Dr. R. 0. Boswall and Mr. J. C. Brierley, for
criticisms and suggestions on parts of the manuscript, and to my
former student Mr. Johnson Ball for his very painstaking work
in reading through the proofs.
T. B.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE

I. DEFINITIONS. SEMPLE MECHANISMS 1

II. MOTION. INERTIA 14

III. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 68

IV. MECHANISMS WITH LOWER PAIRS . 121

V. VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 142

VI. FRICTION ..... 177

VII. BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVES . 223

VIII. BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 248

IX. CAMS ..... 281

X. TOOTHED GEARING 315

XI. GEAR TRAINS .... 366

XII. DYNAMICS OF MACHINES. TURNING MOMENT. THE

FLYWHEEL ....... 412

XIII. GOVERNORS .... 454

XIV. BALANCING .... 489

XV. VIBRATIONS .... 532

ANSWERS TO EXAMPLES .... 602

BIBLIOGRAPHY ..... • • • 609

INDEX 615

t •
Vil
l
 CHAPTER I

DEFINITIONS. SIMPLE MECHANISMS

1. This book is about machines and it is therefore necessary to

understand at the outset what is meant by a machine. A detailed
definition will have to be deferred until later in the chapter, but
for present purposes it will suffice to define a machine as a con-
trivance which receives energy in some available form and uses
it to do some particular kind of work. Let us take one or two
simple illustrations. A crowbar together with its fulcrum forms
a machine, which enables the muscular energy of a man to be
employed in raising a heavy weight. Again, a petrol engine
is a machine which may use the heat energy derived from the
combustion of the fuel to propel a vehicle along the road. Or
again, a lathe is a machine which receives mechanical energy
from the lineshaft through the belt and uses that energy to
remove metal from a bar or other piece of work.
The theory of machines comprises the study of the relative
motion between the parts of a machine and the study of the
forces which act on those parts. The study of the relative motion
between the parts is known as kinematics, while the study of the
forces which act on the parts is known as dynamics. Dynamics
may be subdivided into statics, which deals with the forces which
act on the various parts when those parts are assumed to be
without mass, and kinetics, which deals with the inertia forces
arising from the combined effect of the mass and the motion of
the parts.
These divisions of the subject may be illustrated by reference
to a reciprocating engine. In this engine the piston is made to
reciprocate in the cylinder by the pressure which the steam or
gas exerts, and the reciprocating motion of the piston is converted
into rotary motion of the crankshaft by means of the connecting
rod and the crank. So far as the relative motion between the parts
is concerned it is only necessary to represent each part by its
centre line and to know the length and the speed of rotation of
the crank, the length of the connecting rod and the position of the
line of stroke relative to the crankshaft centre. A kinematical
problem, such as the determination of the velocity or acceleration
of the piston, is largely a problem in geometry, although an
l—T.M. l
2 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

additional factor, time, also enters in. But for every position of
the parts of the engine the thrust exerted by the steam or gas on
the piston produces a thrust along the connecting rod and is
balanced by a tangential force at the crankpin. To determine
the relative magnitudes of these forces is a problem in statics, and
requires that the machine shall be treated as a structure or frame-
work with pin-joints. All the possible relative positions of the
parts must be examined in order to find the maximum values of
the forces which each part is required to transmit. The approxi-
mate cross-sections of the parts may then be fixed so as to enable
these forces to be transmitted with safety.
It is afterwards necessary to examine the inertia forces which
act on each part, since the parts are subject to acceleration and
retardation during the working of the engine. The net force on
each part due to the combined effect of the static and kinetic
forces may then require some modification to the cross-section
which was provisionally fixed from a consideration of the static
force only.
2. Link or Element. Each part of a machine which has motion
relative to some other part is termed an element or link. It is
important to notice that each link or element may consist of
several parts which are manufactured as separate units. Thus,
for instance, the piston rod and crosshead of a steam engine are
manufactured separately, but when assembled in the engine they
are rigidly fastened together and therefore constitute one element
or link. Similarly, the connecting rod, complete with big and
little-end brasses, caps and bolts, constitutes a second element or
link; the crankpin, crankshaft and flywheel a third element or
link; and the cylinder, bedplate and main bearings a fourth
element or link.
A link need not necessarily be a rigid body, but it must be a
resistant body, i.e. it must be capable of transmitting the required
force with negligible deformation. Examples of links which are
resistant, but not rigid, are to be found in: (a) liquids, which are
resistant to compressive forces and are used as links in hydraulic
presses, hydraulic brakes and hydraulic jacks; and (b) chains,
belts and ropes, which are resistant to tensile forces and are used
for transmitting motion and force.
3. Kinematic Pair. Two elements or links which are connected
together in such a way that their relative motion is completely
constrained form a kinematic 'pair. This definition requires to be
modified in order to include those pairs in which the form of the
connection between the elements is not in itself such as to give
complete constraint, but in which the constraint is completed by
i] DEFINITIONS. SIMPLE MECHANISMS 3
some other means. The constraint in such pairs is said to be
successful rather than complete.
Several different pairs of elements are shown diagrammatically
in Fig. 1. These will serve to illustrate the differences between
complete, incomplete and successful constraint. For instance,
(a) is an example of incomplete constraint. The round bar or
shaft A passes through the cylindrical hole in the other element B.
If relative motion is possible, then A may either slide through B,
it may rotate about the axis of B, or it may have a motion
relative to B which consists partly of sliding and partly of rotation.
There is nothing in the form of the connection between A and B
to determine which of the three types of relative motion will take
place. But if the form of the connection is modified as at (b),
(c) and (d), the clement A can only slide relative to B and the

constraint is therefore complete. At (b) a feather key is fitted to

the element B and this key is a sliding fit in the corresponding
groove in the element A; at (c) the cross-section of the element A
and the shape of the hole in the element B are both rectangular;
while at (d) the element A takes the form of a slotted bar and the
element B that of a crosshead or die-block. Despite the con-
siderable differences in the appearance of the pairs (b), (c) and (d),
they are kinematically identical and form what are known as
sliding pairs. Similarly, if the form of the connection between A
and B is modified as shown at (e) and (f) the relative motion is
limited to one of rotation and the constraint is complete. These
pairs are known as turning pairs. Finally, if the connection
between A and B is modified as shown at (g), so that the contact
surfaces are screw threads, the constraint is again complete and
we have what is termed a screw pair. It should be noted that,
although both rotation and sliding of A with respect to B take
4 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

place, a given amount of rotation of A relative to B is accom-

panied by a strictly proportionate amount of axial displacement
of A relative to B.
It is clear that the arrangement (e) could he used without the
right-hand collar, if it is known that an axial force which will
prevent A from sliding axially towards the left will always act
towards the right. In vertical turbines the connection between
the shaft and the thrust bearing does not as a rule prevent axial
movement of the shaft in the upward direction, but the weight of
the turbine is far in excess of any upward force which is likely to
arise during the operation of the turbine. The pair formed by
the shaft and the thrust bearing is force-closed and is an example
of successful constraint. In a similar way the connection between
the piston and the cylinder of a petrol engine corresponds to
Fig. 1 (a) and the relative motion is not completely constrained.

FIG. 2

But the axis of the gudgeon pin and the axis of the crankpin are
maintained parallel to each other by the connecting rod, so that
the piston and the cylinder form a successfully constrained pair.
There is one feature common to all three of the above types of
kinematic pairs, namely, the two elements have surface contact
and, when relative motion takes place, the surface of one element
slides over the surface of the other element. Such pairs are
called lower pairs. All other types of pairs are known as higher
pairs. The elements of higher pairs generally have line or point
contact and the pair must be force-closed in order to provide
completely constrained motion. Examples of higher pairs are
shown in Fig. 2, where (a) represents a pair of friction discs
and (b) a cam and follower. Other examples are provided by
toothed gearing, belt and rope drives and ball and roller bearings.

4. Kinematic Chain. A kinematic chain is a combination of

kinematic pairs in which each element or link forms part of two
pairs and in which the relative motion is completely constrained.
i] DEFINITIONS. SIMPLE MECHANISMS 5
Let us consider the possible combinations of turning pairs.
Fig. 3 shows three arrangements in which each element or link
forms part of two turning pairs, so that the first part of the
definition of a kinematic chain is satisfied by each arrangement.
In the arrangement (a) the three pin-jointed links clearly form a
rigid frame, so that no relative motion between the links is possible.
In the arrangement (b) the relative motion is completely con-
strained, since if link AD is fixed and a definite displacement is
given to AB, the resulting displacements of the remaining two
links, BC and CD, are also perfectly definite. But if five bars are
connected together by pin-joints as shown at (c), the relative
motion is not completely constrained, since, with AE fixed and
AB displaced to ABX, the resulting displacements of the remaining
finks BC, CD and DE cannot be predicted. Hence only the
arrangement (b) constitutes a kinematic chain.

In order to build up a more complicated kinematic chain from

the simple four-bar chain shown in Fig. 3 (b), two more elements or
finks may be added, provided that these two elements form pairs
with two of the existing finks as well as forming in themselves a
pair—see Fig. 3 (d). Proceeding in this way, pairs may be added
indefinitely until the chain becomes very complex. The relation
between the number of pairs and the number of finks may be
expressed in the form of an equation. If each fink is reckoned as
forming a part of two pairs, and two pairs only, then for the four-
link chain the number of pairs is also four and for each additional
pair two finks have to be added, so that, if l is the number of
links and p the number of pairs, the general equation may be
written:
l = 2p —4 (1.1)

Alternatively, the relation between the number of finks and the

6 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

number of joints may be expressed in the form of an equation.

Thus, if j is the number of joints, then:
l = IU+2) (1.2)
The above equations only apply to kinematic chains in which
lower pairs are used. If they are applied to chains which contain
higher pairs, each higher pair must
be taken as equivalent to two lower
pairs and an additional element or
link. This may be seen from Fig. 4,
in which the arrangement of three
links, OA, AB and BQ, shown in
dotted lines, is kinematically equiva-
lent to the friction discs, shown in
full lines, over a short range of move-
ment. It would, of course, be im-
possible to transmit identical motion
with the two arrangements over a wide range of angular dis-
placement.
5. Mechanism. When one element or link of a kinematic chain
is fixed, the arrangement may be used for transmitting or trans-
forming motion. It is then termed a mechanism.
6. Inversion A mechanism is defined above as a kinematic
chain with one link fixed. If the number of links in a kinematic
chain is l, then, in general, l different mechanisms may be
obtained by fixing each of the links in turn. The mechanisms
obtained in this way may be very different in appearance and in
the purposes for which they are used. Each mechanism is termed
an inversion of the original kinematic chain.

7. Machine. When a mechanism is required to transmit power

or to do some particular kind of work, the various elements or
links have to be designed so as to carry with safety the forces,
both static and kinetic, to which they are subjected. The arrange-
ment then becomes a machine. A mechanism may therefore be
regarded as a machine, in which each part is reduced to the
simplest form required in order to transmit the desired motion.
In the preceding pages the building up of a machine has been
traced from the individual elements or links, through kinematic
pairs, a kinematic chain and a mechanism to the final machine.
The reader should now be in a position to understand the following
definition of a machine:
A machine is a combination of resistant bodies, with success-
fully constrained relative motions, which is used for transmitting
i] DEFINITIONS. SIMPLE MECHANISMS 7
or transforming available energy so as to do some particular
kind of work.
8. Kinematic Chains with Three Lower Pairs. Although it is
impossible to have a kinematic chain which consists of only three
turning pairs, it is quite possible to have one which consists of three
sliding pairs and one which consists of a turning, a sliding and a
screw pair. These two chains are shown in Fig. 5. At (a) each

(a) (b)
FIG. 5

of the two elements A and B forms a sliding pair with the frame C,
and, in addition, the elements A and B themselves form a sliding
pair. If the frame C is fixed and the element A is given a definite
displacement, it will cause the element B to receive a definite
displacement, so that the relative motions of A, B and C are
completely constrained. At (b) the element A forms a sliding
pair with C and a turning pair with B, and the element B forms a
screw pair with C. Hence each element forms part of two pairs,
and if the frame C is fixed and B is rotated on its axis, the dis-
placement of A relative to C is proportional to the rotation of B,
so that the relative motions of A, B and C are completely con-
strained. When the link C is fixed the mechanism of the hand or
fly-press is obtained.
9. Kinematic Chains with Four Lower Pairs. The most im-
portant kinematic chains from the practical point of view are those
which consist of four lower pairs, each pair being either a sliding
pair or a turning pair. It will be found that many complicated
machines are based on combinations of the different inversions of
these simple chains.
10. The Four-bar chain. This kinematic chain is shown in
Fig. 3 (b), and each of the four pairs is a turning pair. The four
elements or links may be of different lengths and the use to which
the various inversions of the mechanism are put will depend solely
8 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

on the relative lengths of the links. There are many practical

mechanisms which are based on the four-bar chain. Some of
these are shown in Fig. 6 and others will be found in Chapter IV.
The mechanism of the coupling rod of a locomotive is shown
at (a). In this inversion the opposite links are equal in length.
Part of the mechanism of a beam engine is shown at (b). The
engine crank AB turns about the fixed centre A, while the beam
CDE oscillates about the fixed centre D. The vertical recipro-
cating motion of the piston is transmitted to the end E of the
beam. The mechanism of the Ackermann steering gear for a
motor-car is shown at (c). In this inversion the two short links
are equal in length, while the long links are unequal in length.
When the car is moving along a straight path the two long links

A D
rrB 171
C U
(c)

FIG. 6

AD and BC are parallel. When the car moves along a curved

path the mechanism takes up the position shown at (d) and the
proportions of the links are so fixed that the axes of all four wheels
intersect at the same point P. This ensures that the relative
motion between the tyres and the road surface shall be one of
pure rolling (see Article 60).
11. The Slider-crank Chain. This chain consists of three turning
pairs and one sliding pair. The most usual form in which the
slider-crank chain appears is that of the reciprocating-engine
mechanism. This is shown at (a) in Fig. 7. In the same figure
are illustrated all the possible inversions of the slider-crank chain.
Corresponding pairs are indicated by the same letter in each
inversion, so that there should be no difficulty in recognising that
i] DEFINITIONS. SIMPLE MECHANISMS 9
each mechanism is based on the same kinematic chain. The
oscillating-cylinder engine mechanism shown at (b) is derived from
the slider-crank chain by fixing the link CP, which in the recipro-
cating engine mechanism forms the connecting rod. As the
crank OC revolves about an axis through C, the slotted link OQ
slides over the block which is pivoted to the fixed link at P.
The actual form of the mechanism as used in the oscillating-
cylinder engine is shown at the right. The cylinder is carried on

trunnions at P, and as the piston slides inside the cylinder the

crank revolves and the cylinder oscillates about the axis of the
trunnions.
In a similar way the mechanism shown at (c) is obtained by
fixing the link OC, which in both the inversions (a) and (b) forms
the driving crank. This inversion is known as the Whitworth
quick-return motion and is used on slotting and shaping machines.
CP is the driving crank and rotates at uniform speed, the die-block
attached to the crankpin P slides along the slotted link OQ and
l*—T.M.
10 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

causes this link to revolve about O with a variable angular velocity.

From the pin Q on the slotted link a connecting rod passes to a
pin R on the ram which carries the toolbox, and R reciprocates
along a line of stroke which passes through O and is normal to OC.
Obviously the two extreme positions of the ram will correspond
to the two positions OQx and OQ2 of the slotted link, and if CP
rotates counter-clockwise, the time taken to turn from CPj to
CP2 will be greater than the time taken to turn from CP2 to CP^
Movement of the ram from left to right is therefore the cutting
stroke, since this takes place at a lower mean speed than the
return stroke from right to left. The ratio of the times taken by
the ram to complete the cutting and return strokes is clearly
given by the ratio of the angles 180°—6 to d.
A fourth inversion of the slider-crank chain is obtained by
fixing the die-block as shown at (d). It is then possible for the

slotted link OQ to reciprocate along a vertical straight line. At

the same time OC will rotate and the link CP will oscillate about
the pin P attached to the fixed block. This particular inversion
is not of much practical importance. The mechanism of the
pendulum pump, or Bull engine, is based upon it. This is shown
diagrammatically on the right of the figure.
Two further examples of the inversion (c) are shown in Fig. 8.
The mechanism shown at (a) is the crank and slotted lever quick-
return mechanism. The only difference between this quick-
return motion and the one described above lies in the different
proportions adopted for the driving crank CP and the fixed link
OC. The fact that CP is shorter in length than OC results in the
slotted link OQ oscillating between the two extreme positions
OQx and OQ2, while the crank CP revolves about the centre C.
The pin Q is connected to a pin R on the ram of a slotting or
shaping machine and causes R to reciprocate along a path normal
i] DEFINITIONS. SIMPLE MECHANISMS 11

to OC. Evidently, as in the Whitworth quick-return motion, tho

ratio of the times taken by the ram on the cutting and return
strokes is given by the ratio 180°—6 to 6.
The same inversion of the slider-crank chain is also used in the
rotary internal-combustion engine which contributed so largely
to the development of mechanical flight in the early years of
aviation. In this engine, which is shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 8 (b), the crank OC is fixed. The complete assembly of cylin-
ders and crankcase rotates about the centre 0 and the pistons re-
ciprocate along their respective cylinders. It will be seen that
each piston, connecting rod and cylinder form with the fixed
crank OC an inversion of the slider-crank chain.
12. The Double Slider-crank Chain. This kinematic chain con-
sists of two turning and two sliding pairs. Referring to Fig. 9,
two die-blocks slide along slots in a frame and the pins P and Q
on the die-blocks are connected by the link PQ. Each of the die-
blocks forms a sliding pair with the frame and a turning pair with

the link PQ. Three inversions are possible. These are shown at
(a), (b) and (c) in the figure. At (a) the slotted frame is fixed.
Any point, such as S, on the link PQ will trace out an ellipse as
the blocks P and Q slide along their respective slots. Clearly QS
and PS are respectively the semi-major and semi-minor axes of
12 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the ellipse. This inversion is known as the ellipse trammels. In

the second inversion one of the two blocks P or Q is fixed. As
shown at (b), the block P is fixed, so that PQ can rotate about P
as centre and thus cause the frame to reciprocate. The fixed
block P guides the frame. The Scotch yoke, which is illustrated
diagrammatically at (d) is the same inversion of the double
slider-crank chain. It is used for converting rotary into recipro-
cating motion.
The third inversion (c) is obtained by fixing the link PQ. Each
of the two die-blocks may then turn about the pins P and Q. If one
block is turned through a definite angle, the frame and the other
block must turn through the same angle, and, as rotation takes
place, the frame will slide relative to each of the two blocks.
The Oldham shaft coupling is an example of this inversion.
Referring to Fig. 10, each half-coupling is identical in form and

has a single groove cut diametrically across the face. A circular

disc D, with a tongue passing diametrically across each face and
the two tongues set at right angles to each other, is placed between
the two half couplings, so that each tongue fits into its correspond-
ing groove in one of the half couplings. The tongues are a sliding
fit in their grooves. So long as the shafts remain parallel to each
other, their distance apart may vary while the shafts are in
motion without affecting the transmission of uniform motion from
one shaft to the other. If the shafts are a constant distance
apart, the centre of the disc will describe a circular path with
this distance as diameter. The maximum speed of sliding of each
tongue along its groove is clearly equal to the peripheral velocity
of the centre of the disc along its circular path. It may be
expressed in terms of the distance apart of the two shafts and
the angular velocity of rotation of the shafts.
13. Compound Kinematic Chains. A kinematic chain in which
there are more than four pairs is known as a compound chain.
Compound chains may be built up from any of the simple chains
which have been described above by adding further kinematic
i] DEFINITIONS. SIMPLE MECHANISMS 13
pairs. Any addition to the number of pairs must, of course, be
such as to retain completely constrained motion. The number of
pairs and links must therefore satisfy the equations given in
Article 4. In Chapters III, IV and V many examples of compound
kinematic chains will be found.

EXAMPLES I

1. Define the following terms, illustrating with sketches where possible,

element or link, higher pair, lower pair, kinematic chain.
2. Distinguish between complete, incomplete and successful constraint of the
relative motion between two elements or links.
3. Distinguish between a kinematic chain, a mechanism and a machine. What
are the most commonly used kinematic chains consisting of lower pairs ?
4. What is meant by: (a) a resistant body, (b) a lower kinematic pair, (c) a
higher kinematic pair, (d) a kinematic chain?
5. Different mechanisms may be obtained by inversion of the same kinematic
chain. Explain, with sketches, the meaning of this statement.
6. What is the difference between the slider-crank chain and the double slider-
crank chain? Give diagrammatic sketches of three mechanisms which are
inversions of each of the above chains and state the purpose for which each
mechanism is used.
7. What is the relation between the number of links and the number of pairs in
a kinematic chain, whefi the pairs are all lower pairs ? Show that the Stephenson
valve gear, Fig. 120, the Hackworth valve gear, Fig. 126, and the Joy valve gear,
Fig. 127, satisfy the relation.
8. In a crank and slotted lever quick-return motion, the distance between the
fixed centres O and C is 6 in. and the driving crank CP is 2| in. long. Find the
ratio of the times taken on the cutting and the return strokes. Sketch the com-
plete mechanism, showing the ram and the direction of rotation of the crank.
9. Describe the construction of the Oldham shaft coupling and state for what
purpose it is used. In a coupling of this type the distance between the shaft
axes is 1 in. and the speed of rotation is 300 r.p.m. What is the maximum speed
of sliding of each tongue in its slot ?
10. Write down a definition of a machine and explain the meaning of the terms
which enter into the definition.
11. Describe with neat sketches a quick-return motion suitable for a small
slotting or shaping machine. Show how the ratio of the times taken on the two
strokes is determined.
12. Give diagrammatic sketches of the following mechanisms and state on
which kinematic chain each one is based: (a) ellipse trammels, (b) Whitworth
quick-return motion, (c) oscillating cylinder engine, (d) Oldham shaft coupling.
 CHAPTER II

MOTION. INERTIA

14. The theory of machines, as already pointed out, is concerned

with the motion of the parts of machines and with the forces which
act on those parts. It is therefore a branch of the wider science
of mechanics, which deals with the interaction of force and motion.
It will be assumed that the reader already possesses some know-
ledge of the mechanics of particles and rigid bodies, and in this
chapter only certain fundamental ideas and relations will be em-
phasised and in some cases extended.

15. Displacement. Velocity. Acceleration. Every particle of

every link of a machine is constrained to move along a definite
path, which may be either curved or straight. Generally there are
certain links the particles of which all move along straight lines,
and other links the particles of which all move along circular
arcs, while for the remaining links the particles move along
curved paths which are not circular arcs. For example, in the
reciprocating engine all particles of the piston, piston rod and
crosshead move along parallel straight lines and all particles of
the crank and crankpin move along circular arcs, the centres of
which lie on the axis of the crankshaft. A particle on the connect-
ing rod, however, moves along an oval path, the radius of cur-
vature of which changes from instant to instant. Whatever the
path followed, it is possible to determine successive displacements
of the particles for equal intervals of time.
Since displacement involves direction as well as magnitude, it is
a vector quantity, and can therefore be represented by a straight
line. The length of the line indicates the amount of the dis-
placement to some convenient scale, its inclination shows the direc-
tion in which the displacement has taken place and the arrowhead
shows the sense of the displacement.
The velocity of a particle is defined as the rate of change of its
displacement with respect to time. It follows, therefore, that
velocity also is a vector quantity. If the displacement is constant
in direction, the velocity will obviously be in the same direction.
If the displacement is not constant in direction, then the velocity
at a given instant will be in the same direction as the displacement
14
ii] MOTION. INERTIA 15
at that instant, and will therefore be tangential to the path of the
particle.
Thus, if the displacement takes place along the circular path
ABC, Fig. 11, the velocities at the instants when the particle
occupies the positions A, B and C will be in the directions given by
the tangents AD, BE and CF respectively.
In certain problems we are concerned merely with the rate at
which the magnitude of the displacement is changing, and the
change of direction is immaterial, as, for instance, in the case of
a train which is travelling between two stations. The rate of
change of magnitude of the displacement with respect to time is
termed the speed.
The acceleration of a particle is defined as the rate of change of
the velocity with respect to time. This also is a vector quantity,
but it is important to bear in mind that its direction is not
necessarily the same as that of the velocity and the displacement
vectors. This will be made clear in the following Article, in which
the general case of the acceleration of a particle which moves
along a circular path is considered.

FIG. 11

16. Acceleration of a Particle displaced along a Circular Path.

Let A and B, Fig. 12, be two positions of a particle which is
displaced along the circular path ABC. Let St be the time re-
quired by the particle to move from A to B. Let r be the radius
of curvature of the path, and let v and y-f-Sy represent the velocities
of the particle when at A and B respectively.
The change of velocity as the particle moves from A to B may
be found by drawing the vector triangle oab, in which oa represents
the velocity v of the particle when at A and ob represents the
velocity y+Sy of the particle when at B, so that ab represents
the change of velocity in the time St. Resolve ab into two com-
ponents ac and cb respectively parallel and perpendicular to oa.
Then ac = ob cos Sd—oa,
= (y+Sy) cos S6—v
and cb = ob sin Sd
— (y+Sy) sin Sd
16 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Therefore the component acceleration of the particle in the direc-

tion oa, i.e. in the tangential direction, is given by:
x ac (v-f-Sv) cos SO— v
= =
It St
and, in the limit, as St approaches zero, this reduces to:
ft = dv/dt (2.1)
Similarly, the component acceleration of the particle in a
direction normal to oa, i.e. the centripetal component, is given by:
fc = cb/St = (sin SO/St)

and, in the limit, this reduces to:

/„ = v.dO/dt — voi — v2/r = co2r . . (2.2)
It is clear from equation (2.1) that the tangential component
of the acceleration of the particle is equal to the rate of change of
the magnitude of the velocity of the particle, and from equa-
tion (2.2) that the normal, or centripetal, component of the
acceleration of the particle depends only upon its instantaneous
velocity and the radius of curvature of its path.
The total acceleration of the particle is the vector sum of the
two components ft and /c.
Two particular cases which frequently arise may be noted:
(a) If the displacement of the particle takes place along a
straight path, then r is infinitely great, so that the centripetal
component /c is zero and the acceleration of the particle is in the
same direction as its velocity and its displacement. It is given
by A = dv/d t.
(b) If the displacement of the particle takes place with constant
speed along a circular path, the tangential component is zero and
the acceleration of the particle is normal to its velocity and its
displacement. It is given by:
/c = v2/r — vco = a)2r
17. Angular Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration. Let a line
OP, Fig. 13, rotate about the centre 0 and let its inclination to
the fixed line OX be cf) radians. If at the end of a short interval
of time the line has moved to the position OQ, then the angle S</>
is the angular displacement of the line. Angular displacement is
a vector quantity, since it has not only magnitude but also direc-
tion. In order completely to specify an angular displacement by
a vector, the vector must fix: (a) the direction of the axis of
rotation in space; (b) the sense of the angular displacement, i.e.
n] MOTION. INERTIA 17
whether clockwise or counter-clockwise; and (c) the magnitude
of the angular displacement. To fix (a) and (c), the vector may-
be drawn at right angles to the plane in which the angular dis-
placement takes place, say along the axis of rotation, and its
length may be made to represent the magnitude
of the angular displacement to some convenient
scale. The conventional way of representing (b)
is to use the right-handed screw rule; the arrow-
head points along the vector in the same direction
as a right-handed screw would move, relative to a
fixed nut, if given an angular displacement of the
same sense. According to the above convention,
the angular displacement 8(f) would be represented
by a vector perpendicular to the plane of the paper.
The length of the vector would represent the magnitude of 8cf) to
some convenient scale and the arrowhead would point upwards
from the paper, since the sense of the displacement is counter-
clockwise.
Angular velocity is defined as the rate of change of angular
displacement with respect to time. It has direction as well as
magnitude, and it may be represented by a vector if the same
convention is followed as that just described for angular displace-
ment. If the direction of the angular displacement vector is
constant, i.e. if the plane of the angular displacement does not
change its direction, then we are concerned merely with the rate
of change of the magnitude of the angular displacement with
respect to time. This ought strictly to be called the angular
speed of the line OP.
Similarly, angular acceleration is defined as the rate of change
of angular velocity with respect to time. This also is a vector
quantity, but it is important to bear in mind that its direction is
not necessarily the same as that of the angu-
lar displacement and the angular velocity
vectors.
For instance, let us suppose that, at a
given instant, a disc is spinning with angular
velocity w in a plane at right angles to the
paper, Fig. 14, and that, after a short inter-
val of time 8t, it is spinning with angular
velocity co+Sa> and the axis of spin has
changed direction by the amount 8d. Then,
applying the right-handed screw rule, the angular velocities at the
two instants are represented by the vectors oa and ob and the
change of angular velocity in time 8t is represented by the vector
ab. This may be resolved into two components ac and cb,
18 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

which are respectively parallel and perpendicular to oa. Clearly

the conditions are analogous to those for linear motion, which
were examined in the preceding Article. Hence it follows that
the angular acceleration of the disc has two components, one
parallel to oa and the other perpendicular to oa.
From (2.1) the component parallel to oa is given by:
at = dcofdt (2.3)
and from (2.2) the component perpendicular to oa is given by:
ac = co.ddjdt — cocop .... (2.4)
where co is the rate of change of direction of the vector oa.
p

The component at is the rate of change of magnitude of the angular

velocity co of the disc, while the component ac depends only upon
the instantaneous value of co and the rate at which the direction
of co, and therefore of the plane of rotation of the disc, is changing.
The total angular acceleration of the disc is the vector sum of
at and ac.
Two particular cases should be noted:
(a) If the plane of rotation of the disc is constant in direction,
then &>p is zero and the component acceleration ac is zero. The
angular acceleration of the disc is then given by (2.3).
(b) If the angular velocity of the disc is constant in magnitude
but the plane of rotation changes direction at the rate co radians
p

per second, then the angular acceleration of the disc is given by

(2.4). The direction of this acceleration vector is at right angles
to the angular velocity vector and it lies in the plane of motion
of the velocity vector.
The change in direction of the plane of rotation of the disc is
known as precessional motion and co is known as the angular
p

velocity of precession. The angular acceleration ac is termed the

gyroscopic acceleration of the disc.

18. Mass. Force. Weight. It is a matter of common experi-

ence that a body resists any attempt to change its velocity. The
property which determines the resistance is called the mass of the
body and the cause of the change of velocity is called a force.
The product of the mass and the velocity is known as the
momentum of the body, and according to Newton’s second law of
motion the magnitude of the applied force is proportional to the
rate of change of momentum which it produces, or
F oc(d/d t)(mv)
Generally the mass m is constant, so that the rate of change of
momentum is m.dvjdt or mf.
ii] MOTION. INERTIA 19
The units of force and mass are so chosen that the equation
may be written:
F = m.f (2.5)
In the British system of units the unit of length is the foot and the
unit of acceleration is therefore one foot per second per second
(1 ft/s2).
The unit of mass is the mass of a piece of platinum which is
kept in the Standards Department of the Board of Trade in
London. It is called the jpound mass. The force which gives to
this mass an acceleration of 1 ft/s2 is defined as the unit of force.
It is known as the poundal.
The poundal is a small unit of force, and it is much more con-
venient in practice to have a larger unit. This larger unit is the
pound weight. It is the force of gravity on the standard lump
of platinum, the pound mass. But the pull of gravity gives to a
body which is allowed to fall freely an acceleration g ft/s2, so that
the weight of the pound mass is a force of g poundals. Since the
value of g varies by approximately one part in 200 for points on
the earth’s surface, the weight of the one-pound mass will vary
in the same way. In order to ensure that the pound weight is
an invariable unit of force, it is therefore necessary to specify the
particular conditions under which the force is measured.
It has now been agreed that the pound weight shall be defined
as the pull of gravity on the pound mass (in vacuo) at a place
where the acceleration of gravity has the internationally accepted
standard value of 32T741 ft/s2 (980-665 cm/s2). With this
definition the pound weight is a unit of force exactly equal to
32-1741 poundals.
At a place where the local acceleration of gravity is g ft/s2, the
pull of gravity on a body of mass m lb (i.e the weight W of the
body) will be given by:
W = mg/32-1741 pounds weight . . (2.6)
Bearing in mind the small variation in the value of g, so long as
bodies close to the earth’s surface are being considered, it follows
that the weight of a body in pound weight is for practical purposes
numerically equal to its mass in pounds.
From equation (2.5) we have:
F (poundals) = m (lb) x/(ft/s2) . . . (2.7)
or, expressing the force F in terms of the larger unit, the pound
weight (lb wt),
m (lb) X/ (ft/s2)
F (lb wt) = — 32-1741 (2.8)
20 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

which may be written:

F (lb wt) = m (slugs) x/ (ft/s2) (2.9)
where one slug = a mass of 32T741 lb.
But from (2.6):
W/g = m/32-1741
and, substituting in (2.8),
W (lb wt)
F (lb Wt) = g (ft/s2) X/ (ft/s2) . (2.10)
'
In (2.10) g is the local acceleration of gravity and therefore has
the units of acceleration. It is not a pure number like the de-
nominator of (2.8). Although it varies in magnitude it may be
assumed for practical purposes to have the standard value of
32-1741 ft/s2. In all equations the figure 32-1741 must appear in
order to give the force in terms of the standard pound weight, and
the approximate value 32-2 is generally adopted.
It is a matter of opinion which of the various forms of the
fundamental equation should be used. One important branch
of engineering has decided on (2.9) with the slug as the unit of
mass, but this has not found general acceptance. Many engineers
prefer (2.8) while others prefer (2.10). Whatever may be said
against the form (2.10), the author believes that engineering
students find it the least confusing, partly because in practical
problems it is the weight of a body rather than its mass which is
more often specified.
19. Centripetal Force. We have seen in Article 16 that velocity
is a vector quantity and that, in general, the velocity of a particle
may change both in magnitude and in direction. If the velocity
is constant in magnitude but changes in direction, the acceleration
is perpendicular to the velocity and its magnitude is given by
fc=cov— v2lr, where r is the radius of curvature of the path along
which the particle is moving and a> is the angular velocity of the
velocity vector. Hence a force must act radially inwards in
order to constrain the particle to follow the curved path. This
force is called a centripetal force and its magnitude is given by:
Fc — mfc = m.v2jr = nuo2r = mva> . (2.11)
It will be seen that the magnitude of the centripetal force is given
by the product of the linear momentum of the particle and the
angular velocity of the momentum vector.
Referring to Fig. 15 (a), let a particle of mass m be moving along
a circular path of radius r with velocity v, and let the necessary
constraint be applied by an inextensible string which joins the
n] MOTION. INERTIA 21
particle to the centre 0 of the circular path. Then the string
must exert a radially inward centripetal force F0 on the particle.
Since, by Newton’s third law of motion, action and reaction are
equal and opposite, the particle must exert a radially outward
force on the string of equal magnitude. The radially outward
reaction is generally referred to as the centrifugal force.
It must be emphasised that the centrifugal force is not a force
applied to the particle. It is the reaction of the particle on the
string and arises from the inertia of the particle or its resistance to

the change of motion represented by the centripetal acceleration.

So far as the tension in the string is concerned, conditions are the
same as if the particle were at rest or, alternatively, moving in the
specified way but without mass, and were acted upon by a radially
outward force equal in magnitude to the centripetal force, as
shown in Fig. 15 (b). This is perhaps the most common applica-
tion of a general principle, known as d’Alembert’s principle, by
means of which problems in dynamics are reduced to equivalent
problems in statics. (See Article 28.)

20. Mass Moment of Inertia. Couple. So far as linear motion

is concerned, the mass of a rigid body may be concentrated at a
point. This point is known as the centre of mass or, more usually,
the centre of gravity. But although the centre of gravity may be
fixed so that there is no motion of translation of the body as a
whole, it is still possible for the body to rotate about an axis which
passes through the fixed centre of gravity. Again, it is a matter
of experience that the body resists any attempt to change its
angular velocity a> about the axis. It is the angular inertia or the
mass moment of inertia of the body which determines the resistance
to a given rate of change of the angular velocity. In order to
cause the angular acceleration a cowple must be applied.
A body of mass m when rotating behaves as if all its mass were
concentrated in a ring at a distance k from the axis of rotation.
The radius k is known as the radius of gyration of the body, and
22 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the product mk2 is known as the mass moment of inertia of the

body. The symbol I will be used to denote the mass moment of
inertia mk2.
A couple consists of two equal, opposite and parallel forces
with different lines of action. The magnitude of the couple is
given by the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular
distance between the lines of action of the two forces.
The product of the mass moment of inertia and the angular
velocity of a body is known as the moment of momentum or the
angular momentum of the body. Newton’s second law of motion,
when applied to a rotating body, leads to the equation:
T cc(djdt)(la>)
Generally I is constant, so that the rate of change of angular
momentum is:
I.dco/dt or I a
where a is the angular acceleration of the body and the equation
for the couple may be written:
T=Ia (2.12)

21. Work. Power. Energy. If a force F acts on a body so as

to produce a displacement x of the body in the direction of the
force, the work done is defined as the product of the force and the
displacement, i.e. work = F.x. Where the magnitude of the
force changes continuously during the displacement, the work done
during any small displacement 8x is given by F. 8x, and the total
work done during a finite displacement is given by HF .8x, or,
using the infinitesimal notation, the total work done is equal to
JF.dx.
Similarly, if a couple T acts on a body so as to produce an angular
displacement 6 about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the
couple, the work done is given by the product T .6. If the magni-
tude of the couple changes continuously during the displacement,
the work done is given by \T. d$.
In engineering the unit of work is the foot-pound, i.e. the work
done by a force of one pound acting through a distance of one foot,
or the work done by a couple or torque of one pound-foot acting
through an angular displacement of one radian.
Power is the rate of doing work, or the work done in unit time.
The unit of power is 1 ft lb per second, but a larger and more
convenient unit for many purposes is the horse-power, which is
equal to 550 ft lb per second.
Energy is usually defined as the capacity for doing work.
There are many different forms of energy, such as heat, light,
n] MOTION. INERTIA 23
electric, potential, kinetic, etc. The mechanical forms of energy-
are 'potential, strain and kinetic energy.
If a body of weight W is raised through a vertical distance h
above some datum level, it is said to possess potential energy of
amount IF. h, since it is able to do an amount of work IF. h in
falling to the datum level.
Similarly, if a spring of stiffness s lb per unit extension or com-
pression is extended or compressed by the amount x, it is said to
possess strain energy of amount %s.x2, since it is able to do an
amount of work §s.x2 in returning to the unstrained condition.
N.B.—The mean force exerted by the spring is %s.x and the
distance through which it acts is x, so that the work done is
Is.x.x or Isx2. A torsional spring of stiffness q lb ft per unit
of angular displacement, when twisted through an angle of d
radians, possesses strain energy of amount \q.02, since it is able
to do an amount of work \q.d2 in returning to the unstrained
condition.
Again, if a body of mass m is moving with a velocity v, it is said
to possess kinetic energy of amount \mv2, since it is able to do an
amount of work \mv2 in being brought to rest.
This may be proved as follows. Since force = mass X accelera-
tion and work done = force X displacement, we have, during a
small displacement 8x, which takes place in time St with change of
velocity 8v:
SIF = F .8x — m(8v/8t)8x mvSv
In the limit, dIF = mvdv
rv
and, integrating, IF = mvdv = \mv2
Jo
Similarly, a body of mass moment of inertia I about a given
axis, when rotating about that axis with angular velocity a>,
possesses kinetic energy of amount f/tu2, since it is able to do an
amount of work \Iio2 in being brought to rest.
22. Conservation of Energy and Conservation of Momentum.
Energy exists in many different forms, but it is subject to a
conservation law, i.e. although it can be converted from one form
to another all the available evidence goes to show that it cannot
be created or destroyed. Thus we may say that the total energy
possessed by a system of moving bodies is at every instant con-
stant, provided that no energy is rejected to or received from a
source external to the system. Many problems in mechanics may
be very readily solved by an application of the principle of the
conservation of energy. The chief danger lies in the possibility
of overlooking the fact that the conditions of the problem may
24 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

lead to a change of form of some of the energy possessed by the

system, such as, for example, a change from mechanical to heat
energy.
The principle of the conservation of momentum is a direct
consequence of Newton’s laws of motion. It is, in fact, only
another way of stating the third law, that action and reaction are
equal and opposite. For instance, imagine a system consisting
of two bodies completely isolated from their surroundings, so
that the only forces acting on the bodies are their mutual inter-
actions. Then, clearly, since force is equal to rate of change of
momentum and action and reaction are equal and opposite, the
rate of change of momentum of one of the two bodies must at any
instant be equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
rate of change of momentum of the other body. Hence, during a
finite interval of time the momenta of the two bodies will change by
equal and opposite amounts, from which it follows that the total
momentum of the system will remain unchanged. Generalising
from the above, we may say that, for a system of moving bodies
which is not acted upon by any external forces, the sum of the
momenta remains constant. Or, stated in another way, the
velocity of the centre of gravity of a system of moving bodies,
which is not acted upon by any external forces, remains invariable.
The application of the principles of the conservation of energy and
the conservation of momentum to problems on impact will be
considered in the following article.

23. Impulse. Impact. Force is equal to rate of change of

momentum, i.e F = (d/dt)(mv), from which Fdt = d(mv), and
integrating both sides:
$Fdt — Jd (mv)

I’he left-hand side of this equation is the time integral of the force,
while the right-hand side is the change of momentum produced.
A given finite change of momentum may be produced by a small
force acting for an appreciable interval of time or by a very large
force acting for a very short interval of time. Where the interval
of time is so short as to border on the infinitesimal, the force is
termed an impulsive force or blow and the time-integral of the
force is known as the impulse. Impulsive forces occur in collisions,
in explosions, in the striking of a nail by a hammer or of a pile by
a tup or monkey.
Let us consider the impact between two bodies which move
with different velocities along the same straight line. It will be
assumed that the point of impact lies on the line joining the centres
of gravity of the two bodies, as it would do if the bodies were
n] MOTION. INERTIA 25
spheres. The behaviour of the colliding bodies during the
complete period of impact will depend on the properties of the
materials of which they are made. For the purposes of analysis
the materials may be assumed to be (a) perfectly elastic, or
(b) perfectly inelastic.
In either case the first effect of impact will be approximately
the same. The parts of each body
adjacent to the point of impact will id 'u0
be deformed and the deformation will
continue until the centres of gravity
of the two bodies are moving with
the same velocity. What the velocity
then is may be found by applying
the principle of the conservation of
momentum. Assuming that there are
no external forces acting on the
system, the total momentum must re- FIG. 16

main constant.
Referring to Fig. 16, let ml, be the mass and velocity of one
body, m2, v2 the mass and velocity of the other body before
impact, where vY'>v2; also, let v be the common velocity of the
centres of gravity at the instant of impact. Then:
(wi1-fm2)« = mxvl-\m2v2
mlvl+m2v2
or (2.13)
ml-\-m2

Note that this is equal to the velocity of the c.g. of the combined
masses before impact. This follows because the c.g. of the
combined masses divides the distance between the c.g. of the
individual masses inversely as the magnitudes of the two masses,
i.e.
m2
AG AB
ml+m2

also the velocity of G relative to A is clearly equal to AG/AB times

the velocity of B relative to A, i.e. (AG/AB)(v2 — «q). Hence, the
velocity of G
AG me mlvl-{-m2v2
=Vl {v -vx) Vi
AB 2
= J
m1 fas—*h)
rm2

Before impact the total kinetic energy of the system was

\mxv{2-\-\m2v^. At the instant the two c.g. are moving with the
same velocity, the kinetic energy is |(mI-fm2)v2. Substituting
26 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

for v from (2.13) and subtracting, the loss of kinetic energy of the
system is given by:

loss of K.E. = im1v12+|m2v22-|(m1+m2)^r^^p^

i 1
—2 {{mi +m2)(m1v12-fm2r22)-(wi1r1 +ra2v2)2}

1 1 2 2
— 2 mx-\-m2 (m1w2v1 d-m1m2v2 —2m1m2v1v2)

,
m m
\ 2
— I—.
so,
(V\—V2)2 . (2.14)
m
= i \
. (2.15)
(vi-v2)2
” 2m1/m2 +1

For given values of m1, vx and v2, the loss of K.E. will depend
upon the ratio ml/m2; the smaller the value of this ratio, the
greater will be the loss of K.E. If = m2, the loss of K.E.
= \ —v2)2. But if m2 is very large in comparison with m1}
the loss of K.E. approaches the limit — v2)2. In other
words, when a body of mass wii impinges on a second body of equal
mass, the loss of K.E. is only one-half as great as when it impinges
on a second body of infinitely large mass.
It follows from the principle of the conservation of energy that
this loss of kinetic energy is equal to the work done in deforming
the two bodies. If the two bodies are perfectly inelastic, the work
of deformation will be absorbed in overcoming internal friction of
the material. There will be no strain energy stored up in the
material due to elastic deformation and therefore there will be no
tendency for either body to regain its original shape. Hence the
two bodies will adhere together and will move on with reduced
kinetic energy after impact. The reduction of kinetic energy
will appear as heat energy because of the work done in overcoming
the internal friction during deformation. The impact between two
lead spheres or two clay spheres approximates to inelastic impact.
If the colliding bodies are^perfectly elastic, the whole of the
work done in deforming the bodies will be stored up as strain
energy. No energy will be absorbed in overcoming internal
friction and there will be no conversion of kinetic energy into
heat energy. Immediately after the instant at which the two
centres of gravity are moving with the same velocity, the bodies
will begin to regain their original shape, the strain energy being
reconverted into kinetic energy and the two bodies ultimately
separating. In this case the impulse on each of the colliding
bodies will have exactly the same magnitude during the second
a] MOTION. INERTIA 27
phase of impact, i.e. while the centres of gravity are separating, as
it had during the first stage, i.e. while the centres of gravity were
approaching. Hence the change of momentum of each body
during the second phase will be exactly equal to the change of
momentum during the first phase.
Let , v2' be the velocities of the respective c.g. at the instant
when contact between the colliding bodies ceases. Then the
change of momentum of one body during the second phase of
impact — mfivfi— v) and the corresponding change of momentum
of the same body during the first stage of impact = vfi).
These two are equal, so that:
vf—v = v— v1 or v{ = 2v—Vi . (2.16)
Similarly, for the second body, the change of momentum during
the second phase of impact = m2(v2'—v) and the corresponding
change of momentum during the first stage of impact = m2(v—v2),
so that:
v2'—v = v—v2 or v2 — 2V—V2 . (2.17)
Subtracting (2.17) from (2.16), we get:
vl'—v2'=v2—v1 = —(vl—v2) . . (2.18)

Hence, the relative velocity of the colliding bodies after impact is

equal and opposite to the relative velocity of the two bodies before
impact. The impact between two glass or steel spheres approxi-
mates to elastic impact.
In all practical problems on impact, we have to deal with
materials that are neither perfectly inelastic nor perfectly elastic.
The more nearly perfect the elasticity of the material, the smaller
will be the amount of energy converted into heat energy at
impact and the more closely will the relative velocity of the two
bodies after impact approach equality with the relative velocity
of the two bodies before impact. Actually the former is always
less, than the latter and the ratio of the two, viz, (v{ — v2')j(v2 —vfij
is termed the coefficient of restitution for the particular material,
and is denoted by e. Because some energy is absorbed in over-
coming internal friction of the materials during the period of im-
pact, the total kinetic energy after impact is always less than the
total kinetic energy before impact. The momentum, however, is
always the same after impact as before impact. Where momen-
tum has apparently been destroyed, what has really happened
is that the momentum has been imparted to a body of such large
mass that it makes a negligible difference to the momentum
already possessed by that body, as, for instance, when a moving
body strikes the earth.
28 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Where the coefficient of restitution is e, we have:

v
i'—v2 = ~e(vi—v2) . . . (2.19)
The final velocities of the colliding bodies after impact and the
loss of kinetic energy during impact may be most easily found as
follows: During the second phase of impact the change of velocity
of each body is now only e times the change of velocity during the
first phase of impact,
Vi— v = e(v—v{) or = (\-\-e)v—evi . (2.20)
and v2'—v — e(v—v2) or v2 = (l+e+—ev2 . (2.21)
These two equations reduce to (2.16) and (2.17), when e = 1.
It follows that the energy returned to the system as kinetic energy
during the second phase of impact is only e2 times the energy
absorbed during the first phase of impact. Hence the net loss of
kinetic energy during impact is 1—e2 times the energy absorbed
during the first phase. Or, from (2.14):
T p2 777 17Y) n
net loss of K.E. = -y- ~^)2 • (2.22)

Example 1. A sphere of mass 100 lb moving at 10 ft/s over-

takes and collides with another sphere of mass 50 lb moving at
5 ft/s in the same direction. Find the velocities of the two masses
after impact and the loss of kinetic energy during impact when (a)
the impact is inelastic, (b) when it is elastic, (c) when e is 0-6.
(a) Inelastic Impact. The two masses adhere after impact and
move with a common velocity v.
100.10+50.5 1250
From (2.13), = 8-333 ft/s
100 + 50 150
The total kinetic energy before impact
1
(100.102+50.52) = 174-6 ft lb
2.32-2
The total kinetic energy after impact
150
161-7 ft lb
2.32-2'
Loss of kinetic energy during impact
= 174-6-161-7 = 12-9 ft lb
or, from (2.14), loss of kinetic energy
100.50
(10-5)2 = 12-93 ft lb
~2.32-2.150
II] MOTION. INERTIA 29
(b) Elastic Impact. Just as for inelastic impact when the
two bodies have a common velocity, that velocity is given by
v = 8-333 ft/s. Immediately after impact ends, the velocity of
the 100-lb sphere is given by (2.16):
Vi = 2v —vY = 2.8-333 — 10 = 6-667 ft/s
Similarly, the velocity of the 50-lb sphere is given by (2.17):
v2' = 2V—V2 = 2.8-333—5 = 11-667 ft/s
In this case there is no loss of kinetic energy during impact.
(c) Coefficient of Restitution e — 0-6.
From (2.20), = (l-fe)v—evi — 1-6.8-333—0-6.10
= 13-333-6 = 7-333 ft/s
and from (2.21),
v2' = (l+e)v—ev2 = 13-333—3-0 = 10-333 ft/s
The total kinetic energy after impact
1 10 720
100 2 2
=<T^ni(
2.32-2 -7-333 -f50.10-333 ) ==
64-4 166-3 ft lb
loss of kinetic energy during impact = 174-6 — 166-3
= 8-3 ft lb
Or, from (2.22),
loss of kinetic energy = (1—0-62)12-93 = 8-28 ft lb
Example 2. A loaded railway truck weighs 15 tons and moves
along a level track at 12 m.p.h. It overtakes and collides with an
empty truck which weighs 5 tons and which is moving along the
same track at 8 m.p.h. If the four buffer springs affected each
have a stiffness of 2 tons/in., find the maximum deflection of each
spring during impact and the speeds of the trucks immediately
after impact ends.
If the coefficient of restitution for the buffer springs were only
0-5, how would the final speeds be affected and what amount of
energy would be dissipated during impact?
This example serves to show how the shock between two
colliding bodies may be softened, or cushioned, by means of
buffers. The purpose of the buffers is to increase the duration of
impact, by allowing considerable local deformation of the colliding
bodies, and thus to reduce the magnitude of the force which acts
between the bodies during impact. Energy is absorbed by the
buffer springs during the interval of time required for the speeds
of the colliding bodies to be equalised, and is returned, either
wholly or in part, during the remainder of the period of impact.
30 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

At the instant when the two trucks are moving at the same
speed during impact, their linear momentum will be equal to the
sum of the linear momenta of the trucks before impact. Hence
the speed at this instant is given by:
(15+5+ = 15.12+5.8 or v = 220/20 = 11 m.p.h.
The difference between the kinetic energy before impact and the
kinetic energy at the instant the two trucks are moving at the
same speed may be calculated from (2.14). Neglecting all losses,
it must of course be equal to the strain energy stored up in the
buffer springs.
.*. strain energy stored in the springs
1 15.5 /88\2 , ^
=
2’32-2.20\6o) (12~ 8)~ — 2'00 1 tons

Let x inches be the maximum deflection of each buffer spring

during impact. Then the strain energy stored up in each spring
equals the work done in compressing the spring.
= \.2.x.x — x2 in. tons
Since there are four buffer springs to absorb the energy,
4x2 = 24-0 or x — 2-45 in.
Hence the maximum force which acts between each pair of buffers
during impact = stiffness of springXdeflection = 2.2-45 = 4-90
tons.
Neglecting all losses and assuming the buffer springs to be
perfectly elastic, the speeds of the trucks immediately after impact
has ended may be calculated from equations (2.16) and (2.17).
For the loaded truck,
Vi = 2.11 — 12 = 10 m.p.h.
and for the unloaded truck,
v2' — 2.11—8 = 14 m.p.h.
If the coefficient of restitution for the buffer springs is 0-5, the
final speeds of the trucks may be obtained from equations (2.20)
and (2.21). For the loaded truck,
Vi = (1+0-5)11-0-5.12 = 10-5 m.p.h.
and for the unloaded truck,
v2 = (1+0-5)11-0-5.8 = 12-5 m.p.h.
The net loss of kinetic energy during impact may be calculated
from (2.22). It amounts to
(1 —e2)2-00 = (1-0-25)2-00 = 1-50 ft tons
ii] MOTION. INERTIA 31
Example 3. Fig. 17 shows a flywheel A connected through
a torsionally flexible spring S to one element C of a dog clutch.
The other element D of the clutch is free to slide along, but must
revolve with the shaft to which the flywheel B is keyed. The

6
A

S c D
O
6
6
FIG. 17

moments of inertia of A and B are 500 lb ft2 and 1500 lb ft2

and the torsional stiffness of the spring S is 150 lb ft per radian.
When the flywheel A is revolving at 150 r.p.m. and the flywheel B
is at rest, the dog clutch is suddenly engaged. Neglecting all
losses, find:
(a) the maximum twist of the spring S,
(b) the speeds of the flywheels at the instant the twist in S is
a maximum,
(c) the speed of each flywheel when the spring regains its
initial unstrained condition.
Immediately after the clutch is engaged, the element C is
brought momentarily to rest. But the spinning flywheel A starts
to wind up the spring S, thus causing equal and opposite torques
to act on A and B. The magnitude of the torque increases con-
tinuously until the speeds of A and B are equalised, energy being
stored in the spring during this interval. Beyond this point the
spring begins to unwind and the strain energy stored in the spring
is reconverted into kinetic energy of rotation of the flywheels.
(a) Since there is no external torque acting on the system the
angular momentum remains constant throughout.
Let N be the angular velocity of both flywheels at the instant
their speeds are equalised. Then
(500 + 1500)A = 500.150
N = 37-5 r.p.m.
32 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The kinetic energy of the system at this instant

2
1 500+ 1500/VAX
I/TTAV
2' 32-2 \ 30 /

2000/77.37-5V
1 2000
480 ft lb
2’ 32
32^ 30 /

But the initial kinetic energy of the flywheel A

1 500/T7.150\2
1915ftIb
= 2-324-30-) =

The strain energy stored in the spring must therefore be equal

to the difference between these two amounts of energy, i.e.
1435 ft lb.
(b) Let 0 be the maximum angular displacement of wheel A
relative to wheel B, i.e. the maximum twist of the spring,
measured in radians.
Then the mean torque exerted by the spring during this dis-
placement is + 150.0 lb ft and the work done on the spring, i.e.
the strain energy stored in the spring, is f.150.02 ft lb.
1.15O.02 = 1435
/. 0 = -y/(1435/75) = 4-38 radians = 250°
(c) Neglecting all losses, the change of momentum of each
flywheel while the spring is unwinding must be exactly the same
as the change of momentum while the spring is being wound up,
since the impulse on each flywheel must be the same in each
period. The speeds of the two flywheels when the spring regains
its initial unstrained condition may therefore be calculated from
equations of the same form as (2.16) and (2.17).
Thus, if Aa, Aa' are the initial and final speeds of the flywheel
A and Ab, Ab' those for flywheel B, the equation corresponding to
(2.16) is
Aa' = 2 A-Aa
= 2.37-5-150 = —75 r.p.m.
and that corresponding to (2.17) is
Ab' = 2 A-Ab
= 2.37-5—0 = 75 r.p.m.
Hence at the instant the spring regains its initial unstrained
condition the flywheel A will be revolving at 75 r.p.m. in the
opposite sense to its initial motion, while the flywheel B will be
revolving at 75 r.p.m. in the same sense as the initial motion of A.
n] MOTION. INERTIA 33
Note that it is theoretically possible for the whole of the initial
kinetic energy of the flywheel A to be transmitted to the flywheel
B, the former being brought to rest. But this can only occur if
the moments of inertia of the two flywheels are identical.
This example illustrates the principle of the inertia starter
which is sometimes used for starting internal-combustion engines.
The flywheel A is set in motion either by hand or by electric
motor. The clutch is then engaged thus coupling the starter to
the engine flywheel and crankshaft, represented by the rotor B.
In this way the kinetic energy of the starter flywheel is used to
spin the engine crankshaft for the first few revolutions until
firing begins. In practice the starter flywheel would require to
be much too heavy if it were directly connected to the spring as
shown in Fig. 17. A smaller flywheel is therefore used and is
geared to the starter dog so as to revolve at a very much higher
speed. If G is the speed reduction from the flywheel to the
starter dog, then the equivalent moment of inertia at the starter
dog is G2 times the actual moment of inertia (see Article 30). But
if the whole of the initial kinetic energy of the flywheel A is to be
transmitted to the flywheel B, the moments of inertia of the two
flywheels should be identical. Hence it follows that to obtain
the highest efficiency from a starter with a geared flywheel the
moment of inertia of the starter flywheel ought to be 1/G2 times
the moment of inertia of the equivalent engine flywheel. (See
Question, 6 p. 596.)
24. Simple Harmonic Motion. If a body oscillates about an
equilibrium position in such a way that its acceleration towards
the equilibrium position is directly proportional to its displace-
ment from the equilibrium position, it is said to have simple

FIG. 18

harmonic motion. Oscillatory motion of the above kind is of

frequent occurrence in practice and its characteristics may be
deduced from Fig. 18 (a). It is easily shown that, if the point C
moves with uniform speed round the circumference of a circle,
2—T.M.
34 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the projection D of the point C on a diameter AB has simple

harmonic motion. The amplitude of the oscillations of D is equal
to the radius of the circle along which C moves, and the frequency
of the oscillations of D is equal to the peripheral speed of C divided
by the circumference of the circle along which C moves.
Let v — the peripheral speed of C,
a = the radius of the circle along which C moves
and n = the frequency of the oscillations of D.
Then v = 27ma
and the centripetal acceleration of C is
/c = v2 ja = (277%)2. a
When CO makes an angle 9 with AB, the velocity and accelera-
tion of D are respectively equal to the components of the velocity
and acceleration of C parallel to AB.
vd = v sin 9 — 2nna sin 9 — Inn. CD
and /d =/c cos 9 = (2nn)2a cos 9 — (2nn)2DO
From this last equation
/d/D0 = (27m)2
Acceleration of D
or .—, —~ = (2nn)2 — constant . (2.23)
Displacement oi D
1 / Acceleration of D
71 (2.24)
'‘ 2nJ Displacement of D
The equation of motion of a simple harmonic motion may be
obtained as follows:
Let x — displacement of D from 0 at time t
Then d2a;/d£2 = acceleration of D at time t
But d2x/dt2 = (2nn)2T)0 = — (2nn)2x
or d2a:/d^2-f (277?i)2a: = 0
Hence, whenever the equation of motion of a body is of the
form d2x/dt2-lrbx = 0, where b is a constant, it may be inferred
that the motion is a simple harmonic oscillation, and that the
frequency of the oscillations is given by:
(2nn)2 = b or n — (l/2n)\/b
It is possible, and sometimes convenient, to represent the
changes in displacement, velocity and acceleration of a body with
simple harmonic motion by the changes in projected length of
three vectors. The vectors are of constant length, occupy fixed
 990818
II] MOTION. INERTIA 35
relative positions and rotate at uniform angular speed, a>. Thus
in Fig. 18 (b), the displacement vector OA is of length a equal to
the amplitude of the vibration, the velocity vector OB is of length
coa (27rna) equal to the maximum velocity of the vibrating body,
and it leads the vector OA by 90°, the acceleration vector OC is of
length co2a {(27rw)2a} equal to the maximum acceleration of the
vibrating body and it leads the vector OA by 180°.
If time is measured from the instant at which the body has
maximum displacement towards the right, then at time t the
vectors will have turned through the angle d = cot from their
initial positions.
The projected lengths along the horizontal displacement line
XX are:
Oa — OQ cos 6 — a cos 6 = displacement
Ob = OB cos (90°+0) = —coa sin d — velocity
Oc = OC cos (18O°-J-0) = —co2a cos 6 = acceleration.
The representation in this way of a simple harmonic motion by
means of vectors forms the basis of a method of solving vibration
problems. (See Article 199.)

25. The Simple Pendulum. A heavy bob of negligible dimen-

sions when suspended vertically by means of an in-
extensible weightless cord forms a simple pendulum,
Fig. 19.
Let W be the weight of the bob, m the mass and
L the length of the cord from the point of suspen-
sion to the centre of the bob. Let the cord be
displaced through a small angle 6, Fig. 19, and the
bob allowed to swing.
Then the couple tending to restore the bob to
the equilibrium position — T = WL sin 6; and, FIG. 19
since the angle d is small, sin d ^ 6 and T WL6.
The mass moment of inertia of the bob about an axis through
the point of suspension = / = mL-.
T WLQ ^ a
angular acceleration of the cord = a = -j ~
mL2 ~L
Angular acceleration a g
—
* * Angular displacement 6 ~ L ~~ COns an
The motion of the pendulum is therefore approximately simple
harmonic, and from equation (2.24) the frequency of oscillation
I (2.25)
277.
36 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

and the periodic time

. (2.26)

26. The Compound Pendulum. The Torsion Pendulum. A

rigid body suspended vertically so as to oscillate
with small amplitude under the action of gravity is
termed a compound pendulum.
Let W be the weight of the body, m the mass,
k the radius of gyration about an axis through the
centre of gravity perpendicular to the plane of motion
and a the distance of the point of suspension from
the centre of gravity, Fig. 20.
Then the mass moment of inertia about the axis
of suspension is given by:
I = m(k2-\-a2)
The restoring couple
T = Wa sin d Wad
The angular acceleration of the pendulum
T ^ Wad ^ ga
2j 2 .d ~ constant.d
1 m(k ra ) k2-{-a2
The motion of the pendulum is therefore approximately simple
harmonic, and from (2.24):
1 g-g
n — (2.27)
k -\-a2
2

The length of a simple pendulum which would have the same

frequency is given by:
k2-\-a2 k2
L =—— =~+a . . . (2.28)
a a
Example 4. The connecting rod of an engine weighs 150 lb and
is 3 ft long between centres. Its c.g. is 25 in. from the centre of
the small end, about which the connecting rod oscillates in a
vertical plane. The rod is found by experiment to complete 50
oscillations in 92*5 sec. Find the moment of inertia of the rod
about an axis through the c.g. What is the length of the
equivalent simple pendulum ?
The number of oscillations per second = n — 50/92*5 = 0*541.
From equation (2.25) the length of the simple pendulum which
has the same frequency is given by:
g 32*2
L = 2 = 2*79 ft
(27rn) (277.0*541)2
ii] MOTION. INERTIA 37
The distance a of the c.g. from the point of suspension = 25/12
= 2-08 ft.
But from (2.28):
k2la+a = L, so that k2 = 2-08(2-79—2-08) = 1-48 ft2
The moment of inertia of the rod = 150.1-48 = 222 lb ft2.

Example 5. A connecting rod of weight 90 lb and 30 in. long

between centres is suspended vertically. The time for 50 oscilla-
tions is found to be 84-4 sec when the axis of oscillation coincides
with the small-end centre, and 80-3 sec when it coincides with the
big-end centre. Find the moment of inertia of the rod about an
axis through the c.g. and the distance of the c.g. from the small-
end centre.
Let Lly L2 = length of equivalent simple pendulum when the
axis of oscillation coincides with the small-end and the big-end
centres respectively.
Let nl,n2 = corresponding frequencies of oscillation per second,
so that nl = 50/84-4 and n2 — 50/80-3.
Let a1} a2 = distances of c.g. from small-end and big-end
centres respectively.
Then from (2.25):
Lx = gl(27rn)2 = 32-2.12(84-4/100TT)2 = 27-9 in.
Similarly, L2 = 32-2.12(80-3/100TT)2 = 25-3 in.
But, from (2-28): k2 = ai(Ll—al)
and k2 = a2(L2—a2)
a1(L1—al) = a2(L2—a2)
Also al-\-a2 = distance between centres = 30 in.
Substituting for a2 in terms of oq and also for LY and L2, we get:
a1(27-9-a1) = (30-a!)(25-3—30+oq)
27-9a!— ax2 = (30— 4-7)
= 30a1+4-7a1-141-a12
6-8®! = 141
= 20-7 in.
and from (2.28):
k2 = 20-7(27-9—20-7) = 149 in2
Moment of inertia of rod = 90.149/144 = 93-3 lb ft2

Torsional Pendulum. A disc or flywheel is suspended with its

axis vertical from a ceiling by three long flexible parallel wires of
38 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

equal length l. The wires are attached at the corners of an

equilateral triangle which are each distant a from the axis of the
disc. If the disc is twisted about its axis through a small angle 6
and then released it will oscillate with frequency n, which may be
expressed in terms of the dimensions of the
system.
Since the three wires are attached symmetri-
cally with respect to the axis, on which the
centre of mass lies, the tension in each wire
will be one-third of the weight of the disc.
For an angular displacement 6 of the disc, the
angular displacement of each wire from the
vertical is </> and for small displacements
1(f) ~ ad or (f = aBfl
The horizontal component of the tension in
each wire
= F = (W/3) tan (f>
and the moment of this component about the axis of the disc
= Fa cos (6/2) = (W/S)a tan cfr.cos (6/2) ~ (WfZ)a<f>
since 6 and <f> are small, so that cos (6/2) 1 and tan cf> ~ cf>.
The total moment applied to the disc
= Wa<f> = WaW/l
This is a pure couple, since the three horizontal forces have zero
resultant, and it tends to restore the disc to its initial equilibrium
position.
The angular acceleration towards the equilibrium position:
Applied torque Wa2 Q g
a =
1 =
~T'd‘Wk2
2
6

The acceleration towards the equilibrium position is therefore

directly proportional to the displacement from the equilibrium
position and the oscillation is simple harmonic.
From (2.24):
1 /a 1 a /q
n = =
2WrJ ~6 Y7TlJi * * * (2,29)
The radius of gyration of a flywheel, airscrew or similar body may
be experimentally determined in this way. For a connecting rod
n] MOTION. INERTIA 39
two wires would be used and the same equation would apply.
The wires would, of course, be attached to the rod at equal dis-
tances from the mass centre, so that the tension is the same in
each wire and a pure couple is applied to the rod.

Example 6. The connecting rod of Example 4 was suspended

on two wires 8*5 ft long attached to the rod at points 14 in.
from the mass centre. The rod was found to make 25 oscilla-
tions in 83*2 sec. Find the radius of gyration about the mass
centre.
From (2.29):
aL jg 14,83-2 /32-2
2Tm/\l l 277.25 AJ 8*5
= 14-5 in. = 1-21 ft
The moment of inertia of the rod = 150.1-212
= 219 lb ft2
27. Equivalent Dynamical System. In many problems on the
dynamics of a rigid body it is convenient to replace the body by
two masses assumed to be concentrated at points and connected
rigidly together.
In order that the two-mass system shall be dynamically equiva-
lent to the rigid body it must react to a given system of forces in
exactly the same way as the rigid body reacts.
Obviously the conditions which must be satisfied by the two-
mass system are:
(a) The total mass must be equal to that of the rigid body.
(b) The c.g. must coincide with that of the rigid body.
(c) The total moment of inertia about an axis through the c.g.
must be equal to that of the rigid body.
For the rigid body shown in Fig. 22, let m be the mass and Jc the
radius of gyration about an axis through G; also let ma, mb be

two masses which form an equivalent dynamical system and a, b be

the distances of ma and mb respectively from G.
40 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Then the three conditions stated above lead to the following

equations:
ma+mb = m (1)
maa = mbb (2)
2 2 2
; +m66 = mk (3)
[2) in (3), we get:
2
+maa6 = mk2
mk2
m
a =
a(a+6) (4)
mb
But from (1) and (2): = a+6 (5)
mk2 mb
Equating (4) and (5):
a(a+6) a+6
2
.*. * = ab (2.30)
From (2.30) it is clear that either a or 6, but not both, may be
chosen arbitrarily. If a is fixed, then the distance b will follow
from the above equation.
A simple and convenient way of finding the position of the second
mass, when the radius of gyration k is unknown, is to suspend the
body vertically, so as to be free to swing about an axis through A.
The length L of a simple pendulum which has the same period of
oscillation as the body will then be equal to a -\-b. This means
that the second mass is situated at the centre of percussion of the
body. The proof of this statement is as follows:
From (2.28) L = k2ja-\-a and from (2.30) k2ja — b,
L = a-\-b
For some problems, as, for instance, when considering the effect
of the inertia of the connecting rod on the crankshaft turning
moment (Article 154), it is convenient to fix arbitrarily the posi-
tions of both the masses relative to G. It is then possible to
satisfy only the first two conditions laid down above, i.e. the two
masses may have the same total mass as the body and the same
centre of gravity.
Referring to Fig. 23, let a and c be the distances of two masses
ma and mc from the centre of gravity G, the distances a and c
being fixed quite arbitrarily and the masses ma and mc having a
total mass m and centre of gravity G.
a
Then mna = —-- m and m,
a+c a+c
n] MOTION. INERTIA 41
The mass moment of inertia about an axis through G of the
system of two masses ma and mc is given by Ix = maa2-\-mcc2, and,
substituting for ma and mc, we have:

1 = ~j^c (a2c-\-c2a) = mac

1

Let ki be the radius of gyration of the two-mass system. Then

1 = mk'i2, so that:
1

kx2 =ac (2.31)

FIG. 23

The mass moment of inertia of the system in which the two

distances a and c are fixed arbitrarily differs from the mass moment
of inertia of the body by the amount:
7j—7 — m(kx2—k2)
If a is the angular acceleration of the body, then the difference
between the torque required to accelerate the two-mass system
and that required to accelerate the body is given bj^:
T' = m(kx2 —72)a .... (2.32)
The two-mass system must therefore have a correction couple
T' applied to it before it can be considered as dynamically equiva-
lent to the body.
It may be pointed out that, if l is the distance between the two
masses ma and mc and L is the distance between the two masses
ma and mb which form a true dynamically equivalent system,
then c—b = (a-f-c) —(a-f-6) = l—L.
But from (2.30) k2 — ab and from (2.31) kx2 = ac, so that
Ix—I = mac—mab — ma(c—b) = ma(l—L)
and T' = ma(l — L) a .... (2.33)
Incidentally L is the length of the equivalent simple pendulum
when the body is suspended from an axis which passes through
the position of the mass ma.
Example 7. A connecting rod weighs 2-5 lb and the length
between centres is 9 in. The distance of the c.g. from the small-
end centre is G in. and the radius of gyration about an axis through
2*—T.M.
42 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the c.g. is 3-8 in. Find the equivalent dynamical system if one
of the masses coincides in position with the small-end centre.
If the rod is replaced by two masses, one at the small-end centre
and the other at the big-end centre, and the angular acceleration
of the rod is 22,500 rad/s2 clockwise, what correction couple must
be applied to this system in order that its effect may be identical
with that of the rod ?
From (2.30) the distance b of the second mass of the equivalent
system from the c.g. of the rod = k2!a — 3 *82/6 = 2*41 in.
The equivalent system therefore consists of a mass of 2-5.6/8-41
= 1-783 lb situated at a point between the c.g. and the big end
and 2-41 in. from the c.g., together with a mass of 2-5 — 1-783
= 0-717 lb situated at the centre of the small end, i.e. 6 in. from
the c.g.
If the two masses are situated at the bearing centres, then the
mass at the big-end centre=2-5.6/9 = 1-667 lb and the mass at
the small-end centre — 2-5 —1-667 = 0-833 lb.
The radius of gyration kY of this system about an axis through
the c.g. is given by (2.31):
kY2 = ac — 6.3 = 18 in.2
The correction couple which must be applied in order that the
two-mass system may be dynamically equivalent to the rod is
given by (2.32):
r = m(k12—k2)cc
2-5 18—3-82
.22 500 = 43-2 lb ft
S2r2‘ 12.12

This correction couple has the same sense as the angular accelera-
tion and therefore acts clockwise.
28. The Resultant Effect of a System of Forces which acts on a
Rigid Body. D’Alembert’s Principle. If a rigid body is acted
upon by a system of forces, that system may be reduced to a
single resultant, whose magnitude, direction and line of action
may be found by the methods of graphic statics. In general the
line of action of the resultant F, Fig. 24 (a), will not pass through
the c.g. but will be at some distance x from it. Two equal and
opposite forces of magnitude F may be applied through G parallel
to the resultant without influencing the effect of the resultant,
since the two forces acting through G are in equilibrium. It fol-
lows that the given resultant is equivalent to an equal and parallel
force through G together with a couple consisting of the original
force and the equal and opposite force through G. The moment
of this couple is the product F. x.
ii] MOTION. INERTIA 43
The force F through G causes linear acceleration of the c.g. and
the couple of moment F. x causes angular acceleration of the body
about an axis through G perpendicular to the plane in which the
couple acts.
Then F — m.f and F.x = mk2a
where m =■ mass of body,
k = radius of gyration about an axis through G,
/ = linear acceleration of G
a = angular acceleration.
From these two equations, given F, x, m and k, the accelerations
/ and a may be calculated.

In dynamics of machines, the problem usually presents itself

in the reverse way. Thus each part of a machine has a definite
motion imposed upon it through its connection with the adjacent
moving parts, and the linear acceleration of the c.g. and the
angular acceleration may be determined by methods given in the
next chapter. It will then be possible, given m, k, f and a, to find
the magnitude, direction and line of action of the resultant applied
force F. The magnitude of F — mf and the distance of its line
of action from the c.g. is x — mk2v.jF. The direction of F and
the position of its line of action in relation to G must, of course,
correspond to the known senses of / and a.
D'Alembert's Principle. As we have just seen, if F is the
resultant of a system of forces applied to a rigid body of mass m,
the magnitude of F is given by the product of m and the linear
acceleration / of the centre of mass of the body, or
F — mf
This may be written
F—mf — 0 (2.34)
From this equation it may be inferred that if we regard —mf as a
force, equal, opposite and with the same line of action as the
44 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

resultant F, and include tliis force with the system of forces of

which F is the resultant, the complete system of forces thus ob-
tained will be in equilibrium. The ordinary rules of statics for a
system of forces in equilibrium will then apply. In effect the
inclusion of the force —mf with the system of applied forces con-
verts the problem in dynamics to one in statics. The force F
which causes the acceleration, both linear and angular, of the
rigid body is termed the effective force acting on the body. The
equal and opposite force —mf is variously termed the reversed
effective force, the kinetic reaction or the inertia force. If we denote
this inertia force by F{, then substituting Fi = —mf in (2.34), we
get
F+Fi = 0 (2.35)
Expressed in another way we may say that, in order to find the
effect of the inertia of the actual link on the forces transmitted to
the adjacent links of the mechanism, the actual link may be
replaced by a rigid massless link to which the inertia force
Fi = —mf is applied, as shown at (c). The massless link is then
in equilibrium under the system of forces which consists of the
inertia force Ft and the forces applied to it by the adjacent links.
The principle stated above is known as d’Alembert’s principle.
It is often convenient to use this principle in order to enable a
problem in dynamics to be reduced to an equivalent problem in
statics. As already pointed out in Article 19 the usual treatment
of problems involving centripetal acceleration is an application of
this principle and there are many other examples in the later
chapters of this book.
Example 8. The link AB, Fig. 25, weighs 20 lb. It is 18 in.
long between the bearing centres, the c.g. is 7| in. from B and the
radius of gyration about an axis through the c.g. is 7 in. The
linear acceleration of G is 200 ft/s2 and the angular acceleration is
120 rad/s2 clockwise.
Find the forces which must be applied through the pins at A
and B in order to accelerate the link, if the line of action of the
force through A is given.
The effective force applied to the link:
F = (20/32-2)200 = 124-2 lb
This force acts parallel to the acceleration /g.
The couple required in order to provide the angular acceleration:
T = 7a = (20/32-2)(7/12)2.120 = 25-4 lb ft
The line of action of F is therefore at a distance from G given by:
z = T/F — 25-4/124-2 = 0-204 ft
m MOTION. INERTIA 45
and in order to correspond to the specified directions of / and a,
the line of action of F must be as shown at (a).
Since there are only two forces Fa and Fh applied to the fink,
and F is their resultant, it follows that Fa, Fh and F must all
intersect at the same point. The direction of Fa is given and the
magnitude and line of action of F has just been found, so that the
line of action of Fb must pass through the point of intersection 0
of Fa and F. The force F may then be resolved along the appro-

priate lines of action to give the magnitudes of Fa and Fb. Scaled

from the diagram, Fa — 65 lb and Fb = 91 lb.
Alternatively, the actual link AB is equivalent to a massless
link, which has exactly the same motion and to which the inertia
force Fi is applied Fig. 25 (b). The massless link is then in
equilibrium under the three forces F{, Fa and Fb, which therefore
intersect at a point. The triangle of forces may then be drawn
to find the magnitudes of Fa and Fb.

29. Force required to accelerate a Body which rolls without

slipping on a Horizontal Plane (Fig. 26). Let m be the mass of
the body and h its radius of gyration about
an axis through the c.g. Let r be the
radius of the cylindrical surface in contact
with the plane and / the linear accelera-
tion of the c.g. f
Since the body rolls without slipping, the
point of contact A is at rest. This point is,
in fact, the instantaneous centre for the re-
lative motion of the rolling body and the FIG. 26
plane (see Article 41).
The mass moment of inertia of the body about an axis through
A perpendicular to the plane of rotation
7a = m(Jc2Jr AG2) = ra(&2-}-r2)
46 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The angular acceleration a = f/r, so that the couple which must be

applied to the rolling body — m(k2-\-r2)a = m(k2Jrr2){flr).
Let F be the force applied through G.
Then, taking moments about A,
Fr = m(k2+r2)(/Jr)
F — m(k2-Jrr2)(f/r2) = m(k2 fr2+ \) f . (2.36)
The expression mk2lr2 = Ijr2 may be regarded as an addition
to the actual mass of the rolling body which is required in order
to allow for its rotary inertia. In other words, we may suppress
the rotational motion and treat the problem as if the body had
linear motion only, provided that we add the term m. k2jr2 to the
actual mass of the body.
Then the total equivalent mass of the rolling body:
me = m-\-mk2Jr2 = m(l -\-k2/r2) . . (2.37)
The net or effective force applied to the roller = mf. This
must therefore be the difference between the force F applied
through G and the only other horizontal force, the tangential
friction force Fa applied through A.
.*. Fa = F—mf — mf .k2/r2 . . (2.38)
If there is to be pure rolling, with no slip at A, Fa</xlF, where /x
is the coefficient of friction between the surfaces and W is the
weight of the roller.
mf.k2lr2<[jiW or iF>{flg)k2lr2

Example 9. A four-wheel truck has a total weight of 10 tons

and each pair of wheels with the axle weighs 1000 lb and has a
radius of gyration of 15 in. The diameter of the wheel treads is
3 ft 6 in. What force must be exerted on the truck in order to
give to it an acceleration of 3 ft/s2 along a horizontal track, if
friction at the axle journals is neglected, and what is the smallest
value of /a between wheel tyres and rails consistent with pure
rolling ?
The addition to the actual mass in order to allow for the rota-
tional inertia of the wheels and axles
mk2jr2 = 2( 1000/2240)(15/21)2 = 0-455 ton
the total equivalent mass to be accelerated
= 10-46 tons
and the accelerating force required
= 3.10-46/32-2 = 0-975 ton = 2180 lb
n] MOTION. INERTIA 47
The total tangential force required in order to provide the
angular acceleration of the wheels and axles is, from (2.38),
2.1000 3 /15\2
= 0-042 ton
2240 ' 32^2' \2l/
But the limiting friction force = /JLW where IF is the total weight
of the truck, so that, if there is to be pure rolling with no slip,
fji. 10 > 0-042
or ye > 0-0042
30. The Acceleration of a Geared System. In Fig. 27 two shafts
A and B are geared together, so that B rotates at G times the speed
of A, i.e O = Nb/Na. The total mass moment of inertia of the
masses attached to A is 7a and of those attached to B is 7b.
If the angular acceleration of shaft A is a,
what torque must be applied to the shaft A?
Since the shaft B turns at G times the speed
of shaft A, the rate of change of the speed
of shaft B with respect to time must
necessarily be G times the rate of change of
the speed of shaft A with respect to time, or
ab = £oca.
It follows that the torque required for
the angular acceleration of B is given by
T
b = 4«b = a-
But to provide a torque Th on shaft B, the torque applied to
shaft A must be G.Th, i.e. a torque G2.7baa must be applied to
shaft A in order to accelerate shaft B.
In addition the torque required to accelerate shaft A by itself
is equal to 7aaa.
Hence the total torque which must be applied to shaft A in
order to accelerate the geared system is given by:
T = 4aa + ^24aa = aa(4 + £2.^b) = <*a.7
where, I — IeL-\-G2.Ih .... (2.39)
7 may be regarded as the equivalent mass moment of inertia of
the system referred to shaft A.
If the efficiency of the gearing between the two shafts A and B
is 7], then the torque which must be applied to A in order to
accelerate B
GT
= bh = G2h**h,
the total torque applied to shaft A in order to accelerate the
geared system
= T = 7aoca+£27baa/77,
48 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

and the equivalent mass moment of inertia of the geared system

referred to shaft A
= I = It+a*Ihh .... (2.40)
For a system in which a number of shafts are geared together
in series, the equivalent inertia referred to shaft A is evidently
given by:
/ = I.+Wx'IJVx) • • • (2-41)
where 7X is the mass moment of inertia of shaft X, Gx is the ratio
of the speed of shaft X to the speed of shaft A and r]x is the overall
efficiency of the gearing from shaft A to shaft X.
If each pair of gear wheels is assumed to have the same efficiency
7], the overall efficiency from shaft A to shaft X is given by:
v* =

where m is the number of gear pairs through which the power is

transmitted from A to X.
Let us suppose that the torque required to accelerate the system
shown in Fig. 27 is applied by means of a force F which acts
tangentially to a drum or pulley of radius r.
Then F.r = <xj = oca(7a+£2 .7b)
But the tangential acceleration of the drum/ = aa .r or aa = f/r
so that
F.r = (f/r)(Ia+G*.Ib)
.-. F =/.(l/r2)(/a4-(r2.7b) =f.me
where me — (l/r2)(7a+6r2.7b) .... (2.42)
This may be regarded as the equivalent mass of the system referred
to the line of action of the accelerating force F.

Example 10. The moment of inertia of A, Fig. 27, is 200 lb ft2,

and the moment of inertia of B is 15 lb ft2. The shaft B runs at
five times the speed of shaft A. A mass of 150 lb is hung from a
rope wrapped round a drum of effective radius 8 in., which is
keyed to the shaft A. If the mass is allowed to fall freely, find
its acceleration.
What would be the acceleration, if the efficiency of the gearing
were 90% ?
The equivalent mass of the geared system referred to the
circumference of the drum may be found from (2.42):
me = (l/r2)(7a+£2.7b) = (12/8)2(200+52.15) = 1293 lb
The total equivalent mass to be accelerated = 1293 + 150
n] MOTION. INERTIA 49
= 1443 lb. But the accelerating force is provided by the pull of
gravity on the mass suspended from the rope.
acceleration = / = (150/1443)32*2 = 3*35 ft/s2
If the efficiency of the gearing is 90%, the equivalent mass of
the geared system referred to the circumference of the drum
= (1/r2) (7a +G2Ihfr]) = (3/2)2(200+52.15/0*9) = 1388 lb
and the total equivalent mass to be accelerated
= 1388 + 150 = 1538 lb
acceleration =/ = (150/1538)32*2 = 3*14 ft/s2
Example 11. A motor-car weighs 13J cwt, and the moment
of inertia of the wheels and back axle is 150 lb ft2 and of the
engine parts is 5 lb ft2. The gear ratios provided are 5*4, 7*3,
12*5 and 22*5 to 1, and the effective diameter of the road wheels
is 25*2 in. If the engine torque is 31*0 lb ft, find the maximum
acceleration of the car on each gear.
The overall efficiency of the transmission is 90% in top gear and
82% in each of the other gears.
This problem will be solved in a different way from that given
above, by applying the principle of the conservation of energy.
Let 8 = displacement of car from rest with uniform accelera-
tion /, the engine torque T being assumed to re-
main constant,
v — final speed of car,
G = gear ratio,
r = effective radius of road wheels,
rj = efficiency of transmission from engine to road
wheels,
M — mass of car,
and 7a, 7b = moments of inertia of road wheels and engine
Since the speed of the car increases from 0 to v with uniform
acceleration / in distance S,
v2 = 2fs
At the end of the displacement, the angular velocity of the
wheels = a>a = v/r, and the angular velocity of the engine crank-
shaft = a)h — G.w& = G.v/r.
The total angle through which the wheels have turned = S/r,
and the total angle through which the engine crankshaft has
turned = 6b — G.S/r.
The total work done by the engine torque = T.0b = T.G.S/r.
50 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The increase of kinetic energy of translation of the car = \Mv2.

The increase of K.E. of rotation of the wheels = |/acoa2
=§/a. v2/r2, and the increase of K.E. of rotation of the engine
parts = £/bcab2 = lIhG2.v2/r2.
The energy available for transmission from the engine to the
wheels is the difference between the total work done by the torque
and the increase of K.E. of the engine parts, i.e.
T.G.S/r-lIhG2.v2lr2
Because of the losses in the drive the energy available at the rear
axle
= rj(T.G.SIr-±IhG2.v2/r2)
This must be equal to the sum of the increase of K.E. of trans-
lation of the car and the increase of K.E. of rotation of the
wheels.
r)(T,G.S/r—lIbG2.v2Jr2) = \Mv2+\I&.v2lr2
r)(T.G.Sjr) = \v2(M +IJr2+r]G2.Ih/r2)
Substituting v2 = 2fS, we get:
r](G.T/r) = f(M+IJr2+vG2.Ib/r2)
In this equation, the left-hand side represents the total tractive
force F at the rim of the road wheels, and the expression in the
parentheses on the right-hand side represents the total equivalent
mass M& of the car. From the equation the acceleration for each
gear ratio may be calculated.
Then F = T?£(31-0.12/12*6) = 29-5rjG lb wt
and Me = 13*5.112-f 150(12/12-6)2+7}£25(12/12-6)2
= 1512 +136+4-54+32
= 1648+4-54^2 lb
/= 32-2.F/Me ft/s2
The results of the calculations are set down in the following
table:

Gear Top Third Second First

0 5-4 7-3 12-5 22-5
V 0-90 0-82 0-82 0-82
F 143-5 176-8 303 545
4-54T7G2 119-2 198-5 582 1882
Ma 1767 1847 2230 3530
f 2-62 3-08 4-37 4-98
[n MOTION. INERTIA 51
This example shows how important is the effect of the rotary
inertia of the engine parts on the acceleration of the car, particu-
larly when first or second gear is engaged and the ratio of engine
speed to road wheel speed is high.
31. Gyroscopic Couple. In Article 17 we saw that angular
velocity is a vector quantity and that angular acceleration is
involved if either the magnitude or the direction of the angular
velocity changes. But, in order to produce angular accelera-
tion of a rotating body, a couple must be applied. So far we have
only considered the particular case in which the couple produces a
change in the magnitude of the angular velocity, but no change in
its direction. We have now to consider the other particular case
in which the couple produces a change in the direction of the
angular velocity, but no change in its magnitude. Although the
magnitude of the angular acceleration has already been found in
Article 17, it is worth while to start from first principles.
(a) Plane Disc. Suppose that a disc, Fig. 28, is spinning in a
vertical plane parallel to plane YOZ with an angular velocity a>
and that the axis of spin is at the same time rotating in a hori-
zontal plane XOZ with an angular velocity a>p. Then, applying
the right-handed screw rule, the angular momentum of the disc,
when in the position shown by full lines, may be represented by the
vector Oa and, when in the position shown by dotted lines, by the
vector Ob. The change of momentum in the interval of time 8t,
during which the disc moves from one position to the other, is
therefore represented by the vector ab. But change of angular
momentum can only be produced by the application of a couple
to the disc. Since the applied couple is equal to the rate of change
of angular momentum, we have
T = 8(Ico)f8t
But 8(1to) = ab Oa .86, where 86 is the angle through which the
axis of spin rotates in the time 8t.
T 0&.86/8t ~ Icu.89fit
and in the limit, when 86 is very small:
T = Ia>. dd/dt — Iaxop . . . (2.43)
It will be seen that the couple T is given by the product of the
angular momentum /to and the angular velocity top of the angular
momentum vector. Equation (2.43) should be compared with
equation (2.11), which gives the centripetal force required in order
to cause the linear velocity of a body to change in direction without
changing in magnitude.
52 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

Referring to Fig. 28, the vector ab lies in the plane XOZ and
in the limit, when 89 is very small, its direction is perpendicular
to Oa and therefore to the plane XOY. The applied couple T
must therefore act in the plane XOY and, to conform to the right-
handed screw rule, its sense must be clockwise when viewed in the
direction ab, i.e. when viewed in the direction OZ.
As already pointed out in Article 17,
the angular acceleration which is in-
volved, when the angular velocity
changes in direction but remains con-
stant in magnitude, is known as gyro-
scopic acceleration and the couple which
gives rise to it is known as a gyroscopic
couple. The rotation of the axis of
spin is called precessional motion.
It will be seen that the plane of
rotation or spin is parallel to plane YOZ,
the plane of precession is the plane XOZ and the plane of the
gyroscopic couple is the plane XOY. These three planes are
mutually perpendicular.
It may also be pointed out that the spin vector, or the angular
momentum vector, Oa and the couple vector Oc, both he in the
plane of precession XOZ, and that the sense of the precession is
such as to tend to bring the spin vector into the position occupied
by the couple vector by the shortest possible route.
Whenever the axis of rotation or spin of a body changes its
direction, a gyroscopic couple must be applied to it. The couple
is usually applied through the bearings which support the shaft.
The reaction of the shaft on each bearing is of course equal and
opposite to the action of the bearing on the shaft. Hence the
precession of the axis of rotation causes a gyroscopic reaction
couple to act on the frame to which the bearings are fixed. The
conditions are analogous to those which exist when the linear
momentum of a body changes in direction. Then it is the radially
inward force which acts on the body, but the reaction of the body
is radially outward.
The couple which must be applied to a spinning body in order
to maintain the precessional motion of the axis of rotation may be
derived in a different way. Suppose the disc, Fig. 29 (a), is spin-
ning counter-clockwise with angular velocity a> about an axis
through 0 and the axis of rotation is precessing counter-clock-
wise with angular velocity u>p, as shown in plan. Consider a
particle P in the upper half of the disc at a distance y from the
horizontal diameter. Then the velocity of P in the plane of the
disc is co. OP at right angles to OP, and the component velocity
n] MOTION. INERTIA 53
of P parallel to XX is v = co. y. As seen in plan the particle P
will appear to oscillate along AB with simple harmonic motion,
while AB rotates counter-clockwise with angular velocity o»p.
Because of the rotation of AB, the velocity v is changing its direc-
tion and P has a centripetal acceleration va>p at right angles to
AB acting downwards. But P also has a velocity copx in the
upward direction as seen in plan, which decreases as x decreases,
so that there is an additional acceleration of P in the downward
direction amounting to (d/dt)(a)px), or a>pv, since cop is constant
and dx/dt = v.
The total acceleration of P perpendicular to the plane of the
disc is therefore 2a>pv. This is known as the Coriolis acceleration
of P. (See also Article 53, p. 102.)

The Coriolis acceleration of P depends only upon the mag-

nitudes and senses of iop and v. So long as P is in the upper half
of the disc and v is therefore in the direction from right to left, the
acceleration is downwards in plan independent of the position of
P. Similarly, for all positions of P in the lower half of the disc v
is in the direction from left to right and the acceleration is upwards
in plan.
To provide this acceleration a force must be applied to P per-
pendicular to the plane of the disc. If 8m is the mass of the
particle, the applied force
8 F = 8m. 2o)pv = 8m. 2a>pa>y
The total accelerating force applied to the upper half of the disc
will clearly be equal and opposite to the total accelerating force
54 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

applied to the lower half of the disc, and the two forces will con-
stitute a couple.
The moment of the force applied to P about the horizontal
diameter XX
= 8 T — SF .y = Sm.2oJvoj.y2 — 2copa>.Sm.y2
where 8m.y2 is the moment of inertia of the particle P about XX.
For the complete disc, the applied couple
= T = 2copaj. Ix
But for a disc 2Ix — I the polar moment of inertia, so that, as
before,
T — IOKO p (2.44)
As the disc rotates the gyroscopic couple remains constant in
magnitude and always acts in the plane perpendicular to the planes
of rotation and precession.
(b) Two-bladed airscrew. Consider now the gyroscopic couple
which must be applied to a two-bladed airscrew spinning about its
axis in order to cause it to precess. In Fig. 29 (b), the longitudinal
principal axis of a blade is UU and the moment of inertia about
this axis is negligible compared with the moment of inertia about
the axis VV. The mass of the blade may therefore be assumed
to be distributed along the axis UU, so that the moments of
inertia of the blade about the axis W and about the axis of rota-
tion are equal. Let be the moment of inertia.
Then each particle P of the blade above the horizontal XX has
a Coriolis component acceleration at right angles to the plane of
rotation which acts downwards as seen in plan. The correspond-
ing particle of the blade below the horizontal XX has a Coriolis
component acceleration which acts upwards as seen in plan. The
forces required to produce these accelerations will be equal and
opposite and give rise to a couple which acts in the plane con-
taining the axis of rotation and the longitudinal axis UU.
Force applied to P = 8m.2coiopy
and moment of this force about W
= 8m. 2a>u)p. yr
— 8m. 2 coo)vr2 sin d
and the total moment for one blade
= 21 xcowp sin 6
2
since 28m.r — I
For the two blades, the applied couple
— T — 2IOJOJ sin 6 (2.45)
ii] MOTION. INERTIA 55
where 1 =2II = polar moment of inertia of the airscrew about
the axis of rotation.
The plane of the couple rotates with the airscrew and the mag-
nitude of the couple varies from nil, when 9 = 0°, to a maximum
of 2/coojp, when 6 = 90°.
The couple vector is shown by Oa in Fig. 29 (b). It will be
clear from considerations of symmetry that when the positions of
the two blades are interchanged, i.e. for 0+180°, the couple vector
Oa will have exactly the same magnitude and position. In other
words, the couple vector Oa points into the first or fourth quad-
rants for all angular positions of the airscrew.
The total applied couple may be resolved into component
couples which act in vertical and horizontal planes perpendicular
to the plane of rotation. These couples are represented by the
vectors Ob and Oc.
The component couple applied in the vertical plane, i.e. with
axis XX = Tx = Ob = Oa sin 9
= 2/cocop sin2 9
— /a>ojp(l—cos 29) .... (2.46)
It varies in magnitude from 0, when 9 = 0°, to 2/a>cop, when
9 — 90°, and back to 0, when 9 = 180°. It has a mean value
Iojojp when 9 = 45° and 135°.
The component couple applied in the horizontal plane, i.e. with
axis YY
= Ty = Oc = Oa cos 9
= 2/ojajp sin 9 cos 9
— Icvojp sin 29 .... (2.47)
This couple is nil, when 9 — 0°, 90°, 180°. It has a maximum
value /oiojp, clockwise as seen in plan, when 9 = 45°, 225°, and
counter-clockwise as seen in plan, when 9 = 135°, 315°.
N.B.—From equation (2.46), the mean value of Tx is equal to
the couple which would have to be applied to a disc with the same
moment of inertia about the axis of spin as the airscrew, but the
maximum value of Tx is twice as great.
The vectors Oa, Ob, Oc give the resultant and the two com-
ponent couples applied to the airscrew shaft through the reactions
of the bearings on the shaft. The vectors which represent the
resultant and the two component couples applied to the bearings
by the airscrew will be equal in magnitude but opposite in sense.
(c) Multi-bladed Airscrew. Let n be the number of blades
spaced at angle a = r/n. Then assuming as before that the
mass of each blade is concentrated along the longitudinal axis UU,
56 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the moments of inertia about the transverse axis VV and the axis
of rotation are each equal to
The total moment of inertia of the airscrew about the axis of
rotation
= 1 = nll
Let one blade be inclined to the horizontal at the angle 9.
Then with to and tov as shown in Fig. 29 (b), the total moment
about XX required to accelerate this blade
= TXi = 2oja>vZ8my2 = 2totopIL sin2 9
= /1a»o»p(l —cos 29)
Similar expressions apply for each of the blades, if the appropriate
angle 0-f et, 9-\-2a, etc., is substituted.
Therefore, total moment about XX for n blades
= Tx = Ixwa>v\n—[cos 20-f-cos 2(9. . . -\-2(9-\-n—l.oc)|J
The expression in brackets { } is the sum of a cosine series of n
terms in which the angles increase in arithmetical progression.
The sum of such a series is
„ I n n—1 \ sin net
S = COS 2\ 9-1—— . et | —:
\ 2 / sin a
Since net — 2n, sin net — 0 and a = 2ir/n, so that sin a =£ 0
except when n — 2.
S = 0, for all values of n > 2
and Tx = W./JOKO p
But nli — I, the total moment of inertia of the multi-bladed
airscrew about the axis of rotation.
Tx = l(oo)p .... (2.48)
The moment about the vertical axis YY for a blade which makes
angle 9 with XX from (2.47) is
TVi = I lump sin 29
Therefore, total moment about YY for n blades
= Ty = /ioxdplsin 20-{-sin 2(0q-a)4- . . . 4-sin 2(9-\-n—l.<x.)}
The sum of the sine series in the brackets is zero for all values
of n > 2, so that the resultant couple required to accelerate the
multi-bladed airscrew is given by equation (2.48). This couple is
constant in magnitude and it acts in the vertical plane per-
pendicular to the planes of rotation and precession. It is there-
fore identical with the couple required for a plane disc with the
same moment of inertia about the axis of rotation.
n] MOTION. INERTIA 57
Example 12. The moment of inertia of the disc in Fig. 28 is
40 lb ft2 and it is spinning at 500 r.p.m. If the shaft precesses
through one revolution in 5 sec, what couple must be applied
to the shaft ?
The angular velocity of spin of the disc
— ID — TT. 500/30 = 5077-/3 rad/s
The angular velocity of procession
= cop — 27r/5 rad/s
Substituting in (2.40), the gyroscopic couple T
= I(DCOV = 40/32-2.507T/3.27T/5 = 81-7 lb ft
With the directions of spin and precession which are shown on
Fig. 28, we have seen that the applied couple must act in the
clockwise sense. The reaction couple exerted by the shaft on the
bearings and transmitted to the frame is of equal magnitude but
of opposite sense, i.e. it acts in the counter-clockwise sense.
Example 13. The moment of inertia of the airscrew of an aero-
plane is 250 lb ft2, and the direction of rotation is clockwise when
looking at the front of the machine. The speed of rotation of the
airscrew is 1600 r.p.m. when the speed of flight is 150 m.p.h. If
the aeroplane makes a right-handed turn on a path of 500 ft
radius, find the gyroscopic reaction of the airscrew on the aero-
plane, when:
(a) the airscrew has three blades,
(b) the airscrew has two blades.
The angular velocity of rotation
— co = TT . 160/3 rad/s
The angular velocity of precession
150.88
44 rad 8
= "P = 607500 = °' /
(a) With a three-bladed airscrew, the gyroscopic couple re-
mains constant as the airscrew rotates and always acts in a plane
perpendicular to the plane of rotation and to the plane of pre-
cession. Its magnitude from (2.43) = T = IIOOJV
250 77.160
0-44 = 572 lb ft
32^2’ 3
Referring to the plan view shown in Fig 30, the angular
momentum is represented by the vector Oa.
58 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Since the aeroplane is making a right-hand turn, the angular

momentum vector will change in direction in a short interval of
time from Oa to Ob, so that the change of momentum, and there-
fore the applied couple, is represented by the vector ab. The
plane of the applied couple is perpendicular to ab and therefore
vertical and its sense is counter-clockwise when looking on the
left-hand side of the machine as shown in the elevation. The
reaction of the rotating parts on the machine is opposite to the
applied couple and thus tends to raise the nose and depress the
tail of the machine.

It is easily seen that a left-hand turn would have the opposite

effect. It should be noted, however, that the aeroplane will
actually be banked over on the turn as shown in the end elevation,
so that the reaction couple should be resolved into two compo-
nents. One component will act in the longitudinal plane normal
to the wings and will have the effect already explained, while the
other component couple will act in the plane of the wings. The
effect of this latter component will be to tend to turn the machine
towards the outside of the curved path. The resultant effect of
the gyroscopic reaction couple, when turning to the right, is
therefore to tend to raise the nose of the machine and also to
make it turn less sharply.
(b) With a two-bladed airscrew the applied gyroscopic couple
varies in magnitude, but the plane in which it acts is the plane
containing the axis of rotation and the longitudinal axes of the
blades. It therefore rotates with the airscrew.
Its magnitude is given by equation (2.45),
T = 21 coco p sin 6
where 6 is the inclination of the longitudinal axis of the blades to
the plane of precession.
ii] MOTION. INERTIA 59
The component gyroscopic couple in the vertical plane, i.e. the
plane of elevation, Fig. 30, from (2.46)
= Tx = /ajtop(l —cos 29)
= 572(1-cos 29) lb ft
Tx has a mean value of 572 lb ft when the axis of the blades is at
45° or 135° to the plane of precession, but it is nil when 9 = 0°
and a maximum 1144 lb ft when 9 = 90°.
It has the sense shown by the arrow in the elevation, but varies
between the extreme values 0 and 1144 lb ft. The gyroscopic
reaction of the airscrew is opposite in sense and therefore tends to
raise the nose and depress the tail of the machine.
The component gyroscopic couple in the horizontal plane, from
(2.47),
= Ty = Icocop sin 29 = 572 sin 29 lb ft
The mean value of Ty is nil, when 9 — 0° or 90°, but Ty alternates
between maximum values of 572 lb. ft in opposite senses twice
per revolution of the airscrew. The maximum values occur
when 9 = 45° or 135°.
When 9 lies between 0° and 90°, Ty is clockwise as seen in
plan; and when 9 lies between 90° and 180°, it is counterclockwise.
The gyroscopic reaction in the former case tends to make the
aircraft turn less sharply and in the latter case more sharply.
The gyroscopic reaction of a two-bladed airscrew therefore
tends to set up vibrations in the aircraft structure. For this
reason three-bladed airscrews which give a gyroscopic reaction of
constant magnitude are much to be preferred and are generally
used.
32. Gyroscopic Stabilisation. At various times proposals have
been put forward for using one or more gyroscopes for the stabilisa-
tion of ships or single-track vehicles. Some success has been
achieved with their application to ships, but none of the appli-
cations to single-track vehicles has survived the experimental
stage. A ship of course is intrinsically stable, and the purpose
of the gyroscope is to reduce the amplitude of the oscillations of
the ship in a heavy sea. In this connection it should be noted
that fore-and-aft pitching about a transverse axis is much smaller
in amplitude than rolling about a longitudinal axis, and the
gyroscope has been applied in order to reduce the amplitude of
rolling.
So far as the stabilisation of single-track vehicles is concerned,
the requirements are much more exacting. The vehicle is
inherently unstable and the gyroscope has not merely to provide
the initial stability but it must preserve the stability under
00 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

changing conditions, such as the action of the wind on the vehicle,

displacement of the dead load carried by the vehicle, the inertia
effects when rounding a curve, etc.
It is only possible here to outline briefly the main principles on
which gyroscopic stabilisation depends. The fundamental require-
ment is that the gyroscope shall be made to precess in such a way
that the reaction couple exerted by the rotor shall oppose any
disturbing couple which may act on the frame. If at every
instant the reaction couple of the gyroscope and the applied,
or disturbing, couple are equal, then complete stabilisation will
be obtained.
For instance, consider the application of a gyroscope to a ship
in order to limit the amplitude of rolling. The couple which tends
to cause rolling arises from the effect of the difference in buoyancy
on the two sides of the centre line of the ship when on the wave
slope, Fig. 31. This couple is a periodic couple which has its
maximum value when the ship is on either side of the wave at the
point of maximum slope. It has zero value when the ship is

at the peak or in the trough of the wave. The way in which the
magnitude of the couple varies will of course depend on the shape
of the wave profile. If we assume a sinusoidal profile for the wave,
then the couple will also vary sinusoidally. In order to maintain
the ship on an even keel the gyroscope must at every instant
provide a reaction couple on the ship which is equal in mag-
nitude and of opposite sense to that exerted on the ship by the
wave.
In Article 31 it was shown that the plane of spin, the plane of
precession and the plane of the applied couple are mutually
perpendicular. In the case of the rolling motion the plane of
the applied couple is a transverse plane. Hence spin and pre-
cession must take place the one in a horizontal plane and the other
in a vertical longitudinal plane. The choice as to whether the
spin shall be in the horizontal plane and the precession in the
vertical longitudinal plane, or vice versa, is governed by practical
considerations. Fig. 32 shows a gyroscope mounted with its
n] MOTION. INERTIA 61
plane of rotation horizontal, and Fig. 33 a gyroscope with its plane
of rotation vertical and longitudinal. It is easily seen that with
the former arrangement a change of course of the ship either to
port or to starboard has no tendency to change the direction of
the axis of rotation and therefore introduces no gyroscopic effects.
But if the ship pitches, the direction of the axis of rotation will be
changed and a gyroscopic effect will be intro-
duced. With the latter arrangement, on the
other hand, a change of course will, and pitch-
ing will not, introduce a gyroscopic effect. In
practice the arrangement with the plane of
rotation horizontal is preferred.
The direction in which precession must take
place may be found as follows: let the couple
applied by the wave be clockwise, when looking
towards the bow of the ship and the direction
of the spin be clockwise when viewed from
above, as in Fig. 32. Then the angular momen-
tum vector is vertically downwards as shown
by Oa and the couple vector is horizontal and
to the left in the side elevation (looking on the
left or port side of the ship). The change of angular momentum
ab must also be represented by a horizontal vector to the left, so
that the angular momentum vector turns clockwise from Oa to Ob.
Hence the precession of the gyroscope must be clockwise, as seen
in the side elevation, in order to provide a gyroscopic reaction
couple on the ship which will oppose the applied couple.
But it has to be remembered that the gyroscopic reaction couple
is always perpendicular to the plane of rotation, so that, as the
plane of rotation of the gyroscope precesses from the horizontal,
the plane of the reaction couple will precess from the vertical.
Only the component of this couple in the vertical plane will
actually be available for balancing the couple applied by the
wave.
Thus, if Tw sin 9 is the couple applied by the wave, where 9 is
the slope of the wave, T is the gyroscopic reaction couple and (f>
is the inclination of the plane of rotation to the horizontal, then
T cos (f) Tw sin 9
But T Iioa>„

so that IcoCOp COS (f> Tw sin 9 . . (2.49)

The maximum reaction couple will clearly be required when the

ship is at the point of maximum slope, so that the plane of rotation
of the gyroscope should then be horizontal ((f) — 0).
62 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The couple required when the ship is at the peak or the trough of
the wave is zero, and theoretically this condition could be satisfied
if the gyroscope precessed at such a rate that the angle ^ became
equal to 90° at the end of a quarter period of the wave. It is,
however, impracticable to do this.
In practice I and <n are constant and the axis of rotation pre-
cesses on either side of the vertical through an angle limited to
about 60°. The vertical shaft of the gyroscope is carried in a
casing which is supported in bearings fixed to the frame of the
ship so as to allow of the desired precessional motion. The
casing is driven by an electric motor at an angular velocity a>p
which is practically constant over most of the arc of precession,
and it is brought to rest and accelerated in the opposite direction
over a small arc at the end of each outward swing. This means
that equation (2.49) cannot be satisfied at every instant, so that
the rolling of the ship is not entirely prevented, although the
amplitude of roll is reduced.
For further information the reader should refer to a series of
articles which appeared in the Engineer, 1930, and which have
been reprinted in book form: The Automatic Stabilisation of Ships,
by T. W. Chalmers.
There is a very full description of the gyroscopic stabilising
equipment of the Italian finer Conte di Savoia in the Engineer
Jan. 1932, and an account of the results obtained with the equip-
ment in the Engineer, Sept. 1936.

EXAMPLES II

1. Show that, when a particle is displaced along a circular path, its acceleration
has a component perpendicular to the path as well as a component tangential
to the path. Deduce the magnitudes of the two components in terms of the
instantaneous velocity of the particle and the radius of curvature of the path.
2. Explain the conventional method of defining an angular displacement by
means of a vector. Then show that the angular acceleration of a spinning body
may arise from a change in the magnitude of the angular velocity, a change in
the direction of the axis of rotation or a change in both the magnitude and the
direction.
3. The direction of motion of a body changes through an angle of 90° in an
interval of 8 sec, the initial and final speeds being 20 ft/s. Find the force
required to produce this change: (a) when the force is constant both in magnitude
and direction; (b) when the body moves along a circular arc with constant speed
during the change. In the former case sketch the path of the body and show how
it may be drawn to scale. The mass of the body is such that a force of 8 lb
produces an acceleration of 10 ft/s2. W.S.
4. A body weighing 3 lb is known to change its velocity in 2 sec from 20 ft/s.
due east to 10 ft/s 30° north of east Find the change in velocity, the acceleration
and the uniform force capable of causing the acceleration. W.S.
n] MOTION. INERTIA 63
4
5. A body weighs 20 lb and has a moment of inertia of 15 lb ft . At a given
instant it is acted upon by a force of 5 lb whose line of action is 10 in. from the
c.g. of the body. What effect will the given force have on the motion of the
body?
6. A gas engine has two flywheels each of which weighs 1600 lb and has a
radius of gyration of 27 in. At the full speed of 275 r.p.m. the engine develops
25 b.h.p. Assuming that the useful work done per revolution is independent of
the speed, find the time required to increase the speed of the engine, when running
light, from 50 to 275 r.p.m. What accelerating torque will act on the crankshaft
during this period ?
7. A petrol engine connecting rod weighs 2-2 lb and is suspended in a vertical
plane from a horizontal knife-edge which passes through the small end and
coincides with the small-end centre. The distance of the c.g. from the point of
suspension is 6-6 in. The rod is found to make 50 oscillations in 47-8 sec. What
is its moment of inertia about an axis through the c.g. ?
8. In order to find the moment of inertia of a small flywheel, it is suspended in
a vertical plane as a compound pendulum. The distance of the c.g. from the
knife-edge support is 10 in. and the flywheel makes 100 oscillations in 134-4
sec. Find the moment of inertia about an axis through the c.g. if the weight of
the flywheel is 160 lb.
9. The connecting rod of an oil engine weighs 116-5 lb, the distance between
the bearing centres is 33f in., the diameter of the big-end bearing is 4f in. and of
the small-end bearing is 3 in. When suspended vertically with a knife-edge
through the small end it makes 100 oscillations in 181 sec, and with the knife-
edge through the big end it makes 100 oscillations in 166 sec. Find the moment
of inertia of the rod and the distance of the c.g. from the small-end centre.
10. For the connecting rod of Question 7, find: (a) the equivalent dynamical
system when one of the masses is placed at the small-end centre; (b) the correction
couple required when the two masses are placed one at the smail-end centre and
the other at the big-end centre and the angular acceleration of the rod is
18 000 rad/s2. The length between centres is 9-5 in.
11. In order to find the moment of inertia of the armature
of a small dynamo, a weight of 5 lb attached to a cord wound
round the 3-in. dia. shaft was found to be just sufficient to
overcome the friction of the bearings. An additional weight
of 6 lb, making altogether 11 lb, was attached to the cord and
allowed to fall freely from rest. Atjthe end of 10-2 sec it
had fallen through a distance of 5 ft. If the friction of the
bearings is assumed to remain constant, find the moment
of inertia of the armature and shaft.
12. A cage weighs 1 ton and is raised by a rope which is
wound round a drum 42 in. dia. The drum has a moment of
inertia of 2500 lb ft2. What torque must be applied to the
drum in order to give to the cage an acceleration of 8 ft/s2 ?
Friction may be neglected.
If the rotating parts of the hoisting motor, including an
allowance for the intermediate gearing, have a moment of
inertia of 20 lb ft2 and the gear reduction between motor and
drum is 20 to 1, what torque must be exerted by the motor in
order to give to the cage the same acceleration ?
13. Material is lifted from a deep mine by the balanced FIG. 34
hoist shown in Fig. 34. The weight of the unloaded cage is
15 000 lb and of the loaded cage 25 000 lb. The weight of
the rope is 42 000 lb. The head pulley is 20 ft in diameter and its moment of
inertia is 50 000 lb ft2. During hoisting operations the pulley is first uniformly
accelerated acquiring a speed of 5 rad/s in 20 sec, then revolves at constant
speed and finally is uniformly retarded and brought to rest in 20 sec.
64 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Calculate the torque required during acceleration and during retardation.

Neglect the effects of friction, of the inertia of the smaller pulleys and of the
flexing of the rope. W.S.
14. The rotor of a motor is observed to drop from a speed of 420 to 380 r.p.m.
in 60 sec when the current has been switched off; the same drop of speed occupies
70 sec when a ring of mass moment of inertia I has been attached concentrically
to the rotor. Find the mass moment of inertia of the rotor and the resistance
which it encounters in the neighbourhood of 400 r.p.m. on the assumption that
this resistance is not appreciably affected by the ring. W.S.S.
15. Two shafts are geared together as in Fig. 27. The moments of inertia are
750 lb ft* for shaft A and 30 lb ft* for shaft B. The gear ratio is 120 to 19.
If a weight of 300 lb is hung from a rope wound round a drum of 20 in. dia. which
is keyed to shaft A, find the acceleration of the weight when it is allowed to fall
freely. Frictional resistances may be assumed to be equivalent to a torque of
40 lb ft on shaft A.
16. A motor-cycle engine gives a torque of 15 lb ft at 1800 r.p.m. The speed
reduction from engine to rear wheel is 9 to 1 on second gear and the efficiency of
the transmission is 88%. The weight of machine and rider is 400 lb and rolling
and windage resistance at the corresponding road speed amounts to 20 lb. The
moment of inertia of the road wheels is 60 lb ft* and of the engine parts is 2 lb ft*.
The effective diameter of the driving wheel is 25-6 in. Find the road speed and
the acceleration of the motor-cycle under the above conditions.
17. A motor A exerts a constant torque and is geared to a shaft B, the speed
of the motor being O times the speed of the shaft B. Show that the angular
acceleration of the shaft B is a maximum when O = V(Jb/Ia)> where I», Ib are
the total mass moments of inertia of the revolving parts attached to the respective
shafts.
If the torque exerted by the motor is 20 lb ft, the moment of inertia of the
parts attached to the motor shaft is 15 lb ft* and that of the parts attached to
the other shaft is 240 lb ft*, find the gear ratio which gives maximum acceleration
and the corresponding angular acceleration of each shaft.
18. A motor-car weighs 1 ton, the moment of inertia of the road wheels,
including back-axle, differential and propeller shaft, is 200 lb ft*, that of the
engine parts is 8 lb ft2 and the effective diameter of the road wheels is 26’4 in.
Assuming the engine torque to be 62-5 lb ft, the efficiency of the transmission
to be 90% and the resistance to motion of the car to be 80 lb, find the gear
reduction from engine to driving wheels that will give maximum acceleration and
also the magnitude of the acceleration.
19. Show how the inertia of a system of masses positively connected together
by gearing, or otherwise, may be referred to any one selected line or shaft.
A hoisting gear with a 5-ft dia. drum operates two cages by ropes passing over
two guide pulleys, 3 ft 6 in. dia. One cage, loaded, rises, while the other, empty,
descends; the drum is driven by a motor through double-reduction gearing.
The particulars of the various parts are as follows:

Fart Max. speed Weight, lb k, in. Friction

Motor 900 400 3-5

Intermediate gear . 275 750 9 10 0 lb ft
Drum and shaft 60 4500 24 75-0 lb ft
Guide pulley (each) — 400 17 10-0 lb ft
Rope out .... — 600 — —
Ascending cage — 1800 — 100 lb
1 1
Descending cage . 800 70 1b

Determine the motor torque required to produce a cage acceleration of 3 ft/s*.

L.U.A.
nj MOTION. INERTIA 65
20. The cage of a goods hoist weighs 9 cwt and carries a maximum load of
15 cwt. It is raised by a rope passing over a 4-ft dia. drum of weight 800 lb
and radius of gyration 18 in. The other end of the rope is connected to a balance
weight, the cage being overbalanced to the extent of 40% of the full load. If the
drive, when raising the maximum load, is to be capable of a performance equiva-
lent to an acceleration of 4 ft/s2 at a speed of 10 ft/s, calculate the drum torque
and the power necessary for the masses given. L.U
21. A truck of mass 8 tons moving at 6 ft/s collides with a truck of mass 10 tons
at rest. Find: (a) the common velocity of the trucks when for an instant they
move together; (b) the velocities of the trucks just after the action of the buffers
is completed. What is the relation between the relative velocities of the trucks
before and after collision ?
If each buffer is compressed 1 in. by a force of 1-5 tons, find the maximum
reaction between the trucks. Neglect friction. W.S.
22. An engine whose effective mass is n times that of a truck is attached to it
by a loose coupling which allows a free movement of l in. The engine moves l in.
with an acceleration of a ft/s2, starting from rest in contact with the truck.
Find the velocity with which the truck moves after the impact, assuming that the
coefficient of restitution is e.
If the engine maintains its acceleration after the impact and the truck is subject
to a retardation of b ft/s2, show that the truck cannot overtake the engine and
find the interval before the next impact. W.S.S.
23. Two masses, m, m', are moving in the same straight line with velocities
u, u'. Find the velocity of each mass relative to their mass centre. Hence, or
otherwise, verify that their total kinetic energy exceeds the energy, li, of their
motion relative to their mass centre by the energy
which they would have if collected at that centre.
Show also that, if impact occurs with coefficient
of restitution e, the loss of kinetic energy during the
impact is (1— e*)R. W.S.S.
24. Fig. 35 represents a tilt hammer hinged at A
and raised 30° ready to strike an object B. If the
total mass of the hammer is 10 lb, the distance of
its centre of gravity G from A is 2-0 ft and its
radius of gyration about the axis of the hinge is
2*2 ft, calculate the force of the blow on B which may
be assumed to take place in 0-004 sec. Also calcu-
late the reaction at the hinge. L.U.A.
25. During shim ting operations a loaded truck weighing 12 tons and moving
at 4 m.p.h. overtakes a truck weighing 10 tons moving at 1 m.p.h. The four
buffer springs which are affected are made of steel wire of circular cross-section
and have a safe shear stress value of 50 000 lb/in2. If the mean diameter of the
coils is 5 in., calculate the length and diameter of wire in each buffer spring which
will take the shock safely with a deflection of 2 in. Neglect the obliquity of the
coils and take C = 12.10® lb/in2. L.U.A.
26. A motor-car weighs 1800 lb; each of the four road wheels has an effective
diameter of 25 in. and a moment of inertia of 40 lb ft2. The rotating parts of
the engine have a moment of inertia of 8 lb ft2. The car is coasting at 15 m.p.h.
with the bottom gear of 20 to 1 engaged and the clutch pedal depressed. If the
clutch pedal is suddenly released, find the final speed of the car when the engine
is (a) initially at rest, (b) idling at a speed of 700 r.p.m.
27. Explain why a gyroscope precesses and obtain the relation between the
rate of precession, the speed of rotation, the moment of inertia of the flywheel and
the applied torque.
A flywheel weighs 15 lb and has a radius of gyration of 8 in. It is given a spin
of 900 r.p.m. about its axis, which is horizontal and is suspended at a point
distant 6 in. from the plane of rotation of the flywheel. Investigate the subsequent
motion of the wheel.
3—T.M.
66 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

28. Explain the meaning of the terms “ gyroscopic torque ” and “ processional
motion Deduce an equation for gyroscopic torque in terms of the moment of
inertia of the spinning body, the angular velocity of spin and the angular velocity
of precession.
The wheels of a motor-cycle have a moment of inertia of 50 lb ft2 and the
engine parts a moment of inertia of 2-5 lb ft2. The axis of rotation of the engine
crankshaft is parallel to that of the road wheels. If the gear ratio is 5 to 1, the
diameter of the road wheels is 25-5 in. and the motor cycle rounds a curve of
100 ft radius at 35 m.p.h., find the magnitude and direction of the gyroscopic
couple.

29. Deduce an expression for the couple that is called into play in the case of a
wheel rotating with uniform angular velocity in order to maintain a given rate of
precession.
The rotary engine of an aeroplane weighs 750 lb and has a radius of gyration of
1 ft. When viewed from in front the engine rotates in a clockwise sense at
1800 r.p.m. When flying at 90 m.p.h. the aeroplane loops the loop in a circle of
100 ft dia. Find the magnitude and direction of the gyroscopic couple acting
on the aeroplane. L.U.A.

30. The rotor of the turbine of a yacht makes 1200 r.p.m. Its weight is 1500 lb
and its radius of gyration is 10 in. If in a seaway the yacht pitches with a
maximum angular velocity of 1 rad/s, what gyroscopic couple will be trans-
mitted to the hull? The turbine rotates clockwise when viewed from the
stem.

31. Investigate the effect of the gyroscopic couple due to the rotating parts of
the engine and airscrew when an aeroplane loops the loop.
Using the particulars given in Example 13, p. 57, and assuming the maximum
angular velocity of the aeroplane when describing the loop to be 1*5 rad/s, find
the magnitude and direction of the gyroscopic couple.

32. A ship is pitching through a total angle of 15°. The oscillations may be
taken as simple harmonic and the complete period as 32 sec. The turbine rotor
weighs 5 tons, its radius of gyration is 17-6 in. and it is rotating at 2000 r.p.m.
Calculate the maximum value of the gyroscopic couple set up by the rotor. If
the rotation of the rotor is clockwise when looking from aft in which direction
will the bow tend to turn when falling ?
What is the maximum angular acceleration to which the ship is subjected while
pitching ? L.U.A.

FIG. 36

33. The arrangement of a stabilising gyroscope in a ship is shown in Fig. 36.

A toothed wheel A, surrounding the casing C and lying in the fore and aft plane of
the ship, oscillates backwards and forwards through a given angle; rotation of A
causes precession about the athwartship axis BB and enables a varying couple to
be opposed to the rolling moment due, at any instant, to a train of weaves.
H] MOTION. INERTIA 67
In a particular case the heeling moment at any instant is given by M = 3140
cos t ft ton. The flywheel weighs 100 tons and spins at 850 r.p.m.; the radius
of gyration about the spinning axis is 4-6 ft and about the axis BB is 3-4 ft.
Assuming that A moves so that the hull is maintained upright:
(a) Calculate the angular velocity of A at the instant when t = 0, if, at this
instant, the flywheel is horizontal.
(b) Calculate the couple required on A to make the wheel precess with angular
acceleration 0-67 rad/s2 when t = TT/2, if, at this instant, the flywheel is at the
end of an oscillation.
Assuming A locked with the spinning axle in the vertical plane.
(c) Calculate the couple tending to cause pitching if the ship rolls through the
upright position with angular velocity 0-1 rad/s. L.U.A.
 CHAPTER III

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

33. In Article 16 we saw that when a particle or point moves

along a curved path its velocity is tangential to its path, while
its acceleration usually has two components. One component
is tangential to the path and its magnitude is equal to the rate
of change of magnitude of the velocity; the other is normal to
the path and its magnitude is given by the product of the instan-
taneous value of the velocity and the rate of change of direction
of the velocity. The former is referred to as the tangential com-
ponent of the acceleration and the latter as the centripetal
component of the acceleration.
Before considering the methods which may be applied to
determine the velocity and acceleration of a point which moves
along a curved path, we shall first of all give methods which can
only be applied either (a) when the point has straight-line motion
or (b) when it is not desired to take into account the effect on
the velocity and acceleration of a change in the direction of the
displacement of the point. It must be clearly understood that
the following methods can only be applied to problems in which
we are concerned with nothing but the time rate of change of
the magnitude of the displacement,-i.e. the speed of the point,
and the time rate of change of the speed, i.e. the tangential
component of the acceleration of the point.
34. Displacement, Speed and Acceleration-time Curves. The
curve (a), Fig. 37, shows the displacements of a point from a
given initial position plotted as ordinates with the corresponding
time intervals plotted as abscissae. Since speed is defined as
the rate of change of the displacement with respect to time, it
follows that the speed at a given instant is represented to scale
by the slope of the tangent to the displacement curve at the same
instant. If, therefore, a second curve is drawn as at (b), the
ordinates of which at every instant are proportional to the cor-
responding slopes of the displacement-time curve, this second
curve will show the variation of the speed of the point with time.
In a similar way, since tangential acceleration is rate of change
of speed with respect to time, the variation of acceleration with
68
 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 69
time is given by the curve (c), the ordinates of which at every
instant are proportional to the corresponding slopes of the speed-
time curve.
The above method of deriving the speed and tangential accelera-
tion curves depends for its accuracy upon the precision with
which a tangent may be drawn to a given curve at a particular
point. In view of the difficulty of this operation and of the
fact that any error in deriving the speed
curve will be magnified in deriving the
tangential acceleration curve, it is usual
to adopt the method given in the next
paragraph.
If two ordinates AB, CD are drawn on
the displacement-time curve, Fig. 38, the
slope of the chord BD will be approxi-
mately equal to the slope of the tangent
to the curve at the instant represented by
E, mid-way between A and C, and will
therefore be proportional to the speed at
E. The error in this approximation will
be smaller the shorter the distance between
the two ordinates AB and CD. On the
other hand, the shorter this distance the
greater will be the percentage error in
determining the difference of length of the
two ordinates AB and CD. In any actual
FIG. 37
example the spacing of the ordinates must
therefore be a matter for compromise.
A better method of drawing the speed-
time and acceleration-time curves is as
L
follows:
Referring to the displacement-time curve
1
X
shown in Fig. 39, draw a line ab parallel / 1
1
1
to the displacement axis. Choose a con- 1
-J-
venient polar distance oa, preferably to t AEC
represent an even interval on the time
FIG. 38
scale and also to give an open speed scale,
i.e. a line drawn through o parallel to the
tangent to the displacement curve at the point of maximum slope
should give a distance along ab approximately equal to the maxi-
mum displacement.
Then, for any small interval of time St, the increase of displace-
ment is equal to ED, the difference between the ordinates CD
and AB, and the mean speed is equal to ED/BE = ED/AC.
If, through the pole o, a line is drawn parallel to BD to cut ab
70 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

at c, then triangles oca, BDE are similar and the mean speed
during the interval of time 8t is given by
vm = 8s/8t = ED/BE = ac/ao
ac = ao. vm
If the diagram is divided into a number of vertical strips, not
necessarily all of the same width, lines radiating from o may be
drawn in the same way for each strip. The intercepts along ab

will clearly be proportional to the mean speeds for the corre-

sponding strips. A speed-time curve may be quickly drawn by
projecting each intercept on the mid-ordinate of the corresponding
strip. The speed-time curve is shown dotted in Fig. 39.
The scale to which the ordinates of the dotted curve represent
the speed may be found as follows:
Let the displacement scale be ks ft per in., the time scale kt
sec per in., the speed scale kv ft/s per in. and the polar distance t sec.
Then vm — Ss/8t = (&s.ED)/(&t.AC)
But ED/AC = ED/BE = ac/ao and oa = tjkt in.
.*. substituting, vm — (kjkt)(kJt)a,G — kjt. ac
But vm — kv. ac
K = kjt
The advantage of this method over those previously described
is that the time intervals may be varied from point to point along
the displacement curve. Where the radius of curvature is small,
the time interval may be shortened in order to increase the
accuracy. On the other hand, where the radius of curvature is
large, a longer time interval may be taken without sacrificing
appreciably the accuracy of the results obtained.
35. Speed-displacement and Acceleration-displacement Curves.
Sometimes a curve showing the variation of speed with displace-
ment is given and it is required to draw a curve showing the
variation of acceleration with displacement.
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 71
Since 8v — fm8t and 8s = vm8t, we may eliminate 8t from these
two equations and write fm = vm.8v/8s. In the limit f = v. dv/ds,
or the acceleration is equal to the product of the speed and the
rate of change of speed with respect to displacement.
Referring to Fig. 40, let BN be drawn normal to the curve at
point B. Then AN = AB tan 6.
But AB represents to scale the speed of the point and tan 6 is
proportional to dv/ds, so that AN is proportional to v.dv/ds and
therefore to /.

The scale to which AN represents the acceleration of the point

may be found as follows:
Let ks = displacement scale, i.e. 1 in. — ks ft,
kv = speed scale, i.e. 1 in. = kv ft/s
and kf — acceleration scale, i.e. 1 in. = kf ft/s2.

Then the acceleration of the point at A — f — kf. AN. But

v dv kg dv ka
AN = AB tan 6 l
kv’kv *ds ds k2'^

\ f = kv2/ks. AN
and kf = kv2/ks
Hence, a curve drawn with ordinates which are everywhere
proportional to the corresponding subnormals of the speed-
displacement curve will give the acceleration-displacement curve
for the point.

36. Speed-time and Displacement-time Curves from the Accelera-

tion-time Curve. Let us suppose that a body of known mass has
plane motion and is acted upon by a force the magnitude of which
varies from instant to instant. Since the acceleration is directly
proportional to the applied force, the acceleration-time curve may
be drawn if the force-time curve is given. But / = dv/dt or
dv — /. d£, so that the change of speed during an interval of time t
72 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

may be found by integrating the above equation. Let v0 be the

initial speed and v the final speed, then we have:

v-v0 = jfdt

If the law of variation of / with t is known, the change of speed for

different time intervals may be found by substituting for / in
terms of t and integrating. In most practical cases, however, the
variation of / with t cannot be expressed by a simple equation
and direct integration is impossible. The above equation then
has to be solved by a process of approximate integration.

2-5
.20
Cl

£ 1-6
§ (a)
^ ' 1-0 1
0-6 1
0 (
i
a ,c
-4SL
70
60
60
40
(b)
& k
30
20 §
10 1
0Z §
k l si
r1
2000
/
1500
(C)

co
10C0
z
500
z
—1*^
0 5 10yi5 20 25 30 36 40 45
t seconds
FIG. 41

For a small finite interval of time St, the increase of speed Sv is

given by Sv — fmSt, where fm is the mean acceleration during the
interval of time St. If, then, the acceleration-time diagram is
divided into a number of vertical strips, the increase of speed
during the time interval corresponding to the width of any one
strip is proportional to the area of that strip. For example,
referring to Fig. 41 (a), the increase of speed during the time
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 73
interval ac is directly proportional to the shaded area abdc.
Hence, for the time interval oe, the total increase of speed is
proportional to the whole area oghe. The speed-time curve,
therefore, takes the form shown at (b), in which each ordinate is
proportional to the area under the acceleration-time curve up to
the time corresponding to that ordinate.
In a similar way the increase of displacement during the interval
of time St is proportional to the area of the strip kmnl of the speed-
time curve. The displacement-time curve (c), is obtained from
the speed-time curve in exactly the same way as the speed-time
curve is obtained from the acceleration-time curve. The data
and calculations may be conveniently set down in tabular form,
as in the following example.

Example 1. A vehicle starts from rest and the acceleration

varies with the time as shown by the first two columns of the
table. Find the variation of speed with time and of displacement
with time and plot curves of acceleration, speed and displacement
on a time base.

/ t. /m> St, 8v=fmSt, v=HSv,

ft/s2 sec ft/s2 sec ft/s ft/s ft/s ft ft

2-20 0 0 0
2-30 5 11-5 5-75 28-8
2-40 5 11-5 28-8
2-33 5 11-6 17-3 86-5
2-25 10 23-1 115-3
213 5 10-6 28-4 142-0
2-00 15 33-7 257-3
1-85 5 9-3 38-4 192-0
1-70 20 43-0 449-3
1-53 5 7-63 46-8 234-0
1-35 25 50-6 683-3
1-18 5 5-88 53-6 268-0
1-00 30 56-5 951-3
0-87 5 4-33 58-7 293-5
0-73 35 60-8 1245
002 5 308 62-4 312-0
0-50 40 63-9 1557
0-43 5 213 65-0 325-0
0-35 45 66-0 1882

The values of /, v and s are plotted to scale against the corresponding values of
the time in Fig. 41.

37. Speed-time and Displacement-time Curves from the Accelera-

tion-speed Curve. One further example of problems of the above
class may be considered. In self-propelled vehicles the informa-
tion available generally consists of a curve showing the variation
of tractive force with speed. Since the acceleration of the vehicle
is directly proportional to the tractive force, a curve of acceleration
against speed may at once be drawn. The problem then is to
determine the time and distance required in order to reach a given
speed.
Since / = dv/dt, we have for a small finite change of speed
fm = Sv/St, so that if, during the small increase of speed Sv, the
3*—T.M.
74 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

mean value of the acceleration is /m, then the time St required for
the increase of speed Sv is given by St = Sv/fm.
Similarly, vm = 8s/St and the distance Ss travelled in time St
will be given by the product vm.St.
The various steps in the calculations may be conveniently set
down in tabular form, as shown in the example below.
Curves may then be drawn showing the variation of /, t and s
with v, or, if desired, curves of /, v and s may be plotted against t.

Example 2. A motor-car has a total weight, including an allow-

ance for rotational inertia, of 4500 lb. In top gear the tractive
force available for acceleration varies with the speed of the car,
as shown in the following table. Draw the displacement, velocity
and acceleration-time curves for the increase of speed from 10
to 60 m.p.h.
Since 60 m.p.h. = 88 ft/s, the speed in ft/s = 88/60 times the
speed in m.p.h.
Also F = mf, so that / = 32-2/4500.F.

V,
m.p.h.
v,
ft/s ft/s
8v,
ft/s
F,
lb
/.
ft/s2
Sf= Ss, ft
— vm bt
8, ft
=S8s
Sf//m =S81

10 14-7 310 2-22 0 0

18-3 7-33 2-255 3-25 59-6
15 22-0 320 2-29 3-25 59-6
25-7 7-33 2-305 3-18 81-7
20 29-3 325 2-32 6-43 141-3
33-0 7-33 2-285 3-21 105-9
25 36-7 315 2-25 9-64 247-2
40-4 7-33 2-18 3-37 136-0
30 44-0 295 2-11 13-01 383-2
47-7 7-33 2-015 3- 64 173-6
35 51-3 268 1-92 16-65 556-8
55-0 7-33 1-765 4- 15 228
40 58-7 225 1-61 20-80 784-8
62-3 7-33 1-43 5- 13 320
45 66-0 175 1-25 25-92 1105
69-7 7-33 1-055 6- 95 484
50 73-3 120 0-86 32-87 1589
77-0 7-33 0-65 11-3 870
55 80-7 62 0-44 44-2 2459
84-3 7-33 0-22 33-3 2810
60 88-0 0 0 77-5 5269

The curves of f, v and s are plotted to scale against t in Fig. 42.

38. The Velocities of Points in Mechanisms. As mentioned in

Chapter I, the relative motions of the links of a mechanism are
completely constrained. The displacement of one link of the
mechanism brings about corresponding displacements of all the
other links. Every point of every link of a mechanism is there-
fore compelled to follow a definite path. Hence it is possible
to plot a curve to show how the magnitude of the displacement
of a given point on one of the links varies with time. From this
curve the speed-time and the tangential acceleration-time curves
may be obtained by the methods of Article 34. But we saw in
Article 16 that, if the displacement takes place along a circular
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 75
path the change of direction as well as the change of magnitude
of the displacement has to be taken into account. The velocity
of the point is tangential to the curved path and the acceleration
has both a tangential component and a centripetal component.
For the present we shall confine ourselves to a consideration of the
methods which may be used to find the velocity of one point in a

10 20 30 40 60 60

t seconds

Fig. 42

mechanism given the velocity of another point in the mechanism

at the same instant. Methods of finding the acceleration will be
dealt with later. Although it is possible to obtain the velocity
by direct calculation, it is not practicable to do so except for
certain simple mechanisms. Generally one of two graphical
methods is used. These two methods are known as (a) the
relative velocity method and (b) the instantaneous centre method.

39. The Relative Velocity Method. The principles which under-

lie the application of the relative velocity method will be made
clear if we first consider the general question of relative motion.
Referring to Fig. 43, let A and B be two independent particles
which are moving with velocities t*a and vh respectively. Then
the velocity of B relative to A is the velocity with which B
appears to be moving to an observer situated at, and moving
76 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

with, A. Let velocities equal and opposite to va be applied to

both the particles. Then the particle A will be brought to rest
and the particle B will have a resultant velocity given by the vector
sum of vh and — va. This resultant will clearly be the velocity
with which, to the observer on A, B appears to be moving. In
the figure vh is represented by the vector BC and —va by the
vector BL) or the vector CE, so that the velocity of B relative to
A is represented by BE, the vector sum of BC and CE.
If the velocity of B relative to A is denoted by vha, the relation
between va, vb and vba may be expressed by the vector equation
=
^’ba ~ ^’b “^ ^’a ^bH>( ^’a) • • • (3*1)

and this equation is represented graphically by the triangle of

velocities oab, in which oa and ob are the velocities of A and B,
and ab, the vector difference between ob and oa, is the velocity of

u u
a A a b
FIG. 43

B relative to A. Similarly, the velocity of A relative to B is the

vector difference of the velocity of A and the velocity of B, or
^ab = -> (~Vb) • • • (3.2)
This equation is represented by the same triangle oab and ba, the
vector difference between oa and ob, is the velocity of A relative
to B. Hence the side ab of the triangle oab taken in the sense
ab represents the velocity of B relative to A and taken in the
sense ba represents the velocity of A relative to B.
Suppose now that A and B are points on the same link at a
fixed distance apart, Fig. 44. Then it will not be possible to
assign arbitrary velocities to both A and B. If the velocity of A
is fixed in magnitude and direction, then the velocity of B can
be fixed only in direction. This will be clear when it is remem-
bered that A and B are now at a fixed distance apart, so that B
can only move, relative to A, along the circular arc which has A
as centre and AB as radius. Hence the direction of the velocity
in] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 77
of B relative to A must be perpendicular to the link AB. The
problem of finding the velocity of B resolves itself into drawing
a triangle one side of which is known in magnitude and direction
and. the other two in direction only.
Let oa represent va to scale. Through o, draw ob tangential to
the path of B. Through point a draw a fine perpendicular to AB,
corresponding in direction to the velocity of B relative to A.
The intersection of these two lines will give point b. Then vh
will be represented to scale by ob and vba will be represented to
scale by ab.
The following alternative explanation of the above construction
may be given. Since AB is a rigid link, then, whatever may be
the velocities of the points A and B, the components of these
velocities parallel to the line AB must be equal. Otherwise an
increase or decrease of the length of AB would take place, which
is obviously impossible. It follows, therefore, that the extremities
of the two vectors oa and ob, which represent the velocities of A
and B respectively, must lie on a line ab that is perpendicular to
AB.
The vector ab which represents vba is known as the velocity image
of the link AB.
The angular velocity <x> of the link AB is found by dividing
the velocity of B relative to A, i.e. vba, by the length of the
link AB.
If the velocity of the point X on link AB is required, then all
that is necessary is to divide ab at x in the same proportion as X
divides AB. The velocity of X relative to A will obviously be
equal to (AX/AB)vba and is represented to scale by ax. Since the
velocity of X is the vector sum of va and vba it is represented to
scale by the fine ox.
The velocity of the point Y on the link AB may be found by
drawing a triangle aby similar to triangle ABY. This is most easily
done by drawing a line through point a perpendicular to AY, and
a fine through b perpendicular to B\. The point of intersection
of these two lines will fix y. Then oy will represent the velocity
of Y. The proof is as follows. The velocity of Y is the vector
sum of the velocity of A and the velocity of Y relative to A. Bus
the velocity of Y relative to A = vya = (YA/BA)vba and it is per-
pendicular to AY. By construction YA/BA = ya/ba and ya i,
perpendicular to AY, so that ay represents vy& to scale and oyt
which is the vector sum of oa and ay, therefore rejDresents vy to
scale.
Suppose that I is a point fixed to AB in such a position that
triangles IAB, oab are similar, then clearly the velocity of I is
zero, since the velocity of I relative to A is represented by ao and
78 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

tills is equal and opposite to the velocity of A, which is repre-

sented by oa. Hence I is the point on the link AB which has
zero velocity, i.e. it is the centre about which the link AB is
turning at the instant it occupies the given position. The point
I is termed the instantaneous centre of the link AB. It will be seen
that IA is perpendicular to oa and therefore to va, while IB is per-
pendicular to ob and therefore to vh. The position of I may be
found directly by drawing lines normal to the velocities of points
A and B, when I will lie at the point of intersection of these two
lines. An alternative proof of the construction for finding I is
given later.
Where a complex mechanism has to be dealt with, the complete
velocity diagram may be obtained by drawing the velocity triangles
for each link in turn. Starting with the link on which the point
of known velocity is situated, the velocity triangle may be drawn
and the velocity of the point which is common to the first and to
a second link may be found. The velocity triangle for the second
link may then be drawn and from it the velocity of the point
which is common to the second and to a third link may be found.
This process may be continued indefinitely until all the links in
the mechanism have been dealt with.

40. Applications of the Relative Velocity Method, (a) The Four-

bar Chain: Fig. 45. AD is the fixed link and AB is the driving
link, which turns about centre A. The peripheral velocity of B is
known and is represented by the vector ob.
The pin C moves along a circular path which has D as centre and
CD as radius, so that the velocity of C is perpendicular to CD.

'x
FIG. 45 FIG. 46

Draw through o a line perpendicular to CD. The velocity of C

relative to B is at right angles to link BC. Draw through b a line
perpendicular to BC. Let these two lines meet at c. Then be
will be the velocity of C relative to B and oc will be the velocity
of C. The vector be is the velocity image of link BC. The velocity
of any point X on the link BC is found by reproducing on the
velocity image be a triangle bex, which is similar to the triangle
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 79
BCX in the mechanism. This is most easily done by drawing bx
perpendicular to BX and cx perpendicular to CX. Then in the
velocity diagram bx will represent the velocity of X relative to B,
and ox, which is the vector sum of ob and bx, will represent the
velocity of X.
(b) The Stone-crusher Mechanism: Fig. 46. Let it be required
to find the velocity of point X on link CQ, given the r.p.m. of the
crank OA and the lengths of the various links, and given also
that 0, P and Q are fixed centres.
Set off the vector oa to represent the peripheral velocity of pin
A. Then, since the velocity of B relative to A is perpendicular to
AB and the velocity of B is tangential to the path of B, i.e. per-
pendicular to BP, the velocity triangle may be completed by
drawing ab perpendicular to AB and ob perpendicular to BP.
The vector ob will then represent to scale the velocity of B.
Having found the velocity of B, we proceed to find the velocity of
C in a similar way. The velocity of C is obviously at right
angles to CQ and the velocity of C relative to B is at right angles
to BC, so that we must draw oc normal to CQ and be normal to
BC. Then oc represents to scale the velocity of C. The velocity
of the point X is found as follows:
Since the link QC turns about pin Q, any point on the link moves
with a velocity which is proportional to its distance from Q and in
a direction which is normal to the line joining that point to Q.
Thus the velocity of point X is at right angles to XQ and its
magnitude vx is equal to (XQ/CQ)yc.
The vector ox which represents the velocity of X is therefore
found by drawing ox perpendicular to QX and cx perpendicular
to CX.
With this construction the triangles QXC, oxc are similar, so
that ox/oc = QX/QC.
But QX/QC = vx/v0 ox/oc = vjv0
and the vector ox represents to scale the velocity of X.

41. The Instantaneous Centre Method. This method is based

upon the fact that at any particular instant the motion of a rigid
body is equivalent to a rotation of the body as a whole about a
fixed point in space.
Suppose the link AB, Fig. 47, moves to the position AjB^
Then this displacement may be effected by turning the whole
link about a centre I, the position of which is given by the point
of intersection of the two lines which bisect AA1 and BBi at right
angles. But if the displacement were actually brought about in
this way, the paths followed by the ends A and B of the link would
80 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

have to be circular arcs with I as centre. In other words, the

centre I can only remain fixed in space for a finite displacement of
the link AB if the ends A and B—and, incidentally, all other
points on the link—move along concentric circular arcs. In
general, if AB is a link of a mechanism, the ends A and B will
not move along concentric circular arcs during a finite interval
of time.
Suppose, however, that the interval of time between the two
positions of AB is reduced, then in the limit, when the displace-
ments AAX and BBX are infinitesimal, the lines which bisect AA!
and BBi at right angles become the normals to the paths of A
and B respectively. Hence at the instant the link occupies the
position AB, Fig. 48, the centre about which the link is turning is
given by I, the point of intersection of the lines AI and BI drawn
respectively normal to the velocities of A and B. The point I is
termed the instantaneous centre of the link AB.

The usefulness of the instantaneous centre of a body lies in the

fact that the velocity of any point on the body must be propor-
tional to its distance from the instantaneous centre and, further,
the direction of the velocity must be perpendicular to the line
which joins that point to the instantaneous centre. Thus, in
Fig. 48, the velocities of the points X, Y and Z, which are rigidly
attached to AB, are at right angles to XI, YI and ZI and their
magnitudes are such as to satisfy the relationship
vJXl — vy/YI — vJZI ~ vJAI — vjBI = angular velocity of AB
Since the paths of A and B will not usually be concentric
circles, the position of I will change for every position of the
link AB.

42. Body-eentrode and Space-centrode. The locus of I is called

a centrode. If the locus of I on the body is drawn, it is termed the
body-centrode. If the locus of I in space is drawn, this is termed
the space-centrode. The two curves are generally of different
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 81
shapes, but at every instant they have one point in common, the
instantaneous centre of the body at that instant. In Fig. 49 the
paths of the points A and B on a rigid body are represented by the
curves A4A2A3A4 and B4B2B3B4. Four different positions of the
body are represented by A4B4, A2B2, A3B3 and A4B4, and the
corresponding instantaneous centres are indicated by Il5 I2, I3
and I4. The curve 14121314 is the space-centrode of the rigid
body, i.e. it is the curve traced out in space by the instantaneous
centre of the rigid body AB. But when the body is in the
position A4B4, the point on the body which coincided with 14 for
the first position A]B4 of the body will now be at O4. Similarly,
the point on the body which coincided with I2 for the second
position A2B2 of the body will now be at 02 and so on. The curve
0i0203I4, therefore, represents the curve traced on the body
itself by the instantaneous centre. This curve is the body-

centrode. At the instant when the body is in the position A4B4,

the body-centrode and the space-centrode are in contact at It
and 04 and I4 coincide. As the body moves from A1B4 to A4B4,
the point of contact of the two centrodes will move from I4 to I4
and the continuous motion of the body AB corresponds to a
rolling of the body-centrode on the space-centrode.

43. Applications of the Instantaneous Centre Method, (a) The

Reciprocating Engine Mechanism. The instantaneous centre
method will be used to find the velocity of the pin P in the
reciprocating engine mechanism shown in Fig. 50. The velocity
of the crankpin C is at right angles to the crank OC, so that the
instantaneous centre of the connecting rod lies on OC produced.
The velocity of the gudgeon pin P is along the line PO, so that the
instantaneous centre of the connecting rod PC also lies on the
82 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

line PA drawn through P at right angles to OP. The position

of the instantaneous centre is thus given by I, the point of inter-
section of PA and OC produced, and for the given position of the
mechanism the connecting rod PC is turning about the centre I.
Hence every point on the rod is moving with a velocity which is
proportional to its distance from I, and, further, it is moving in a
direction perpendicular to the line joining that point to I.
If OJ1 = angular velocity of CP, then

CO! = vJCI = vJVI = vjx I = vy/YI

where X and Y are points fixed to PC, as shown in Fig. 50.
The directions of the velocities of X and Y are at right angles to
IX and IY, as shown in the figure.

Example 3. Fig. 50 is drawn to scale for a crank length OC

= 6 in. and a connecting rod length CP = 24 in. The r.p.m. of
the crank are 240 and the angle 9 is 45°. The distances of X from
P and C respectively are 19 in. and 6 in., and the distances of Y
from P and C respectively are 32 in. and 9 in.
The crankpin velocity vc = (TTN/30)OC = 87T.6/12 = 12-57 ft/s
Scaling off the lengths of IC, IP, IX and IY, we have:
12-57/2-77 = Vp/2-33 = vx/2-33 = vy/3-48 = oq = 4-53 rad/s
Note that, to obtain the value of o>! in rad/s, the velocity in
ft/s must be divided by the distance from the instantaneous
centre measured in feet.
From the above equation the following values for the velocities
of P, X and Y are obtained: vp = 10-57 ft/s, vx = 10-57 ft/s and
vy — 15-8 ft/s.
The angular velocity of the connecting rod = ctq — 4-53
rad/s.
It may happen that the instantaneous centre I is inaccessible.
If so, a triangle similar to triangle ICP must be drawn. Let M be
the point of intersection of PC produced with the line through O
perpendicular to the line of stroke of P, Fig. 50. Then the
triangles OCM, ICP are similar, so that:
VjJve = IP/IC = OM/OC and vvJvc = CP/IC - CM/OC

But if a) is the angular velocity of the crank OC, then vc = a>. OC

and therefore vv — a>. OM and vvc = to. CM.
The triangle OCM is drawn to a larger scale in Fig. 50 (a).
The side CM is the velocity image of the connecting rod CP and
the velocities of the points X and Y may be found by constructing
triangles CMx and CMy respectively similar to triangles CPX
mj VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 83
and CPY. To find x draw Cx and Mx respectively parallel to
CX and PX, and to find y draw Cy and My respectively parallel
to CY and PY. Then,
velocity of X = vx = co. Ox
and velocity of Y = vy — co. Oy
The directions of vx and vy are of course perpendicular to Ox
and Oy.
(b) Wrapping Machine Mechanism: Fig. 51. This mechanism
is used in wrapping machines. The pins 0, P and Q are fixed.
OA is the driving crank, which turns at uniform speed and oscillates
the link BP through the link AB. The link CD transmits motion
from the pin C on link AB to the bell-crank lever DQE. It will
be found that the motion of E is intermittent and this motion is
used to feed the paper into the wrapping machine.

It is required to find the velocity of pin E in terms of the velocity

of the crankpin A for the given configuration of the mechanism.
Since the velocity of A is perpendicular to OA and the velocity
of B is perpendicular to BP, the instantaneous centre of the link
AB is given by Il5 the point of intersection of OA produced and
BP produced.
the velocity of C is perpendicular to IXC and its magnitude is
given by v0 = (I1C/I1A)i?a
But the velocity of D is perpendicular to DQ, so that the
84 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

instantaneous centre of link CD is given by I2, the point of inter-

section of QD produced with CIx.
velocity of D = v& — (I2D/I2C)?;c
Since DQE turns about the fixed centre Q, the velocity of E is
given by ve = (QE/QD)vd.
For clockwise rotation of the crank, the directions of the veloci-
ties of B, C, D and E are as shown by the arrows on the figure.
44. The Three-centres-in-line Theorem. If two rigid bodies 2
and 3 are moving in the same plane relative to a third rigid body 1,
then the instantaneous centres of 3 relative to 1, of 2 relative to 1
and of 3 relative to 2 all lie in a straight line. The theorem may
be proved as follows:

Referring to Fig. 52, let the paper represent the body 1 and let
I2i, I3i be respectively the instantaneous centres of the body 2
relative to the body 1 and of the body 3 relative to the body 1.
The instantaneous centre of the body 3 relative to the body 2 is
clearly that point which at the given instant is moving with the
same velocity whether considered as fixed to the body 3 or as
fixed to the body 2. But it is obvious that only those points on
the bodies 2 and 3, which lie on the line I21I31, produced if neces-
sary, can be moving in the same direction at the given instant.
Let Q be a point on the line I21I31 produced. Then vq is at right
angles to QI2i, when Q is considered as a point fixed to the body 2.
Also vq is at right angles to QI31, when Q is considered as a point
fixed to the body 3.
If vq is the same for the point Q on body 2 as for the point Q
on body 3, then
vq — OJ2.QI21 = o>3.QI31 and QI21/QI31 = a)3/Ui2

where o>2 and co3 are the angular velocities of the bodies 2 and 3
relative to the body 1.
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 85
If this condition is satisfied, then the point Q coincides with the
instantaneous centre I32 of the body 3 relative to the body 2.
It should be noted that if the body 1 is itself moving the above
relationship remains unaffected.

45. Applications of the Three-centres-in-line Theorem. For

many problems in kinematics the application of the above theorem
will give a simple solution.
For a kinematic chain with l finks, the total number of instan-
taneous centres will be equal to the number of different combina-
tions of the links in pairs, that is 1(1—1)/2.
Obviously, where two finks are connected together by a pin-
joint, that pin-joint will be the instantaneous centre for the
motion of the one fink relative to the other, and where one fink
has straight-line motion relative to a second fink, the correspond-
ing instantaneous centre will be situated at an infinite distance
along the normal to the relative path.

(a) The Reciprocating Engine Mechanism: Fig. 53. Here there

are four finks, and therefore 4(4 —1)/2 = 6 instantaneous centres
Four of these are already known. Thus, with the finks numbered
as shown in the figure, the crankshaft centre is I2i, the crankpin
centre is I23, the gudgeon-pin centre is I34 and I41 is along the fine
normal to the path of 4 and at an infinite distance away.
To find the remaining two centres, we have shown that the three
instantaneous centres for any three finks which have plane
motion fie on the same straight fine.
For the finks 1, 2 and 3,12i and I23 are known, and therefore I31
must fie somewhere along the fine I2il23- But I31 must also fie
along the fine I43I4i- It must, therefore, be situated at the point
of intersection of these two fines, as shown in the figure. Similarly,
86 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

I24 must lie at the point of intersection of the line I21I41 and the
line 143123-
Then, since I24 is the instantaneous centre for the relative
motion of links 2 and 4, the velocity of the point I24 must be the
same whether regarded as a point on link 2 or as a point on link 4.
But, regarded as a point on link 2, its velocity is easily seen to be
u».l2il24, where co is the angular velocity of link 2. Since link 4
has straight-line motion, all points fixed to link 4 must be moving
with the same velocity. From this it follows that the velocity of
link 4 is given by OJ.I21I24.
This indicates a very simple method of finding the velocity of
the piston in the reciprocating-engine mechanism. All that is

required is to find the point of intersection I24 of the connecting

rod, produced if necessary, with the line through the crankshaft
centre I2i normal to the line of stroke. The velocity of the piston
is then given by co.I21I24. Note that the distance I2II24 is the
same as the distance OM, Fig. 50.
In measuring the length of the intercept I2il24, the scale to
which the diagram is drawn must, of course, be taken into account.
It is not always necessary to find the position of all the instan-
taneous centres for the mechanism. In the example just given,
for instance, no use is made of the instantaneous centre I31 and
therefore its position need not be determined. In the examples
which follow, only those instantaneous centres will be found which
are actually required in solving the problems.
(b) The Andreau Differential-stroke Engine: Fig. 54. The
purpose of this mechanism is to obtain four strokes of different
HI] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 87

lengths for the piston (link 7) for one revolution of the crank
(link 5) or two revolutions of the crank (link 2). The crank 2 is
only one-half the length of the crank 5, but the two shafts are
geared together, so that the shorter crank rotates with twice the
speed of the longer crank but in the opposite sense. The two
cranks are coupled by two equal links 3 and 4 to the connecting
rod (link 6). It is required to find the velocity of the piston for
the given position of the mechanism and for given angular
velocities of the cranks 2 and 5. This involves finding the position
of either I57 or I27. There are seven links in this mechanism and
therefore 7(7 —1)/2 = 21 instantaneous centres.
The following method1 will be found useful for indicating and
checking the instantaneous centres. First, draw a circle and divide
its circumference into as many equal parts as there are links in the
chain. Each point thus obtained is given the same number as
one of the finks. When the instantaneous centre for a given pair
of finks has been determined, the corresponding points on the
circle are joined by a straight fine. The instantaneous centres
corresponding to the pin-joints and sliding connections can be put
in at once. These are shown in the circle, Fig. 54, by full fines.
The instantaneous centre for the relative motion of the two
cranks may also be put in, since it will coincide with the pitch
point of the gear wheels which connect the two shafts.
It is clear that the three fines which are drawn in the circle to
correspond to the instantaneous centres of any three of the finks,
will form a triangle, as, for example, for the three finks 1, 2 and 5.
Further, one of the unknown centres can be found only if, in this
diagram, the corresponding fine completes two triangles. Thus,
the fine 24 would complete the two triangles 234 and 254, so that
I24 will be given by the point of intersection of I32I34 and I25I46.
The points 2 and 4 may then be joined as shown by the dotted
fine. In a similar way the fine 14 would complete the two
triangles 154 and 124, so that the centre I14 may be found. Next
we may find the centre I47 and finally either I27 or I67. In this
case it is better to find I57. The dotted fines of Fig 54 (a) are
numbered in the order in which the corresponding centres are
found. All the instantaneous centres for the mechanism could
be determined in the same way, but no further centres are
required for the solution of the problem.
Since I57 is the instantaneous centre for the relative motion of
links 5 and 7, it follows that the points on finks 5 and 7 which
coincide with I57 are both moving with the same velocity.
But fink 7 has straight fine motion, so that the velocity of the
1
Reprinted by permission from Kinematics of Machines, by Guillet, pub-
lished by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
88 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

piston 7 is given by co5.I15I57, where u>5 is the angular velocity of

crank 5.
(c) The Crank and Slotted-lever Quick-return Mechanism. As a
further example, consider the crank and slotted-lever quick-return
mechanism shown in Fig. 55. This mechanism has already been
described in Article 11. There are six links, numbered as shown,
so that there are 6(6—1)/2 = 15 instantaneous centres. It is
required to find the velocity of the ram (link 6), given the angular
velocity of the driving crank (link 2).
As in the last example, draw a circle and divide the circum-
ference into six equal parts. Number each point thus obtained
from 1 to 6. Where the instantaneous centre for two links is
known, join the corresponding points on the circle by a straight

line. All pin-joints are instantaneous centres. In addition, the

instantaneous centres I34 and I16 are known, since link 4 has
straight-line motion relative to link 3 and link 6 has straight-line
motion relative to the frame 1.
In order to determine the velocity of the ram (link 6), we
require to find the centre I26.
The dotted line 14, Fig. 55, completes the triangles 124 and
134, so that the centre I14 is given by the point of intersection of
the lines I12I24 and I13I34. Similarly line 36 completes the
triangles 316 and 356 and the centre I36 lies at the point of inter-
section of the lines Ii3Ii6 and I35I56.
It is then possible to find first I46, since line 46 completes the
triangles 436 and 416, and afterwards I26, since line 26 completes
the triangles 216 and 246.
in] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 89
Then the velocity of the points, rigidly fixed to links 2 and 6,
which coincide with I26 is given by o> .I l26> where co2 is the
2 12

angular velocity of link 2. Since link 6 has straight-line motion,

the velocity of the ram is given by co2.I12I26.
46. The Acceleration Diagram for a Link. It was pointed out
in Article 16 that, in general, the velocity of any particle of a fink
in a mechanism changes both in direction and magnitude, so that
the acceleration of the particle at any instant has two com-
ponents, viz. (a) a centripetal component, which is at right angles
to the velocity at the given instant and (b) a tangential com-
ponent which is parallel to the velocity of the particle at the given
instant.
In Fig. 56 (a), A and B are two points on the same link of a
mechanism and to is the angular velocity and a the angular
acceleration of the link.
Let /ba — total acceleration of B relative to A,
/cba = centripetal component of the acceleration of B
relative to A
and = tangential component of the acceleration of B
relative to A.
Then /ba=/Cba4>/tba

But /cba = co2. BA and f\& — a. BA, so that

/ba = to2. BA -j> a. BA = (co2 a)BA
Set off ap, Fig. 56 (b), to represent to some convenient §cale the
centripetal component and pb to represent to the same scale the
a

tangential component, where ap is parallel to BA and pb is per-

pendicular to BA. Then ab the vector sum of ap and pb must
represent to scale the total acceleration of B relative to A.
The vector ab is known as the acceleration image of the link AB.
It is inclined to AB at the angle 0, where tan 0 = pb/ap = a/co2.
90 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

If X is a point rigidly fixed to AB, then the acceleration of X

relative to A has a centripetal component a>2. AX and a tangential
component a. AX, so that /xa is inclined to XA at the same angle /3.
Once /ba is known, /xa is most easily determined by finding the
point x which occupies the same position relative to the ends a
and b of the acceleration image as the point X occupies relative
to the ends A and B of the link. This means that the triangles
abx, ABX must be similar. The vector ax will then represent the
acceleration of X relative to A, and, similarly, the vector bx will
represent the acceleration of X relative to B.
If the point A itself has an acceleration /a relative to the fixed
link of the mechanism, or to some fixed plane of reference, then
the acceleration fb of B relative to the fixed link is given by the
vector sum of /a and /ba. In Fig. 56 (c), let oa represent /a and
ab represent /ba, then ob which is the vector sum of oa and ab,
will represent /b. Similarly ox, the vector sum of oa and ax,
will represent the acceleration /x of X relative to the fixed link.
When constructing the acceleration diagram for an actual
mechanism two things should be noted. First, the angular
velocity of any link of a mechanism may be determined by one or
other of the methods given in Articles 39 and 41, so that the centri-
petal component of the acceleration of one point on the link
relative to another point on the same link can be calculated.
Secondly, although the tangential component cannot be directly
calculated, since the magnitude and sense of a are both unknown,
its direction must be at right angles to the centripetal component.
Referring to Fig. 56 (c) it is clear that if a is unknown the position
of point b cannot be fixed unless we are given either the magnitude
or the direction of /b. In practical problems, it is usually the
direction of/b which is known, and which serves to fix the position
of point b. The angular acceleration a of the link AB may then
be calculated from the magnitude of the tangential component pb,
scaled from the diagram.

47. The Acceleration Centre of a Link. Suppose that the point

Oa, Fig. 57, is rigidly fixed to the link AB in such a position that
the triangle OaAB and the acceleration triangle oab are similar.
Then clearly the acceleration of Oa relative to the fixed link is zero,
since oa is the acceleration of A and ao is the acceleration of Oa
relative to A. The point Oa is known as the instantaneous centre
of acceleration of the link AB, or simply the acceleration centre.
The position of Oa relative to the ends A and B of the link will,
of course, change from instant to instant but, at a given instant,
the accelerations of all points on the link AB will be directly
proportional to their distances from the acceleration centre. The
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 91
directions of the accelerations will be inclined at the angle to
the lines which join the points to the acceleration centre.
It will be shown later (in Article 153) that, when the position
of the acceleration centre is known, the line of action of the
accelerating force on the link may easily be found.

48. The Acceleration Diagram for the Reciprocating-engine

Mechanism. Referring to Fig. 58, OC is the crank and CP the
connecting rod of a reciprocating-engine mechanism. It is
required to find the acceleration of the gudgeon pin P given the
requisite dimensions and data.

Fia. 58
92 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The dimensions required are the lengths of OC and CP and the

angle 6. In addition the velocity and acceleration of C must
both be known. Generally, the crank OC is specified to rotate
at a given uniform speed, in which case the acceleration of C is
centripetal along CO. But, if the speed of OC is not uniform, it
is necessary to know the rate at which it is changing in order to
determine the tangential component and thus specify completely
the acceleration of C. It is clearly impossible to find the accelera-
tion of P unless we know completely the acceleration of C.
In either case, whether or not the speed of rotation of OC is
uniform, we start with the vector equation:
fp ~fc H^/ipc

Since the connecting rod CP has a non-uniform angular velocity,

the acceleration of P relative to C consists of two components, as
already explained in Article 4G and the vector equation becomes:
fp —fc 4>/cPc 4>/tpc

But/Cpc = o)r2.PC, where a>r = instantaneous angular velocity of

PC.
We have already shown in Example 3, Article 43, that the
velocity of the piston is given by to. OM and the velocity of P
relative to C by a>. CM, so that the angular velocity of the con-
necting rod is given by o>r = to. CM/PC.
The vector polygon of accelerations may now be drawn
Fig. 58 (a). Assume the angular velocity of the crank to be
uniform and set off the vector oc parallel to CO to represent to
scale the centripetal acceleration of C. Since the velocity of P is
constant in direction, its acceleration must be parallel to its
velocity and therefore must be represented by a vector drawn
through o parallel to the fine of stroke. The length of the vector
is at present unknown.
Set off ct parallel to PC to represent the centripetal component
c
/ pc of the acceleration of P relative to C. The tangential com-
ponent pc is unknown in magnitude, but its direction is per-
pendicular to PC. The acceleration diagram may therefore be
completed by drawing a line through t perpendicular to ct to inter-
sect the line os at p. Then op is the vector sum of oc, ct and tp, and
the vectors op and tp represent to scale the acceleration of P and
the tangential component of the acceleration of P relative to C.
The vector cp is the sum of the vectors ct and tp. It therefore
represents the total acceleration of P relative to C, and is the
acceleration image of the rod CP.
The angular acceleration of CP is found by dividing f c, repre-
PC
sented to scale by tp, by the length of CP. ’
in] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 93
If the angular velocity of the crank is not uniform, the total
acceleration of C consists of a centripetal component A and a
tangential component A> so that the vector equation is
/p = A -^A 4>/°pc A Ac

The acceleration diagram, Fig. 58 (b), is set out in a similar

way to that for uniform speed of rotation of the crank, except
that oc is now inclined to the crank at an angle ( = tan-1 a/o»2).
The total acceleration of C is represented by oc, where oc is the
vector sum of ocl5 which represents A( = OJ2.CO) and c^ which
represents A ( = a.CO). The rest of the construction is un-
changed. Fig. 58 is drawn to scale for the following example.
Example 4. The crank of an engine is 9 in. long and the con-
necting rod is 3G in. long. Find the acceleration of the piston, the
acceleration of a point X on the rod, 12 in. from C and the angular
acceleration of the rod, when 6 is 40° and:
(a) the crank turns at a uniform speed of 240 r.p.m.,
(b) the instantaneous speed of rotation is 240 r.p.m. clockwise
and it is increasing at the rate of 100 rad/s2.
The centripetal acceleration of C
= /c = (vr.8)2.f = 474 ft/s2
The angular velocity of CP
= cor = a>.CM/CP = 8TT.6-98/36 = 4-87 rad/s
and the centripetal component of the acceleration of P relative
to C
= /cpc = 4-872.3 = 71 ft/s2
(a) From Fig. 58 (a):
/V = tp = 296 ft/s2, /pc = cp = 306 ft/s2
ar = Ac/PC — 296/3 = 98-7 rad/s2 clockwise
To find the acceleration of X, divide the acceleration image cp
at x in the same proportion as X divides CP. Then
fx = ox = 422 ft/s2
(b) From Fig. 58 (b):
0Cl = A = 474 ft/s2, clC = A = a.OC = 100.f = 75 ft/s2
and fc = oc = 480 ft/s2
Ac = tp = 238 ft/s2, fpc = cp = 246 ft/s2
ar = /A/PC = 238/3 = 79-3 rad/s2 clockwise
fK — ox = 452 ft/s2
94 THE THEORY OF MACHINES - [CHAP.

49. Klein’s Construction for determining the Acceleration of the

Piston: Fig. 59. A simple graphical construction for determining
a quadrilateral similar in shape to the acceleration diagram octp
of the last Article is that given by Professor Klein.1 The con-
struction is carried out as follows. Produce, if necessary, the
line PC to cut a line through 0 perpendicular to the line of stroke
at M. Draw a circle on CP as diameter; with centre C and radius
CM draw a second circle. Then KL, the chord common to these
two circles, will cut CP at Q and OP at N, such that the quadri-
lateral OCQN is similar to the acceleration diagram octp.

Proof. It is easily seen that corresponding angles in the two

quadrilaterals are equal, so that in addition to this it is only
necessary to show that two sides of OCQN bear the same ratio to
each other as do the corresponding sides of the acceleration
diagram octp. Since, in the construction of the acceleration
diagram, the lengths of the sides oc and ct represent to scale the
acceleration of the crankpin and the centripetal component of the
acceleration of P relative to C, we must show that
CQ/CO = ct/co
We have already seen, Article 43, that the triangle OCM is
similar to the velocity triangle for the mechanism, so that, if co is
the angular velocity of the crank OC, it follows that vc — co. OC,
Vp = co.OM and vpc — co.CM.
1
For alternative graphical methods of finding the points Q and N the reader
is referred to Example 24, p. 118.
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 95
The acceleration of the crankpin = to2. OC and the centripetal
component of the acceleration of P relative to C = vpc2/PC. On
substituting for vpc this becomes a>2.CM2/PC. If, therefore, a
point on the connecting rod CP is found, such that its distance
from C is equal to CM2/CP, this distance will represent the centri-
petal component of the acceleration of P relative to C to the same
scale 1/co2 as that to which OC represents the acceleration of C.
That the point Q, as determined by Klein’s construction, is such
that CQ = CM2/PC may be shown by joining CK and KP, when
it will be seen that the triangles CQK and CKP are similar, since
the angle at C is common to both triangles and both the angles
CQK, CKP are right angles.
/. CQ/CK = CK/CP or CQ = CK2/CP
But by construction, CK = CM and, therefore, CQ = CM2/CP.
Hence CQ/CO = ct/co and the quadrilateral OCQN obtained by
Klein’s construction is similar to the acceleration diagram octp.
Therefore, the acceleration of the piston
/p = co2.NO (3.3)
and the tangential component of the acceleration of P relative
to C = co2.NQ, so that the total acceleration of P relative to
C = co2.NC.
The acceleration of the point X on the rod may be found by
drawing XXx parallel to the line of stroke to cut CN at Xl5 then
fx = co2.X10.
The linear scale to which the diagram is drawn must, of course,
be taken into account when measuring NO etc.
It should be noted that the acceleration of P is in the direction
NO. If the crank position is such that N lies to the right of O
instead of to the left as in Fig. 59 the acceleration of P is
negative, that is to say, P is undergoing retardation.
The tangential component of the acceleration of P relative to C
is given by o>2. NQ and its sense is from N to Q, so that the angular
acceleration of the connecting rod is given by:
ar = a>2.NQ/CP
and its sense is such as to tend to reduce the inclination of the
connecting rod to the line of stroke.
Klein’s construction may equally well be applied when the
crank has an angular velocity a> and an angular acceleration a.
The point Q on CP is found in exactly the same way as already
described. Then, referring to Fig. 59 (b), draw a line from C, at
an angle = tan-1 a/co2 to CO, to intersect at Ox a line through
0 perpendicular to CO. Finally draw through Ox a line parallel
96 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

to the line of stroke of P to intersect at N^ the common chord KL.

With this construction,
/cc = co2. CO, /tc=co2.001, /c=co2.C01
f%c=oj2.QC, /tpc=co2.N1Q and fv = ^.NA
Fig. 59 is drawn to scale for the particulars given in Example 4,
Article 48.
Klein’s construction may be applied for all crank positions.
For the inner and outer dead-centre positions it is clear that M
coincides with 0 and the radius of the circle drawn with centre C

is equal to the crank length CO. The corresponding positions of

the point N are denoted respectively by Nx and N2 in Fig. 60.
CiNj is obviously equal to C2N2 and each is equal to C02/CP, so
that we get:
At the beginning of the stroke
/p = cANjO = a>2(N1C1+C10)
= a>2.CO(CO/CP + l)
= co2.CO(l + l Jn) (3.4)
where n = CP/CO.
Similarly, at the end of the stroke
2
/P = W .N20
= -co\CO(l-l/n) .... (3.5)
When the crank is at right angles to the line of stroke, the points
M and C coincide at C3 and the common chord becomes tangential
to the circle drawn on C3P3 as diameter. N3 is therefore found by
drawing C3N3 at right angles to C3P3 and the corresponding
acceleration of the piston is given by at2. N30.
If several different crank positions are taken and through each
position of the gudgeon pin P ordinates are set up with lengths
equal to the corresponding distances of N from 0, a curve is
obtained which shows the variation of piston acceleration through-
out the stroke. Such a curve is shown in Fig. 60 (a).
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 97
The acceleration of the piston is zero, and its velocity a maxi-
mum, when N coincides with 0. There is no simple graphical
method of finding the corresponding crank position, but it can
be shown that for N and 0 to coincide the angle between the
crank and the connecting rod must be slightly less than 90°.
Thus, if OC is at right angles to CP, then the common chord KL
will be parallel to OC and will cut the line of stroke at a point very
close to, but to the left of, 0. The piston, therefore, has a small
positive acceleration. However, for most practical purposes it
may be assumed that the acceleration of P is zero when OC is at
right angles to CP.
In Fig. 60 (b) the piston acceleration is plotted on a crank
angle or time base.

50. The Acceleration Diagram for the Four-bar Mechanism:

Eig. 61. ABCD is a four-bar-chain with the link AD fixed, and
the fink AB as the driving crank. For the pins B and C we have
the relation that the acceleration of C is the vector sum of the
acceleration of B and the acceleration of C relative to B. Or,
/c = fb~\>fcb

In general, each of the three links AB, BC and CD, has at any
given instant both an angular velocity and an angular acceleration.

It follows that the three accelerations /c, f and f each have a

b ch

centripetal and a tangential component and the vector equation

may be written:
/cc 4>/tc = f°b ~^Pb -^Pcb

The polygon of accelerations is therefore a six-sided figure and

the directions of all six sides are known. In addition the mag-
nitudes of the three centripetal components can be calculated,
4—T.M.
98 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

since they depend on the instantaneous angular velocities of the

links, which may be found from the velocity diagram. This still
leaves the three tangential components and, before the accelera-
tion polygon can be drawn, one of these must be known in mag-
nitude. Usually, the driving crank AB is specified to rotate at
uniform speed, in which case /tb is zero and the polygon reduces
to a five-sided figure. If the speed of AB is not uniform its
angular acceleration must of course, be given. In what follows
it will be assumed that AB turns at uniform speed, so that the
vector equation reduces to
/Co-)>/tc=/Cb-(>/Ccb->/tcb
Velocity Diagram. This may be drawn in the usual way, but
it is simpler to make use of the similar triangle ABM, where M
is found by producing CB to intersect a line drawn through A
parallel to DC. The three sides of this triangle are perpendicular
to the sides of the velocity triangle, so that:
vb = co.AB, vc = co. AM and vch = co.BM
The angular velocity of BC = oq = vch/BC and the angular
velocity of CD = co2 = vc/CD
The acceleration of B is wholly centripetal
= /Cb = V/AB = co^.AB
The centripetal component of /cb
= /ccb = W7BC =cox2.BC
and the centripetal component of /c
= fCo = V7CD = CO22.CD

Set off the vector ob parallel to BA to represent /cb to scale.

From b set off bt parallel to CB to represent/ccb to the same scale.
Through t draw tq perpendicular to CB to indicate the direction
of /fccb. Starting from o, set off os to represent f% and draw sm
perpendicular to CD to intersect tq at c. Then sc will give in
magnitude and direction the tangential component /*, of the
acceleration of C and tc will give the tangential component f^cb
of the acceleration of C relative to B.
The dotted line be =/cb and is the acceleration image of BC.
Similarly, oc =/c and is the acceleration image of CD.
Fig. 61 is drawn to scale for the following example:
Example 5. The lengths of the links AB, BC, CD and DA are
respectively 2’5 in., 7 in., 4*5 in. and 8 in. The r.p.m. of AB are
100 and the angle BAD is 60°.
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 99
The angular velocity of AB = co = TTN/30 — 10*47 rad/s.
From the triangle ABM:
vb = co.AB = 2*18 ft/s
vc = co.AM = 1*47 ft/s
vcb = co.BM = 1*25 ft/s
ob —fb — co2.AB = 22*8 ft/s2
bt = rcb2/BC — 2*68 ft/s2
and os = vc2JCT> = 5*76 ft/s2
Then, by measurement from the acceleration diagram, sc = 19*1
ft/s2, oc = /c — 20 ft/s2, tq = 14*4 ft/s2 and be = /cb = 14*6 ft/s2.
Therefore angular acceleration of CD (counter-clockwise)
= 19-1/CD = 19*1.12/4*5 = 51*0 rad/s2
and the angular acceleration of BC (counter-clockwise)
= 14-4/BC = 14*4.12/7 = 24*7 rad/s2
A complete graphical construction for the acceleration diagram
is shown on the figure. This is an extension of Klein’s construc-
tion as already given for the reciprocating-engine mechanism. A
circle is drawn with centre B and radius BM; a second circle is
drawn on the link BC as diameter; the chord common to these
two circles intersects BC at X and is produced to Q. Two further
circles are drawn, one with centre C and radius AM, the other on
CD as diameter. The chord common to these two circles cuts
CD at S. Along AM mark off AT equal to CS Through T draw
TQ at right angles to AM.
With this construction
fc = w2 • QA and /cb = <a2. QB
Proof. It follows from the proof of Klein’s construction given
on p. 94 that BX = BM2/BC and AT - CS = AM2/CD.
But the centripetal component of fcb — vcb2/BC. On sub-
stituting OJ.BM for vcb this becomes OJ2.BM2/BC = co2.BX.
Similarly, the centripetal component offc = vc2/C~D = to2. AM2/CD
= a>2 .CS = co2. TA.
We have then that BA, XB and TA represent to the scale 1/OJ2
the acceleration of B, the centripetal component of fcb and the
centripetal component of fc respectively. It follows that QX and
QT will represent to the same scale the tangential components of
fcb and fc respectively, so that the total acceleration of C relative
to B is represented by QB and the total acceleration of C by QA.
The arrows on the figure indicate the directions of the various
accelerations.
100 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

51. Analytical Determination of the Velocity and Acceleration of

the Piston of a Reciprocating Engine. There are many problems
which arise in connection with the dynamics of the reciprocating
engine that make it desirable to be able to calculate the accelera-
tion of the piston. Examples of such problems are given in
later chapters where the effect of the inertia of the reciprocating
parts on the turning moment diagram and on the balance of the
engine is considered.
Let r = length of the crank,
co = angular velocity of the crank,
Z = n.r. — length of the connecting rod,
9 = inclination of the crank to the i.d.c.,
x = displacement of the piston from the beginning of its
stroke,
vv — velocity of the piston,
/p = acceleration of the piston,
a>T = angular velocity of the connecting rod
and ar = angular acceleration of the connecting rod.

FIG. 62

Then, referring to Fig. 62, in which CR is perpendicular to the

line of stroke, the displacement
# = Pi? = PjO—PO = Z+r—(Z cos <f>-\-r cos 9)
— r(l— cos 0)-fZ(l— cos $) (3.6)
But CR = r sin 9=1 sin cf>
sin (f> = (rjl) sin 9 = (sin 9)/n . (3.7)
2 2 2
and cos 0 = \/(l— sin </») = (l/n)^(n —sin 0) (3.8)
On substituting in (3.6), we get
x = r{ 1—cos 6)+nr{l— (ljn)^(n2— sin26>)}
= r{\-\-n—cos 9—\Z(n2— sin2#)}
Differentiating with respect to time:
da: d 9 da: f sin 29 'I
dt =
dt'de = wr sin 0
) 2 (3.9)
V(»2 sin 0)J
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 101

dvv d9 dvv w2 cos 20-j-sin401

and cos 0-
^=if=d(-d#=“H (n2—sin20)3/2 J (3-10)
Since sin2 0 is small in comparison with n2, we may write:
vv ^ ojr{sin 0-f(sin 26)/2n} . . . (3.11)
and /p ~ co2r{cos 0-j-(cos 29)/n} . . . (3.12)
The angular velocity and the angular acceleration of the
connecting rod may be obtained from (3.5). Differentiating both
sides with respect to time:
d(f> cos 6 d0
COS 6
r. — — .—
dZ n dt
d cf> co cos 9 cos 9
Wr co (3.13)
= d(
c n coacf) -\/(n —\sin2 9)
2

dcor d0 dcur — co2(n2 — 1) sin 9

and ar — (3.14)
dZ dZ ‘ d0 (n2— sin2 9)3/2
Since n2 is large in comparison writh both unity and sin2 9, we
may wuite:
coT (co/n) cos 9 .... (3.15)
and ar ~ (— co2/n) sin 9 . . . (3.16)
The negative sign in (3.14) and (3.16) shows that the sense of
ar is always such as to tend to reduce the inclination of the
connecting rod to the line of stroke.

52. Fourier Series for the Velocity and Acceleration of the Piston
of a Reciprocating Engine. Although the approximate expressions
(3.11) and (3.12) are sufficiently accurate for most practical pur-
poses it is necessary to use the exact expressions when considering
the extent to which the reciprocating parts of a high-speed engine
are balanced. For this purpose it is much more convenient to
have these expressions in the form of Fourier series.
Substituting for cos <j) from (3.8) in (3.6):
x = r(l — cos 0)+Z{l — (ljn)\/(n2—isin2 9)}
= r(l—-cos 0)-fZ{l—-\/(l—(sin2 9)jn2)}
If -\/{l—(sin2 9)/n2} is expanded by the binomial theorem,
sin2 9 sin4 9 sin6 9
x — r(l—cos 9)-\-l 6 +
2 n2 8 w4 ^ 16w
Since l — nr
sin2 9 sin4 9 t sin6 9
x = rl 1—cos 9-
2?i 8 n* + 16w6
 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.
102
The velocity of the piston
— = co. dx/dd

= w,
-{sin e+L ^(sin29) + 8P ^<sin4 fl)+ • ■ • <3-17)
But (d/d0)(sin2 0) = 2 sin 0 cos 0 = sin 2d
(d/d0)(sin4 6) — (d/d0)(sin2 0)2 = 2 sin2 6 sin 2d
= (1—cos 20) sin 20 = sin 20—(sin 40)/2
(d/d0)(sin6 0) = (d/d0)(sin2 0)3 = 3(sin2 0)2(d/d0)sin2 0
= 3 sin2 0. sin2 0. sin 20
= (3/4)(l— cos 20){sin 20—(sin40)/2}
= (3/16)(5 sin 20—4 sin 40+sin 60)
Substituting in (3.17):
vv — o>r(sin 0+A sin 20+B sin 40+(7 sin 60+ . . .) . (3.18)
11 15 . 7.5
where A = - 3 5
2% ^8w ' 256n '8.128^7
+..
1 3 1
B = 4'16^5
16^3

3 5
16" 16w 8’ 128A7 + •
C =4 5_r

1 5
16'128ft7
The acceleration of the piston
= /P = "-d+/d0
= o>2r(cos 0++i cos 20+1+ cos 40+C+ cos 60+ . . .) (3.19)
Values of the coefficients for different values of n are given in
the table below.
n . 3-0 3-5 4-0 4-5 5-0
A . . . 0-171 6 0-145 9 0-127 0 0-112 5 0-101 0
B . . . 0-002 53 0-001 55 0-001 03 0-000 70 0-000 53
C . . . 0-000 048 0-000 022 0-000 011 0-000 006 3 0-000 003 7
Ax. • . 0-343 1 0-291 8 0-254 0 0-225 0 0-202 0
Bx. . . 0-010 1 0-006 2 0-004 1 0-002 8 0-002 1
Cx • • . 0-0C0 29 0-000 134 0-000 068 0-000 038 0-000 022
N.B.--The coefficients B and Bx are negative.

53. The Coriolis Component Acceleration. In Article 46 the

relative acceleration of two points which are at a fixed distance
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 103
apart on a moving link was considered. It frequently happens
that it is necessary to know the acceleration, relative to a fixed
point on the link, of a second point which slides along the link
so that its distance from the fixed point varies. The conditions
of the problem are then represented in their simplest form in
Fig. 63. The link OPR turns about the fixed centre 0, while at
the same time the point P slides along OR. It is required to
determine the velocity and the acceleration of P relative to the
fixed point 0. If Q is the point, fixed to OR, with which P
coincides at a given instant, then the velocity of P relative to 0
will be the vector sum of the velocity of P relative to Q and the
velocity of Q relative to 0. Similarly the acceleration of P relative
to 0 will be the vector sum of the acceleration of P relative to Q
and the acceleration of Q relative to 0.
The velocity vq of the coincident
point Q is perpendicular to OR and its
magnitude is to. OQ — tor, where to is
the angular velocity of OR and r is the
distance of P, and therefore of Q, from
0. The velocity vpq of P relative to Q
is parallel to OR and is equal to the
velocity of sliding of P along OR. In
the general case both to and vpq will
vary, but we shall first of all consider
the simpler case in which they are both O
FIG. 63
constant.
Referring to Fig. 63, let OR rotate
counter-clockwise and let P slide radially outwards along OR.
When in the position P, the velocity of the sliding point is repre-
sented by op, the vector sum of oq and qp, where oq represents
vq and qp represents vpq. Similarly when in the position Pl5 the
velocity of the sliding point is represented by op!, the vector sum
of oq: and qiPi, where oq! represents vQi and qipx represents vPiqi.
The change of velocity of P in the time St during which it moves
from P to ?! is therefore given by the vector ppL. This may be
resolved into two components, one parallel and the other per-
pendicular to OR.
Draw qjC parallel to OR and produce oq to b.
Then the component of ppx parallel to RO = pa = qib+qp—qjc
= oqx sin S#+^Pq—cos ^

But oqx = w.OPx = co(r-fSr) and vPi<b = vpq, since the velocity
of sliding of P along OR is constant.
/. ap = to(r-\-8r) sin 80-j-v q(l — cos SO)
104 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The component acceleration of P parallel to RO

= co(r-f Sr)(sin S0)/S£-j-vpq. (1— cos 89)/8t
and, in the limit, this reduces to cor.dO/dt or to2r.
Also the component of ppx perpendicular to OR
= apx = ac+cpx = ob—oq+cpx = oqx cos SO—oq+qxpx sin SO
But oqx = oj(r+Sr), oq = tor and qxpx = vPiqi = vpq
apx = co(r-j-Sr) cos 89—cor-j-Vpq sin 89
== tor(cos 8^—1) -f-coSr cos S0-j-rpq sin 89
The component acceleration of P perpendicular to OR
(cos 89—1) Sr sin 89
= <ur
81 +"S( cos S6+Vm “8T

and, in the limit, this reduces to

a> .dr/dtd-vvqd9/dt = 2corpq
The component acceleration of P parallel to RO is clearly equal
to the centripetal acceleration of the coincident point Q. Hence
the component acceleration of P perpendicular to OR must
be the acceleration of P relative to the coincident point Q. Its
magnitude is 2covm and it is known as the Coriolis component
acceleration.
The above method has been used to find the acceleration of P,
when co and rpq are constant, with the object of showing more
clearly how the Coriolis component acceleration arises.
If the sense of rpq is reversed,
i.e. if P slides radially inwards
along RO, it is easily seen that the
sense of the Coriolis component
acceleration will be reversed. The
sense of the Coriolis component is,
indeed, such as to rotate vpq about
its origin in the same sense as co.
The acceleration of P in the
FIG. 64 general case, when co and vpq both
vary, could be found in the same
way, but it is much more convenient to use an analytical method.
Through 0, Fig. 64, draw any pair of co-ordinate axes OX and
OY. Let 9 be the inclination of OP to OX, x, y the rectangular
co-ordinates of P at the given instant, and r the distance of the
coincident point Q from 0.
The ordinate y = OP sin 9 = OQ sin 9 = r sin 9.
HI] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 105
Tlie component of the velocity of P parallel to the y-axis is
given by:
dy/dt = (djdt)(r sin 6) = (dr/dt) sin 0+r(d0/d£) cos 6
But drjdt is obviously the velocity of sliding of P along OR, i.e. the
velocity of P relative to the coincident point Q. This will be
denoted by rpq. Also ddjdt is the angular velocity co of OR.
dy/dt = vm sin O+ojr cos d . . (3.20)
The component of the acceleration of P parallel to the y-axis
is given by:
d 2y d .
sm
-fip = 0+ur cos 6)
■
sm
a ^Vvq , a d# dco dr . n d9
= v-+vpqCOs d‘M^rcosd'~dt +cocos ~wrsm 6-

But is the radial acceleration of P along OR, which will be

denoted by/, and is the angular acceleration of OR, which will

be denoted by a.
.*. d2y/dt2 — f sin 6+2a>vm cos 0+ar cos 0—co2r sin 0
= (/—“>2r) sin 0-j-(2a>rpq+ar) cos 6 . (3.21)
Equations (3.20) and (3.21) apply, whatever the directions chosen
for the co-ordinate axes, so that if we substitute 6 — TT/2 in (3.20),
we get:
the component of the velocity] _
v
of P parallel to OP J v« * ' * (3.22)
and, substituting in (3.19), we get:
the component of the accelera-] .
tion of P parallel to OP J ~J~°i r
• • (3.23)
Similarly, substituting Q = 0 in (3.18), we get:
the component of the velocity]
of P at right angles to OP J ~ ~ v* ' ft-24)
where vq is the velocity of the coincident point Q.
Also, substituting 0 = 0 in (3.21), we get:
the component of the accelera-] .
tion of Pat right angles to OP/ = • (3-25)
4*—T.M.
106 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

But the acceleration of Q relative to 0 consists of two com-

ponents, namely:
(a) the centripetal component /cq = a>2r
and (b) the tangential component f\ = ar
Hence it follows that the acceleration of P relative to the
coincident point Q also consists of two components, namely:
(c) the component parallel to OP, /,
and (d) the component perpendicular to OP, 2toi’pq
In connection with these four components it should be em-
phasised that:
(i) Components (a) and (d) depend only upon the instantaneous
values of the velocities, so that they may be completely deter-
mined from information provided by the velocity diagram.
(ii) The counter-clockwise sense has been taken as positive for
co and a and the radially outward direction as positive for vpq
and /.
(iii) The sense of the Coriolis component acceleration (d) will
be changed if the sign of either co or vpq is changed, but its sense
will be unchanged, if the signs of both co and vm are changed. It
is convenient to note that this conforms to the following simple
rule: the direction of the component acceleration (d) is such as to
rotate the vector vpq about its origin in the same sense as that of
the angular velocity co.
In Fig. 64 the complete acceleration diagram is drawn. The
four components (a), (b), (c) and (d) are respectively represented
by the four vectors os, sq, qt and tp, so that oq, the vector sum of
os and sq, represents the acceleration of Q, and qp, the vector sum
of qt and tp, represents the acceleration of P relative to Q. Hence
op, the vector sum of oq and qp, represents the acceleration of P.
The original diagram was drawn to scale for the following
example:
Example 6. The distance OP is 2 ft; co is 2 rad/s counter-
clockwise; a is 5 rad/s2 counter-clockwise; r>pq is 3 ft/s radially
outward; and / is 4 ft/s2 radially outward. Find the acceleration
of P relative to the fixed point 0.
Component (a) = os = co2r = 22.2 = 8 ft/s2
Component (b) = sq = ar = 5.2 = 10 ft/s2
Component (c) = qt = / = 4 ft/s2
Component (d)'= tp = 2au;pq = 2.2.3 = 12 ft/s2
The acceleration of Q is the vector sum of components (a) and
(b). It is represented by oq and is equal to 12-8 ft/s2.
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 107
The acceleration of P relative to Q is the vector sum of com-
ponents (c) and (d). It is represented by qp and is equal to
12-65 ft/s2.
The acceleration of P is the vector sum of the acceleration of
P relative to Q and of Q relative to 0. It is represented by op
and is equal to 22-4 ft/s2.

54. Examples on the Construction of the Acceleration Diagrams

for Mechanisms that are Inversions of the Slider-crank Chain. In
order to draw the acceleration diagrams for mechanisms such as
the crank and slotted-lever quick-return mechanism, the Whit-
worth quick-return mechanism, the rotary-engine mechanism
and the oscillating-cylinder-engine mechanism, the principles
outlined in the preceding article must be used. The method
will be made clear if one or two typical examples are considered
(a) The Crank and Slotted-lever Quick-return Mechanism:
Fig. 65. In this mechanism the driving crank CP revolves with
uniform angular velocity about the fixed centre C. A die-block
attached to the crankpin P slides along the slotted link ON, and
thus causes ON to oscillate about the fixed centre 0. A short
link NR transmits the motion from ON to the ram which carries
the tool-box and which reciprocates along the line R1R2, The
fine of stroke RXR2 of the ram is perpendicular to the fine of
centres OC. The problem is to find the acceleration of the ram.
To find the acceleration of R it is first necessary to find the
acceleration of the pin N on the slotted fink. The acceleration of
R may then be determined by applying the method already given
in Article 46.
Let a>1 = angular velocity of CP (constant); let a> — angular
velocity of ON (variable).
Then the peripheral velocity of the crankpin P = vp = aq.CP.
Velocity Diagram Fig. 65 (a). The velocity vv of the crankpin
is perpendicular to CP and is represented to scale by op. This
may be resolved into components oq and qp perpendicular and
parallel to the slotted fink PO. The component oq is the velocity
of the coincident point Q and qp is the velocity of sliding of the
block P along ON.
The velocity of N is perpendicular to ON and is represented by
on where on = ON/OP.oq.
The velocity of R is horizontal and the velocity of R relative to
N is perpendicular to NR, so that the velocity diagram is com-
pleted by drawing a fine through n perpendicular to NR to inter-
sect the horizontal fine through o at r. Then or represents to
scale the velocity of the ram R.
108 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Acceleration Diagram Fig. 65 (b). The first step is to find the

acceleration of the coincident point Q.
Since /p =/ 4>/pq and /q and /pq both consist of two com-
q

ponents as explained in Article 53, we have

/p = A > A "t>/8pq >/%!

Of these five vectors, three are known in magnitude and direction

and two are known in direction only.
Thus:
fp = (o12.PC, /cq = coAQO =v^JQO and /Corpq = 2a>vpq
/pis parallel to PC,/cq is parallel to QO and/Corpqis perpendicular
to QO. The Coriolis component acts towards the right so as to
rotate about its origin in the same sense as a>.

Set off op parallel to PC to represent to scale the acceleration

fv = «i A PC.
From o set off ox parallel to PO to represent /cq = o>2. QO
= v2J QO.
The Coriolis component of fm — 2covm. It acts perpendicular
to QO towards the right and must finish at p. It is represented
to scale on the acceleration diagram by up.
The other two vectors _/tq and /spq are known in direction, the
former perpendicular to QO and the latter parallel to QO, so that
the vector diagram may be completed by drawing xq perpendicular
to QO and qu parallel to QO.
The total acceleration fq of the coincident point Q is then given
 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 109
to scale by oq, the vector sum of ox and xq, and the total accelera-
tion /pg of P relative to Q by qp, the vector sum of qu and up.
Since N and Q are fixed points on the link ON, the acceleration
of N will be parallel to fq and of magnitude fQ = (ON/OQ)/q. It
is therefore given to scale on the acceleration diagram by on,
where on/oq — ON/OQ.
The acceleration of the ram R is the vector sum of the accelera-
tion of N and the acceleration of R relative to N. Since R has
horizontal straight-fine motion, its acceleration is also horizontal,
while the acceleration of R relative to N is partly centripetal,
parallel to RN, and partly tangential, perpendicular to RN. The
centripetal component = ^rn2/RN, and is represented by nm.
A fine drawn through m perpendicular to NR intersects the hori-
zontal through o at r. Then or represents to scale the accelera-
tion of R.
The following construction may be used to find graphically
without any calculation a polygon PXVUC similar to the accelera-
tion diagram oxqup.
Erom C draw CM perpendicular to ON. Then the triangle
PCM is similar to the velocity triangle opq Fig. 65 (a).
t’p = oq .PC, Vq = ct>i.PM, Vm = oq .MC
Draw a circle with centre P and radius PM and a second circle
on PO as diameter. Let X be the point of intersection of the
common chord of these two circles with PO, and Y its point of
intersection with PC. Along MC set off UC = 2XY, and draw
UV parallel to OP to intersect XY, produced if necessary, at V.
Then the polygons PXVUC, oxqup are similar.
Proof. By the construction given PX — PM2/PO. But
vq = co! .PM, so that
f\ = ^2/PO - oq2.PM2/PO = oq2.PX
Also the angular velocity of OP
= co = vJOP = CO!. PM/OP
so that the Coriolis component of the acceleration of P relative to Q
= 2ajvm = 2oq(PM/PO). oqMC = 2oq2. (PM.MC)/PO
From the similar triangles PXY, PMC,
XY - PX.MC/PM
and, substituting PX = PM2/PO,
XY = (PM2/PO)MC/PM = (PM.MC)/PO
the Coriolis acceleration =2aq2.XY = oq2.2XY = co!2.UC,
since by construction UC = 2XY.
110 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Hence in the polygon PXVUC, we have

/p = VPC, /'„ = CO^PX, /,c”p3 = Wl2UC

and the other two component accelerations and /spq must be

given to the same scale by XV and VU.
Note that with this construction the Coriolis component is
always in the sense from X to Y.
Fig. 65 is drawn to scale for the following example.
Example 7. The distance between the fixed centres 0 and C
of the quick-return mechanism, Fig. 65, is 8 in., the length of the
driving crank CP is 4 in. and it makes 60 r.p.m. The length of
the slotted link ON is 15 in. and that of NR is 6 in. The angle
OCP is 120°. Draw the velocity and acceleration diagrams and
find the velocity and acceleration of the ram R.
The values of the velocities and accelerations involved in the
construction of Fig. 65 (a) and (b) are given below.
Velocity Diagram FIG. 65 (a)

Vector ft/s
l’p op 2-09 a>i — 2TT rad/s
Vq oq 1-56
Vpq qp 1-37 OP = OQ and scales 10-6 in.
Vn on 2-21 .'. OJ = Vq/OQ = 1-77 rad/s
Vm nr 0-74 aim = t)m/RN == 1-48 rad/s
VT or 2-14

Acceleration Diagram. FIG. 65 (b)

Voctor ft/s2
2
/p aq .PC op 13-2
f\ CU2.PO = V/PO ox 2-77
A a.PO xq 3-74
/q oq 4-65
/R pq qu 7-0
/cor 2<U)'t,pq
J pq up 4-87
/pq qp 8-53
/n on 6-59
fc rn Vnr2/RN nm 1-09
An oq.RN mr 2-03
fr or 5-10
a = angular acceleration of ON = /‘,,/PO
= (3-74.12)/10-6 = 4-25 rad/s2
oq = angular acceleration of RN = /Vn/RN
= (2-03.12)/6 = 4-06 rad/s2

(b) The Rotary Engine Mechanism/. Fig. 66. In this mechanism

the crank OC is fixed. The cylinder axis ON turns about the
fixed centre O with uniform angular velocity co, while the con-
fa] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 111
necting rod CP turns about the fixed centre C with variable
angular velocity coY. If, as in the earlier examples, Q is the point
on ON that is coincident with P, then the velocity of Q = vq
= OJ.OQ = co.OP. The velocity of P is the vector sum of the
velocity of Q and the velocity of P relative to Q.
But the velocity of P is perpendicular to CP and the velocity of
P relative to Q is along OP, hence the triangle Pab is the triangle
of velocities. If OM is drawn perpendicular to PO to meet
PC produced at M, the triangles Pab, POM are similar, and
therefore
vq = co. PO, vp — co. PM and vpq = co. OM
The acceleration of P is the vector sum of the acceleration of Q
and the acceleration of P relative to Q.

Since the angular velocity of ON is constant, the acceleration

of the coincident point Q is wholly centripetal, so that/q = co2. QO
= co2. PO. This is the component (a) and there is no
component (b).
The acceleration of P is, however, partly centripetal and partly
tangential, since the angular velocity of CP varies from instant to
instant.
The centripetal component of the acceleration of P = co^.PC
— vp2/PC — o>2.PM2/PC = w2.PR, where R is found by drawing
CT perpendicular to PC, marking oft PT = PM and drawing TR
perpendicular to PT. Then, from the similar triangles PCT,
PTR:
PR/PT = PT/PC and PR = PT2/PC = PM2/PC
The tangential component of the acceleration of P is at present
unknown in magnitude, but its direction must, of course, be at
right angles to PC. Draw through R a line perpendicular to PR
to indicate the direction of this tangential component.
112 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The acceleration of P relative to Q consists of the two com-

ponents (c) and (d) of Article 53.
The component (d) of the acceleration of P relative to Q is the
Coriolis component and its magnitude is given by:
2ojvpq = 2 OJ2. OM = co2. OU
where OU = 20M.
The direction of component (d) is such as to rotate vpq about
its origin in the same sense as co and is therefore in the direction
OU.
The component (c) of the acceleration of P relative to Q is
parallel to OP, but is unknown in magnitude. But if UV is drawn
parallel to PO to meet at V the line previously drawn through R
at right angles to PC, then the acceleration diagram will be
completed. Hence the tangential component offp = co2. RV and
the component of/pq parallel to OP = co2.UV.
Then the acceleration of P = /p = OJ2.PV and the acceleration
of P relative to Q = /pq = OJ2 . OV.
Fig. 66 is drawn to scale for the following example.
Example 8. The fixed crank OC of a rotary engine is 3 in. long
and the connecting rod is 9 in. long. The cylinders make
1200 r.p.m. clockwise.
If the angle COP is 55°, find the velocity and acceleration of the
piston along the cyfinder, the angular velocity and angular
acceleration of the connecting rod CP and the Coriolis component
of the acceleration of P.
The angular velocity of the cylinder centre fine OP
= OJ = (7T.1200)/30 - 4077 = 125-7 rad/s
The velocity of Q
= vq = OJ.OQ = OJ.OP = 4077.10-35/12 = 108-2 ft/s
The velocity of P
= vp = to.PM = 40T7. 10-74/12 = 112-4 ft/s
The angular velocity of CP
— coi = vp/CP = 112-4.12/9 = 150 rad/s
The velocity of sliding of the piston along the cylinder
= Vpq = to.OM = 4077.2-95/12 = 30-9 ft/s
The centripetal acceleration of Q
= fq = co2.OQ = co2.OP = (4077)2.10-35/12 = 13 600 ft/s2
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 113
The centripetal component of the acceleration of P
= tojLPC = w2.PR = (40TT)2. 12-84/12 = 16 900 ft/s2
The tangential component of the acceleration of P
= a.PC = co2.RV = (40T7)2.2-49/12 = 3280 ft/s2
so that the angular acceleration of the connecting rod CP
= a = 3280/CP = 32S0.12/9 = 4370 rad/s2
The component (c) of the acceleration of P relative to Q
= / = co2.UV = (40TT)2.1-29/12 = 1700 ft/s2
This component gives the acceleration of the piston along the
cylinder.
The component (d) of the acceleration of P relative to Q
= 2(ovm = co2.OU = (40T7)2.5-90/12 = 7760 ft/s2
The resultant acceleration of P
= CO2.PV = (4077)2.13-05/12 = 17 170 ft/s2
and the acceleration of P relative to Q
= m2.OV = (4077)2.6-06/12 = 7970 ft/s2
The directions of the various accelerations are indicated by the
arrows on Fig. 66.
It may be pointed out that the existence of the Coriolis com-
ponent (d) of the acceleration of P relative to Q will result in a
considerable side thrust between the piston and the cylinder wall
due to the inertia of the piston. In addition there will be a side
thrust due to the inertia of the connecting rod and, of course, a side
thrust due to the gas pressure and the inclination of the connecting
rod to the line of stroke.

EXAMPLES III

1. The following table gives the displacement of the valve in a Joy valve gear.
Fig. 127, for different crank angles:

!
22-5° 45° 67-5° 90° 112-5° 135° 157-5°|l80°202-5° 225° 247-5°!270° 292-5° 315° 337-5° 360“
5-42|6-16 6-60 6-46 5-64 4-42 2-90 1-60| 0-78 0-50 0-72 11 -22 1-92 2-76 3-66 4-54

Plot the displacement curve on a base of crank angle. If the crank turns at a
uniform speed of 150 r.p.m., draw the corresponding speed and acceleration
curves, also on a base of crank angle.
114 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

2. The variation of the lift of a petrol-engine valve with the angle of rotation of
the camshaft is shown in the following table:

oo

oo
e . . .

CO
0° 6° 10° 15° 20° 25° 35° 46° 50° 55°
x, in. . 0 0-017 0-068 0-149 0-229 0-299 0-360 0-410 0-449 0-477 0-494 0-500

Plot the displacement curve on a base of d. If the speed of rotation of the cam-
shaft is 900 r.p.m., draw the speed and acceleration diagrams on a base of d.

3. The speed (v), ft/s, of the ram of a small shaping machine on both the
cutting and return strokes is given in the following table for points at different
distances (x) from the beginning of each stroke:

x, in. . 0-5 1-0 1-5 2-0 2-5 3-0 3-5 4-0 4-5 5-0 5-5 6-0
v (cutting
stroke) . 0-500 0-642 0-723 0-775 0-810 0-830 0-830 0-810 0-766 0-682 0-532 0
v (return
stroke) . 0-854 1-285 1-581 1-780 1-900 1-935 1-868 1-720 1-505 1-215 0-812 0

Plot the curves of v against x and find the acceleration of the ram when at a
distance of 2 in. from the beginning and the end of each stroke.

4. A vehicle starts from rest and its speed varies with the time as shown in
the following table:

t, min 0-5 1-0 1-5 2-0 2-5 3-0 3-5 4-0 4-5 5-0
v, m.p.h. . 12-0 22-5 31-0 38-0 42-5 45-0 44-0 41-0 39-5 40-5
t, min 5-5 6-0 6-5 7-0 7-5 8-0 8-5 9-0 9-5 10-0
v, m.p.h. . 45-0 52-0 57-5 60-0 58-5 54-0 45-0 33-0 17-5 0

Plot curves to show the variation of acceleration with time and of displacement
with time.

5. Particulars of the full-throttle power curve of a petrol engine are given in

the following table:

700 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500

6-9 11-0 17-7 24-2 29-8 35-0 39-2 41-8 40-0

The engine is fitted to a car which, in the top gear of 5-13 to 1, has a deadweight,
allowing for rotary inertia, of 22 cwt. The effective diameter of the road wheels
is 26-5 in., the efficiency of the transmission is 90% and the resistance to motion
is given by R (lb) = 33 + 0-035w2, where v is the speed in m.p.h.
Plot a curve to show the variation of acceleration with road speed in top gear
and find the minimum time required in order to increase the speed from 20 to
60 m.p.h. and the distance through which the car moves in this time.

6. In a certain trial, a ship of 1150 tons diplacement was towed at a uniform

speed of 20ft/s. The towing rope was slipped and the retardation obtained at
various speeds as the ship came to rest. Corresponding retardation and speed
figures are given in the table:

Speed,ft/s 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7
Retarda-
tion, ft/sa 0-127 0-125 0-120 0-112 0-098 0-082 0-068 0-056 0-046 0-037 0-030
0-024 0-020 0-017
in] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 115

Construct the speed-time and the displacement-time curves for the motion and
determine the time that elapsed and the distance covered during the decrease of
speed from 20 ft/s to 10 ft/s. W.S.S.

7. A motor-car weighs 25 cwt and the engine develops 40 b.h.p. at 3200 r.p.m.
The efficiency of the transmission is 90% in the top gear of 5 to 1 and 80% in the
second gear of 9 to 1. When the engine speed is 3200 r.p.m., (a) the car reaches
its maximum speed of 60 m.p.h. in top gear on a level road and (b) the car is just
capable of climbing a gradient of 1 in 11 in second gear. If the resistance to
motion in lb is given by jR = a-\-bv2, where v is the speed in m.p.h., find the values
of the constants a and b. M.U.

8. In a four-bar chain ABCD, AB is the driving link, CD the driven link and
AD the fixed link. Show that the angular velocity of CD is to that of AB as
QA is to QD, where Q is the point of intersection of BC and AD, produced if
necessary.
When the links AB, BC, CD and DA are respectively 2-5, 7, 4-5 and 8 in. long,
the angle BAD is 60°, AB and DC are on opposite sides of AD and the velocity of
B is 10 ft/s., find the velocity of C and the angular velocity of BC.

9. The dimensions of the mechanism of a stone-crusher, Fig. 67, are as follows.

The horizontal distances of P and Q from 0 are respectively 16-5 in. and 17 in.;
the vertical distances of P and Q from O are respectively 36 in. and 12 in. The
lengths of the links are OA 3 in., AB 40 in., BP 18 in., BC 18 in. and CQ 24 in.
The point X on the jaw is 8 in. from C and 18 in. from Q. If OA turns at a
uniform speed of 60 r.p.m. and is inclined at 45° to the horizontal as shown,
find: (a) the velocity of point X, (b) the torque required on OA to overcome a
horizontal force of 3 tons at X.

10. The dimensions of the Andreau differential-stroke-engine mechanism,

Fig. 68, are: OA = 73 mm, QB = 36-5 mm, AC = BC = 150 mm, CP = 214 mm.
OA and QB are geared together so that QB turns at twice the speed of OA and in
the opposite sense to OA. Find the velocity of the piston P for the given con-
figuration, when OA makes 700 r.p.m.

11. The dimensions of the Atkinson-cycle-engine mechanism, Fig. 69, are:

OA = 6 in., QB = 8 in., AB = 15 in., AC = 16 in., BC = 2-5 in., CP = 18 in. If
the crank OA makes 150 r.p.m., find for the given configuration the velocity of
the piston P and the angular velocities of the links ABC and CP.
116 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

12. In Fig. 70 OA is a uniformly rotating crank, ABC is a continuous link, DE

is a slotted lever and D, O and Q are fixed centres. The die-block attached to
the pin C slides along the slot in the link DE. If the speed of rotation of OA. is
120 r.p.m., find for the given position the angular velocity of DE and the velocity
of sliding of the die-block along the slot.

13. Fig. 71 shows the mechanism of a pneumatic riveter. The arms AB and
BC are each 7 in. long, link BE is 20 in. and link DC 13 in. long. The centre line
of the piston is horizontal and 8 in. below A. When AC is vertical, BE makes an
angle of 12° with the vertical.
Find the velocity ratio between D and the ram E when AC is vertical, and the
efficiency of the machine if a load of 500 lb on the piston causes a thrust of
1000 lb at E. L.U.A.

14. Fig. 72 shows the quick-return mechanism of a slotting machine. The

toothed sector gears with a rack on the ram which carries the tool box. If the
ratio of the times taken for the cutting and the return strokes is to be D5 to 1,
determine the length of the driving crank CP. If the speed of rotation of CP is
50 r.p.m., find (a) the maximum velocities of the ram on both the cutting and the
return strokes and (b) the velocity of the ram on each stroke when at a point
distant one-quarter of the stroke from either end of the stroke.

15. In a crank and slotted-lever quick-return motion the distance between the
fixed centres O and C is 8 in. The driving crank CP is 3 in. long and makes
90 r.p.m. The pin Q on the slotted lever, 14£ in. from the fulcrum O, is con-
nected by a link QR, 4 in. long, to the pin R on the ram. The line of stroke of R
in] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 117
is perpendicular to OC and intersects OC produced at a point 6 in. from C.
Find:
(a) the ratio of the times taken on the two strokes of It;
(b) the maximum velocities of It on the cutting and the return strokes;
(c) the velocities of ft when 3 in. from the beginning and the end of each stroke.

16. Mitchell’s luffing gear is shown in Fig. 73. The lower end, B, of the jib

AB is pivoted to a carriage, which is moved up and down the vertical mast DE

to luff the load horizontally. Find the relation which must exist between the
length of the jib and that of the link CD and find the ratio between the lengths
AB and CB.
Determine also the ratio between the speed of the carriage and that of the load,
when luffing, for a given angle of inclination of the jib.
Show how the mechanism may be balanced, approximately, so as to reduce the
bending stresses in the mast. W.S.S

17. AB, DC, AC and BD are four separate links pin-jointed as shown in Fig. 74.
AB and DC are 2 ft long, BD and AC are 2-5 ft long. If BD remains fixed and A
is made to approach D, find the velocity ratio of A
and C at the instant when AB becomes perpendicular
to DC. W.S. A B

18. When a link is transmitting motion from one part

of a machine to another, show how the velocity and
acceleration of the driven end can be found in terms of
those of the driving end.
Apply the method to a four-bar chain. AD is the
fixed link, 3-25 ft long; AB the driver, 1 ft long; CD
the driven, 2 ft long; and BC the connecting link,
3-5 ft long. Find the velocity and acceleration of the point X midway between
B and C when the angle BAD is 135° and the velocity of B is 6 ft/s.

19. The lengths of the links of a four-bar chain are: AB, 6 in.; BC, 18 in.;
CD, 12 in.; and DA, 21 in. The link AD is fixed and the link AB turns with
uniform angular velocity. When angle BAD is 90° and B and C are on opposite
sides of AD, find the position of the point E on BC which, at that instant, is
accelerated along BC.

20. ABCD is a four-bar chain with the link AD fixed. The lengths of the links
are: AB, 2-5 in.; BC, 7 in.; CD, 4-5 in.; and DA 8 in. The crank AB makes
180 r.p.m. Find the acceleration of C and the angular accelerations of BC and
CD when (a) angle BAD is 15° and B and C lie on opposite sides of AD, (b)
angle BAD is 60° and B and C lie on the same side of AD.
118 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

21. Explain what is meant by (a) the instantaneous centre of a link, (b) the
acceleration centre of a link. How may the positions of these two centres be
found?
AB is a link of a mechanism 4 ft long. The acceleration of A is 10 ft/s2 along
AC, where angle BAC = 60°. The acceleration of B is 30 ft/s2 along BD, where
angle ABD is 70° and the velocity of B is 10 ft/s along BE, where angle ABE is
40°. C and D lie on the same side of AB and E on the opposite side. Find the
velocity of A, the angular velocity and the angular acceleration of AB, and the
positions of the instantaneous centre and the acceleration centre of AB.
22. The crank of an oil engine is 7-5 in. long, the connecting rod is 33 in. long
and the crank rotates at a uniform speed of 310 r.pm. Calculate the velocity
and the acceleration of the piston for crank positions from 0° to 180°, at intervals
of 30°, and plot the two curves on a crank angle base.
23. Give Klein’s construction for determining the acceleration of the piston of
a reciprocating engine. Prove the correctness of the construction.
24. The following are alternative constructions for finding the points Q and N,
Fig. 59. In each case prove the correctness of the construction.
(a) Ritterhaus's Construction. Through M draw MY parallel to OP to meet OC,
produced if necessary, at Y. Through Y draw a line perpendicular to the line
of stroke of P to meet the connecting rod CP at Q. Through Q draw QN per-
pendicular to CP.
(b) Bennett's Construction. Divide CP at R, such that CR = C02/CP. This
may be done graphically by taking OC at right angles to the line of stroke of P and
dropping the perpendicular OR on to the corresponding position of CP. For any
other crank position, draw RS perpendicular to CP to meet the line of stroke at S,
draw SQ perpendicular to the line of stroke to meet CP at Q and draw QN
perpendicular to CP.
25. The crank of a reciprocating engine is 9 in. long, the connecting rod is
36 in. long and the r.p.m. are 150. Find the velocity and acceleration of the
piston and the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the connecting rod
when the angle which the crank makes with the i.d.c. is (a) 30°, (b) 120°.
26. A petrol engine has a stroke of 5 in. a connecting rod 10 in. long and runs
at 2000 r.p.m. The crankshaft is offset f in. from the cylinder centre line.
Determine the velocity and acceleration of the piston when at one-quarter of the
stroke from the crank end on both strokes. M.U.
27. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 75, the crank OC is 3 in. long and makes
240 r.p.m. The link CP is 10 in. long, Q lies on an extension of CP, in. from

P, and the pin P is attached to a block which slides along AB.

Find the velocity
and acceleration of Q and the angular velocity and angular acceleration of CQ
for the position shown and also when the crank has turned through an angle of
225° from the horizontal.

28. A petrol engine has a crank P75 in. long and a connecting rod 7 in long
At the instant when the crank makes an angle of 60° with the i.d.c., its angular
velocity is 40 rad/s and its angular acceleration is 400 rad/s2. Find the accelera-
tion of the piston and the angular acceleration of the connecting rod.
m] VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 119

29. A gas engine has a stroke of 17 in. and a connecting rod 40 in. long. The
crankshaft carries two flywheels each of which weighs 1200 lb and has a radius
°f gyration of 27 in. When the crank makes an angle of 30° with the i.d.c. on
the firing stroke, there is an unbalanced turning moment on the crankshaft of
5400 lb ft in the direction of motion of the crank. If at this instant the angular
velocity of the crank is 8-38 rad/s (80 r.p.m.), find (a) the acceleration of the
piston and (b) the angular acceleration of the connecting rod.
30. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 76, O and Q are fixed centres. If the
crank OC revolves at a uniform speed of 120 r.p.m., find the angular accelerations
of the links CP, PA and AQ.

31. For the Atkinson-cycle-engine mechanism, Question 11, Fig. 69, find
the angular acceleration of the link ABC and the linear acceleration of the
piston P.
32. An oscillating-cylinder engine has a stroke of 2 ft, the distance between
the trunnion and crankshaft centre lines is 4 ft and the crank turns at a uniform
speed of 90 r.p.m. Find the acceleration of the piston along the cylinder and the
angular acceleration of the cylinder for the two positions of the mechanism in
which the crank is inclined at (a) 45° and (b) 135° to the inner dead centre. M.U.
33. Referring to the quick-return motion of Question 14, Fig. 72, find the
acceleration of the ram on each stroke when at a point distant one-quarter of the
stroke from one end of the stroke.
34. The mechanism of a Whitworth quick-return motion is shown in Fig. 77.
The distance between the fixed centres O and C is 1-5 in.; the driving crank CP
is 5 in. long, the slotted link OQ is 4 in. long and the connecting link QR is 15 in.

long. The pin R is attached to the ram which carries the tool box and reciprocates
along a line which passes through O and is perpendicular to OC. If CP makes
60 r.p.m., find for the given position the acceleration of R. What is the accelera-
tion of R when it occupies the same position but is on the return stroke ?
35. The driving crank AB of the quick-return mechanism shown in Fig. 78
revolves at a uniform speed of 200 r.p.m. Find the velocity and acceleration of
the tool box R in the position shown, when the crank makes an angle of 60° with
the vertical line of centres PA. What is the acceleration of sliding of the block
at B along the slotted lever PQ ? L.U.
120 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP, HI

36. The cylinders of an aeroplane engine are arranged radially round the crank-
shaft and they rotate at uniform speed round the fixed crank. If the stroke of
each piston is 5 in., the length of each connecting rod is 9 in. and the speed is
1000 r.p.m., find the components of the acceleration of the piston, parallel to and
at right angles to the cylinder centre line and the angular acceleration of the
connecting rod for a cylinder which has turned through 45° from the i.d.c.
position.

37. In a rotary aero engine in which the cylinders rotate about a fixed crank,
there is a side thrust, duo to inertia, between each piston and its cylinder.
If the stroke of such an engine is 6 in., the effective weight of each piston is
1*5 lb and the length of each connecting rod is 12 in., determine the magnitude
of this side thrust at 1200 r.p.m. in a cylinder which has tinned through (a) 0°
and (b) 90° from the i.d.c. L.U.A.

38. Two slotted links APC, BPD are pivoted on centres A, B, 4 ft apart. The
links cross and carry a common block P. Determine the velocity and the
acceleration of the block at the instant when it is 30 in. from A and 24 in. from B,
the angular velocity of AC being 2 rad/s and that of BD being 1-5 rad/s, both
links moving outward from AB. L.U.A.
 O'
CHAPTER IV

MECHANISMS WITH LOWER PAIRS

55. The Pantograph. It is sometimes necessary to reproduce to

an enlarged or a reduced scale and as exactly as possible the path
described by a given point. A mechanism which is used for this
purpose is known as a pantograph. One form of pantograph is
illustrated in Fig. 79. The links are pin-jointed at A, B, C and D.
AB is parallel to DC and AD is parallel to BC. The link BA is
extended to the fixed pin O. The point Q on the link AD and
the point P on the extension of the link BC both lie on a straight
line which passes through 0. It can be shown that in these
circumstances the point P will reproduce the motion of the point
Q to an enlarged scale, or, alternatively, the point Q will reproduce
the motion of the point P to a reduced scale.
When the mechanism is in the
position shown by full lines the
triangles OAQ, OBP are similar, so
that OQ/OP = OA/OB.
Let P move to Pi along the
path shown, so that the mechanism
occupies the position shown by
dotted lines. Then the triangles
OA^!, OBJPJ are similar and
therefore OQ^OPx = OA1/OB1.
But OBj = OB and 0AX = OA, so
that OQ1/OP1=OQ/OP=OA/OB.
Hence the triangles OPPl5 OQQx are similar and PPX and QQ!
are parallel.
The displacement of Q is therefore parallel to the displacement
of P and is smaller than that of P in the proportion OA: OB.
This is true however small, or however large, the displacement of
P may be within the limits allowed by the mechanism. Hence
P and Q must trace out similar paths.
The pantograph is sometimes used as an indicator rig in order to
reproduce to a small scale the displacement of the crosshead, and
therefore of the piston, of a reciprocating engine. When applied
for this purpose, say, to a vertical engine, the pin 0 is fixed to the
122 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

frame of the engine and the pin P moves with the crosshead. The
cord which oscillates the indicator drum is fixed to the link AD at
the point Q. Since the pin Q is required to reproduce the motion
of P to a much reduced scale, the ratio OB :OA must be large.
The pantograph was used by Watt in his beam engine, Eig. 80,
in order to enable the motion of the end P of the piston rod to be

Fia. 80

an enlarged copy of that of a point Q, which is constrained to

move along an approximately straight path. In the figure 0 and
C are fixed centres, the links OA, AD and DC determine the path
of Q, while the links OB, AD, DP and PB form the pantograph.
The path of P is a reproduction of the path of Q to an enlarged
scale, the ratio of the two displacements being OP: OQ.
56. Straight-line Motions. It is frequently necessary to con-
strain a point in a mechanism to move along a straight path.
The obvious way of doing this is to use a sliding pair. But
sliding pairs are bulky and are subject to comparatively rapid
wear, so that in certain circumstances it is desirable to obtain
the necessary constraint by the use of turning pairs. A mechan-
ism which is used for this purpose is known as a straight-line
motion or a parallel motion.
57. Exact Straight-line Motions. Referring to Eig. 81, let a line
OP turn about 0 as centre and let the position of the point P
P

FIG. 81

be such that the product OQ.OP is constant. Then the path of

P will be a straight line perpendicular to the diameter OR of the
IY] MECHANISMS WITH LOWER PAIRS 123
circle along the circumference of which Q moves. This may be
proved as follows:
Since the triangles OQR, OXP are similar (angle QOR is com-
mon and angles OQR, OXP are each right-angles), therefore
OQ/OR £ OX/OP and OX = (OQ. OP)/OR.
But OR is constant, so that if the product OQ. OP is constant,
OX will also be constant. Hence the point P moves along the
straight path XP which is perpendicular to OR.
Several mechanisms have been devised to connect 0, P and Q
in such a way as to satisfy the above condition. Two of them, the
Peaucellier mechanism and the Hart mechanism, are shown in
Figs. 82 and 83.
(a) The Peaucellier Mechanism: Fig. 82. The pin Q is con-
strained to move along the circumference of a circle with a fixed
diameter OR by means of the link QA. The fink QA and the
B

fixed link OA are equal in length. The pins P and Q are at oppo-
site corners of a four-bar chain which has all four links QB, BP,
PC and CQ of equal length. The pins B and C are connected by
links of equal length to the fixed pin 0. That the product OQ. OP
remains constant as the fink QA rotates may be proved as follows :
Join BC to bisect PQ at F; then, from the right-angled triangles
OBF, BPF, we have
OB2 = OF2+FB2 and BP2 = BF2+FP2
Subtracting,
OB2—BP2 = OF2—FP2 = (OF—FP)(OF+FP)
= OQ.OP
But OB and BP are of constant length, so that the product OQ. OP
124 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

is constant and therefore the point P traces out a straight path

normal to OR.
(b) The Hart Mechanism: Fig. 83. The four links BC, CD, DE
and EB form a crossed parallelogram. The links BC and DE
are equal in length, as are also the links CD and EB. It is clear
that with this arrangement the lines joining B to D and C to E are
parallel for all possible positions of the links. Also, if the three
points 0, Q and P lie on a straight line parallel to BD and CE for

one position of the mechanism, they will lie on a straight line

parallel to BD and CE for all other positions of the mechanism.
It will be shown that the product OP.OQ is constant for all
positions of the mechanism.
From the triangle EDB,
BE2 = BD2+DE2-2BD.DE COS EDB
But, from symmetry,
cos EDB = (BD—CE)/2DE
BE = BD2+DE2—BD(BD—CE) =DE2+BD.CE
2

so that BD.CE = BE2—DE2 = constant . . (4.1)

From the similar triangles CBE, OBP,
CE/CB = OP/OB or CE = CB. OP/OB
and from the similar triangles BCD, OCQ,
BD/BC = OQ/OC or BD = BC. OQ/OC
Substituting for CE and BD in (4.1):
*.*. OQ. OP. BC2/(OB. OC) = constant
IV] MECHANISMS WITH LOWER PAIRS 125
But BC, OB and OC are all constant, so that the product OP. OQ
must be constant.
It follows that if 0 is a fixed centre and Q is constrained to
move along a circular arc which passes through 0, then the path
of P will be a straight line normal to the diameter of the circular
path of Q which passes through 0. These conditions will be
satisfied if Q is attached to a link which turns about the fixed
centre A, provided that the distance between the fixed centres A
and 0 is equal to the length of the link AQ. The Hart mechanism
is chiefly of interest because it requires only six links as compared
with the eight links required by the Peaucellier mechanism. It
has, however, the great practical disadvantage that even when the
path of P is short a large amount of space is taken up by the
mechanism.
(c) The Scott-Russell Mechanism. This straight-line motion is
shown in Fig. 84. It differs from the two mechanisms which
have just been described in one important respect—the straight
line is not generated but is merely copied. The mechanism is
essentially the same as that of the reciprocating engine. The
crank OC is equal in length to the connecting rod CP and P is
constrained to move along a straight path by a crosshead and guide

FIG. 84

bars. The connecting rod is extended to Q, such that CQ = CP,

and it is easily seen that Q then moves along a straight path
normal to OP. The exactness with which Q follows a straight
path obviously depends upon the exactness with which P is
guided along a straight path. This straight-line motion is not of
much practical value, since it makes use of a sliding pair, the fric-
tion and wear of which are always higher than those of a turning
pair.

58. Approximate Straight-line Motions. A large number of

mechanisms have been devised in order to give a path which is
approximately straight. Most of these mechanisms are derived
from the four-bar chain.
126 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

(a) The Watt Mechanism. The type of motion used by Watt

to guide the piston rod of many of his early steam engines is
shown in Fig. 80 and is drawn to an enlarged scale in Fig. 85.
The links OA and DC oscillate about the fixed centres 0 and C
and the point Q on the connecting link AD describes the figure-
of-eight path which is shown in dotted lines. When the position
of Q along AD is suitably chosen, part of the path of Q is approxi-
mately straight. The length of the link AD is such that, for the
position of the mechanism in which OA and DC are parallel, it is
approximately perpendicular to OA and DC.

The best position of Q may be found by making use of the

instantaneous centre of AD. For the position of the mechanism
shown by full lines the instantaneous centre of AD is given by I,
the point of intersection of OA produced and DC produced.
The point on AD which at this instant is moving in a vertical
direction is given by the point of intersection Q of a horizontal line
through I with AD. For the dotted position in which OA and
DC are parallel and horizontal, all points on AD are moving in
the vertical direction.
Since the angles 9 and </> are small DQ/AQ 9/<f>.
But 9 — DDj/DC and <f> = AAl/OA T>T>l/OA
DQ/AQ -OA/DC
The point Q should therefore divide AD such that
AQ : QD:: DC: AO
(b) The Grasshopper Mechanism. The grasshopper straight-
line motion is shown in Fig. 86. The centres 0 and Q are fixed.
The pin A moves along a curved path with Q as centre and QA
as radius and the pin B moves along a curved path with 0 as
centre and OB as radius. The point P on an extension of the link
AB describes an approximately straight path for small angular
displacements of OB on each side of the horizontal. The degree
of approximation involved in this mechanism may be seen by
IV] MECHANISMS WITH LOWER PAIRS 127
comparing it with the ellipse trammels, Fig. 9 (a). In order that
P may describe an exact straight line, the point A ought to move
along a straight path which passes through 0, and B ought to

move along the arc of an ellipse of which PB is the semi-major

axis and BA is the semi-minor axis. The length of PB would
then be equal to AB2/OB. If the distance PB in the grasshopper
mechanism is made equal to this length, the path of P will be
approximately straight and perpendicular to AO. A better way
of fixing the point P is to find the instantaneous centre of PA in
several positions of the mechanism. For each position find the
point at which a horizontal line drawn through the instantaneous
centre intersects the link AB produced. The points thus obtained
will clearly be moving in a vertical direction at the given instants,
but their distances from B will be different and the mean distance
will give the best position for P. In the figure this construction
has been applied in two positions of the mechanism. Ix and I2
are the respective instantaneous centres and 1\ and P2 the
respective points which are moving in the vertical direction.
The distance PB is intermediate between PiBx and P2B2.
(c) The Tchebicheff Straight-line Mo-
tion: Fig. 87. This is a four-bar chain
in which the crossed links AB and CD
are equal in length. The tracing point
P is situated at the mid-point of the
link BC. The proportions of the links
are usually such that P is directly above
A or D in the extreme positions of the
mechanism, i.e. when CB lies along AB
or when CB lies along CD. It can
easily be shown that in these circum-
stances the tracing point P will lie on Fia. 87
128 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

a straight line parallel to AD in the two extreme positions and

in the mid-position if BC: AD: AB :: 1:2 :2-5.
(d) The Roberts Straight-line Motion: Fig. 88. This also is a
four-bar chain. The links AB and CD are of equal length and the
tracing point P is rigidly attached to
the link BC on a line which bisects BC
at right angles. The best position for
P may be found by making use of
the instantaneous centre of BC as ex-
plained in connection with the grass-
hopper mechanism. The path of P is
clearly approximately horizontal in the
Roberts mechanism.
(e) Straight-line Motions based on
the Slider-crank Chain. Straight-line
motions in which a sliding pair is used
are not very often employed, although
inversions of the slider-crank chain are
possible as shown in Fig. 89. The type
of motion shown at (a) is similar to the
grasshopper mechanism, except that A
has a straight-line motion instead of
describing a circular arc. The type of
motion shown at (b) is essentially the
same inversion of the slider-crank chain as the oscillating-cylinder
engine. As the crank OC revolves, the link OP slides in the
pivoted block Q. The best position for the tracing point P may
be found in each of these mechanisms by using the instantaneous
centre as already explained.

59. Straight-line Motions for Engine Indicators. One of the

most interesting applications of straight-line motions is to be
found in the pencil mechanisms of engine indicators. In these
instruments a small piston is acted upon by the steam or gas
pressure in the cylinder. The displacement of the piston is
resisted by a spring and the amount of the displacement is directly
proportional to the pressure exerted by the steam or gas. The
IV] MECHANISMS WITH LOWER PAIRS 129
pencil which records on a diagram the variation of pressure in the
cylinder is required to reproduce to an enlarged scale the displace-
ment of the indicator piston. The most direct way of doing this
is to use a pantograph, as shown in Fig. 90. Here 0 is a fulcrum
fixed to the body of the indicator and A, B, C and Q are pin-joints.
The distance between the pins A and B is equal to that between the
pins Q and C and the distance between the pins A and Q is equal
to that between the pins B and C. The link BC is extended to
P such that 0, Q and P lie in one straight line. It follows from
Article 55 that with this arrangement the displacement of Q is
reproduced to an enlarged scale by P, so that if Q is attached to
the piston rod of the indicator and moves along the line of stroke
of the piston, P will move along a parallel line. From the purely
theoretical point of view this mechanism is ideal. It satisfies
the two essential conditions, viz. (a) that the line of stroke of the
pencil shall be parallel to that of the piston, and (b) that the

displacement of the pencil shall be directly proportional to the

displacement of the piston. From the practical point of view,
however, there are serious objections to the mechanism. In the
first place the accuracy of the straight-line motion of P depends
upon the accuracy of the motion of Q. Any deviation of Q from a
straight path involves a proportionate deviation of P from a
straight path. In the second place slackness due to wear in any
of the five pin-joints A, B, C, O and Q destroys the accuracy of
the motion of P, and in view of the relatively short distance
between pins A and 0 the effect of wear in the former is particularly
harmful.
It is more satisfactory in practice to have the mechanism so
arranged that the pencil moves along a straight or an approxi-
mately straight path quite independently of the path followed by
Q. This reduces the number of pin-joints on whose tightness the
accuracy of the path followed by P depends. The mechanisms
of two indicators in which the path of P is independent of that of
5—T.M.
130 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Q are drawn diagrammatically in Fig. 91. That shown at (a) is

the mechanism of the Thompson indicator, while (b) shows the
mechanism of the Dobbie Mclnnes indicator. In each case it
will be seen that the links OA, AB, BR and RO constitute a
straight-line motion of the grasshopper type. The best position
for the tracing point P may be found by making use of the
instantaneous centre of the link AB as already explained. There
are only four pin-joints in the mechanism which determines the
path of P and none of the links is very short, so that the effect of
wear at the joints is minimised.

The only real difference between the two mechanisms is that

in one the motion of the indicator piston is transmitted from Q to
the pin C on the link AB, while in the other it is transmitted from
Q to the pin C on the link BR. The links QC and OA should be
approximately parallel.
The approximate value of the ratio of the displacement of P to
the displacement of Q may be expressed in terms of the lengths of
the links. Since the ratio of the displacements is to be constant,
it follows that the ratio of the velocities of P and Q at any given
instant must be constant.
m MECHANISMS WITH LOWER PAIRS 131
For the given position of each mechanism the link AB is turning
about the centre I, which lies at the point of intersection of RB
produced with AO, produced if necessary, and IP is approxi-
mately perpendicular to the ^ine of stroke of the piston.
For the Thompson mechanism the pin C is moving in a direction
normal to IC, while the pin Q is moving along the line of stroke,
so that IT is the centre about which the link CQ is turning, where
QIX is perpendicular to the line of stroke of Q. Let CQ intersect
IP at D. Then:
vjvq = IiC/IiQ = IC/ID
vjvc = IP/IC
%IV<1 = vjvc.vc/vq = IP/ID
If the links QC and OA are parallel, the triangles PCD, PAI are
similar, so that IP/ID = AP/AC and vjvq = AP/AC.
The links QC and OA cannot be exactly parallel, nor can the
line IP be exactly perpendicular to the line of stroke of the piston
for all positions of the mechanism. Hence the ratio of the dis-
placement of P to the displacement of Q cannot be quite con-
stant. The variations from the value AP.AC are, however, for
all practical purposes negligible.
Similarly, for the Dobbie Mclnnes mechanism I and Ij are
respectively the instantaneous centres of AB and CQ, while R is
the centre about which BR turns.
vjvq = IjC/^Q = IC/ID
Also vh/vc = RB/RC and vjvh = IP/IB
vjvq = vjvh.vjvc.vjvq = IP/IB.RB/RC.IC/ID
But if BT is drawn parallel to CQ,
IT/IB = ID/IC or IT = (IB.ID)/IC
Substituting, vjv q = IP/IT. RB/RC
If QC and AO are parallel, the triangles PBT, PAI are similar,
IP/IT = AP/AB, so that vjvq = AP/AB.RB/RC
This expression gives approximately the ratio of the displacement
of P to the displacement of Q.
60. The Motor-car Steering Gear. The relative motion between
the wheels of a self-propelled vehicle and the road surface should
be one of pure rolling. In order to satisfy this condition when the
vehicle is moving along a curved path, the steering gear must be
so designed that the paths of the points of contact of each wheel
with the ground are concentric circular arcs. Steering is usually
effected by turning the axes of rotation of the two front wheels
132 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

relative to the chassis or body of the vehicle, and, to satisfy the

above condition, the axis of the wheel on the inside of the curve
must be turned through a larger angle than the axis of the wheel
on the outside of the curve. The front wheels are mounted on

FIG. 92

short separate axles which are pivoted to the chassis of the car.
In Fig. 92 a plan view is shown in which AB and CD are the two
axles with pivots at A and C. When turning to the right the axes
AB and CD intersect the common axis EF of the rear wheels at
the point G, so that the path of contact of each wheel with the
ground is a circular arc with centre G.
From the figure
AC = EF = EG—FG = AE cot <£-CF cot 9
cot 0—cot 9 — AC/AE = a/w . . (4.2)
The two front axles must therefore be operated by the steering
gear in such a way that this equation is satisfied whatever the
radius of curvature of the path followed by the car. Two
different steering mechanisms will be described: (a) The Davis
steering gear, and (b) the Ackermann steering gear.
(a) The Davis Steering Gear: Fig. 93. In this mechanism the
arms AK and CL are fixed to the axles so as to form bell-crank
levers and the angles BAK, DCL are equal. The arms are slotted
and slide relative to two die-blocks which are pivoted to the link
MN. The link MN is supported in guides so as to be able to move
parallel to the link AC. Steering is effected by sliding MN either
to the right or to the left. When the gear is in the mid-position
and the car is moving along a straight path the steering arms AK
and CL are each inclined at the angle a to the centre line of the
car. If, now, the link MN is moved through a distance x to the
right relative to the chassis, the bell-crank levers BAK and DCL
are moved to the dotted positions and BA and CD when produced
intersect at G.
IV] MECHANISMS WITH LOWER PAIRS 133
Let cf> and 9 be the angles through which the arms AK and CL
are turned by the displacement of MN.

Let h be the distance of MN from AC and 26 the difference

between AC and MN.
Then
tan a == b/h, tan (a+</>) = (b+x)/h and tan (a— 9) = (6— x)/h
tan a+tan </> b-\-x
But tan (a +©) = ,—T r 1 -
h
' ^ 1 —tan a tan 4>
Substituting for tan a and simplifying, we get:
f xh
taD
9 = ‘ *
(4.3)

tan a—tan 9 b—x

Also tan («-fl) = 1+tanatan0 = T

Substituting for tan a and simphfying, we get:

cell/
tan 6 = ^+b2-bx * • * * (4 4)
'

From (4.3) and (4.4):

h2-\-b2jrbx h2-\-b2—bx
cot 4— cot 9 = a S
= 2b/h — 2 tan a (4.5)
But, for the steering to be correct, we have from (4.2) that:
cot (f>—cot 9 = a/w
2 tan a = ajw
or tan a = a/2w; .... (4.6)
The disadvantages of the Davis gear are that, owing to the
number of sliding pairs, friction is high and the wear which takes
134 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

place at the contact surfaces rapidly impairs the accuracy of the

mechanism.
(b) The Ackermann Steering Gear: Fig. 94. This mechanism
is very much simpler than that of the Davis gear. It consists
only of turning pairs and is based on a four-bar chain in which the
two longer links AC and KL are unequal in length while the two
shorter links AK and CL are equal in length. In the mid-position,
when the car is moving along a straight path, the longer links are
parallel and each of the shorter links is inclined at the angle a to
the longitudinal axis of the car. In order to steer the car to the
right the short link CL is turned so as to increase a, while the long
link LK causes the other short link AK to turn so as to reduce a.
It is clear from the arrangement of the links that the angle </>
through which AK turns is less than the angle 9 through which

CL turns, and therefore the left front axle turns through a

smaller angle than the right front axle. It is also clear that the
value of </> obtained for a given value of 9 will depend upon the
ratio AK/AC and the angle a. For given values of AK/AC and
a, corresponding values of 9 and </> may be obtained either graphic-
ally or by calculation. The difference between cot </> and cot 9 for
each pair of corresponding values of 9 and (/> will be found to
increase, at first slowly and then more rapidly, as 6 increases. As
an example, corresponding values of 9, <f> and cot cf>—cot 9 have
been calculated for a mechanism in which AK/AC = 1/8’5 and
a = 18°, and are shown in the table below.
<N

O
O

IQ
O

e ... . 10° 30°

<f> ... . 9° 25' 17° 43' 24° 49' 30° 34' 34° 43'
cot <f> — cot 6 . 0-356 0-383 0-431 0-501 0-604
CO

o
GO

IQ

rf’e • • • • 9° 21' 17° 38' 25° 8' 32° 8'

IV] MECHANISMS WITH LOWER PAIRS 135
But cot </> —cot 0 = AC/QP, where P is the point of intersection
of BA and CD produced.
Since for correct steering P ought to lie on the common axis
of the rear wheels, it follows that the Ackermann mechanism can
only give correct steering for one value of 6 apart from the value
0 — 0. There will, of course, be a corresponding value of 0 when
the car is turning to the left. If the distance AC is 0*4 times the
wheelbase of the car, which is approximately correct for a private
car, a mechanism of the above proportions would give correct
steering for 6 cn 24°. For smaller values of 0 the angle </> given by
the mechanism would be too high for correct steering and for
larger values of 6 it would be too low. The values of (/> required
for correct steering are shown in the last line of the table. It
will be seen that the errors in the values of </> given by the
mechanism are negligible except when 0 is large. But when 0 is
large the speed of the car will of necessity be low and a small
error in the angle </> will not seriously affect the wear of the tyres.
For a given value AK/AC a reduction in the value of a causes a
reduction in the value of AC/QP. Similarly, for a given value of a
a reduction in the value of AK/AC causes a reduction in the value
of AC/QP, although the effect of a change in the ratio AK/AC is
relatively small. When the gear is in the mid-position and the
car is moving along a straight path, it will be found that the dis-
tance of the point of intersection of the arms AK and CL from the
line AC should be about 0-7 of the wheelbase in order to give the
best results. Increasing this distance causes an increase in the
value of 6 at which correct steering is obtained.

61. Hooke’s Joint: Fig. 95. This joint is used to connect two
non-parallel, intersecting shafts. The end of each shaft is forked
and each fork provides two bearings for the
arms of a cross. The arms of the cross are
at right angles and the cross serves to
transmit motion from the driving to the
driven shaft. The inclination of the
driven shaft to the driving shaft may be
constant, but usually it varies while the
motion is being transmitted. Examples FIG. 95

of the application of Hooke’s joint, or the

universal joint, as it is more frequently called, are to be found in
the transmission from the gear-box to the back axle of auto-
mobiles and in the transmission of the drive to the spindles of
multiple drilling machines.
In Fig. 96, an end elevation looking along the axis of the driving
shaft and a plan are shown. The planes of rotation of the two
136 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

arms of the cross are represented by the traces PP and QQ in plan.

The plane of rotation of the arm attached to the driving shaft is
represented by the plane of the paper in elevation.
Let the initial position of the cross be such that both arms lie
in the plane of the paper in elevation, while the arm AB attached
to the driving shaft lies in the plane containing the axes of the two

shafts. Let the driving shaft turn through the angle 6, so that
the arm AB is displaced to AjB^ Then the projection 0^! of
the other arm CD must also turn through the angle 6. But the
true length of CiO is given by C20 and therefore the angle through
which the driven shaft has turned is given by <f>.
From the figure,
tan <f> = 0N/NC2 and tan 6 = OM/MCi = 0M/NC2
tan 0/tan 6 = ON/NC2.NC2/OM = ON/OM
If a is the inclination of the driven shaft to the driving shaft, then
clearly OM/ON = cos a, so that tan </>/tan 0 = 1 /cos a,
or tan 6 — cos a tan </>.... (4.7)
Let to = angular velocity of the driving shaft = dd/dt
and co! = angular velocity of the driven shaft = d<f)jdt.
IV] MECHANISMS WITH LOWER PAIRS 137

Differentiating both sides of (4.7):

sec2 9.dd/dt = cos a sec2 (f).d(f>/dt
co/ap = cos a sec2 </>/sec2 9 — cos a cos2 9 sec2 4>

But sec2 cf> — 1+tan2 </>, and, substituting for tan </> from (4.7):

2 tan2 9 cos2 a cos 2

0+sin2 9
sec (p ^“^0032 a cos2 a cos2 9

1 —cos2 9 sin2 a
cos2 a cos2 9

• a> _____ 1—cos2 9 sin2 a

(4.8)
aq cos a

For a given value of a this expression is a maximum when

cos 9 = 0, i.e. when 9 = n/2, 37T/2, etc.; and it is a minimum when
cos 9 = i 1, i.e. when 9 = 0, TT, etc.
If the speed a> of the driving shaft is constant, the maximum
speed CD i of the driven shaft is given by op/to = 1/cos a and the
minimum speed of the driven shaft by cD1/CD = cos a.
The value of 9 for which the speeds of the driving and the driven
shafts are equal may be found by equating (4.8) to unity.

Then 1 — cos2 9 sin2 a = cos a

1— cos a 1
cos2 9 =
sin2 a 1-f-cos a
cos a
sin2 9 = 1—cos2 9 —
1+cosa

and 2
tan 9 = cos a or tan 9 = ■y/cos a . (4.9)

The angular acceleration of the driven shaft is given by daq/d^,

dap dap d9 dap —CD
2
cos a sin2 a sin 29
=
(4.10)
“dT W’di d9 — (1 —cos2 9 sin2 a)2

The value of 9 for which the acceleration is a maximum may be

found by differentiating with respect to 9 and equating to zero.
The resulting expression is, however, very cumbersome, and it will
be found that the following expression, which is derived from the
exact expression by a simple approximation, gives results which
are sufficiently close for most practical purposes:
2 sin2 a
cos 29 (4.11)
2—sin2 a

Even for a value of a as high as 30° this equation gives the value
of 9 accurate to within a few minutes. It should be noted that
5*—T.M.
138 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the angular acceleration of the driven shaft is a maximum when 6

is approximately 45°, 135°, etc., i.e. when the arms of the cross are
inclined at 45° to the plane containing the axes of the two shafts.
Since the universal joint provides a rigid connection between the
two shafts so far as the transmission of torque is concerned, the
moment of inertia of the masses attached to the driven shaft
must be small. Otherwise very high alternating stresses may be
set up in the parts of the joint owing to the alternate angular
acceleration and retardation. The larger the shaft angle a the
higher is the acceleration, so that this angle should always be
kept as small as possible. In some drives a double universal
joint is used. The power is transmitted from the driving shaft
to the driven shaft through an intermediate shaft, at each end
of which there is a universal joint. If the driving shaft and the
driven shaft are equally inclined to the intermediate shaft and
the two forks on the intermediate shaft lie in the same plane, it
is easily seen that the speeds of the driving and the driven shafts
are identical at every instant and fluctuations of speed are confined
to the intermediate shaft which may be made short and light.
Example 1. A universal joint is used to connect two shafts
which are inclined at 20° and the speed of the driving shaft is
1000 r.p.m. Find the extreme angular velocities of the driven
shaft and its maximum acceleration.
The angular velocity of the driving shaft
= a; = 7r. 1000/30 = 104-7 rad/s
But maximum value of oq = a>/cos 20° = 111-4 rad/s and
minimum value of tcq = co cos 20° = 98-3 rad/s.
Using the approximate equation (4.11), the acceleration of the
driven shaft is a maximum when:
2 sin2 20° 2.0-1170
cos 26 ~
2—sin2 20° 1-883
26 = 82° 52' or 277° 8'
6 = 41° 26' or 138° 34'
Substituting for a>, a and 6 in (4.10), the maximum angular
acceleration of the driven shaft is given numerically by:
2
0-9397.0-34202.0-9923
/100T7\
\ 3 / (1— 0-74972.0-34202)2 = 1373 rad s2
/
The acceleration is in the opposite direction to the velocity, i.e.
the driven shaft has maximum retardation, when 6 = 41° 26' or
180 +41 26 ; and it is in the same direction as the velocity when
6 = 138° 34' or 180° + 138° 34'.
IV] MECHANISMS WITH LOWER PAIRS 139

EXAMPLES IV

1. For what purpose is a pantograph used? Sketch one form of pantograph

and show that it satisfies the required conditions.

2. Let OR be the diameter of a circle and Q a point on the circumference of

the circle. Join O to Q and let P be a point on OQ produced. Show that, if OQ
turns about O as centre and the product OQ. OP remains constant, the point P
will move along a straight path perpendicular to the diameter OR.

3. Sketch the Peaucellier or the Hart straight-line motion and prove that the
tracing point P describes a straight-line path.

4. Fig. 97 shows to scale the mechanism of the Crosby engine indicator. Show
that the pencil point P traces a path which is approximately parallel to that of
the indicator piston. What is the ratio of the displacement of the pencil to the
displacement of the piston ?

5. Fig. 98 shows part of the mechanism of a circuit breaker. A and D are

fixed centres and the lengths of the links are: AB, 4-5 in.; BC, 4-25 in.; and
CD, 6 in. Find the position of a point P on BC produced that will trace out an
approximately straight vertical path 10 in. long.

6. The mechanism in Fig. 99 is a four-bar kinematic chain of which the centres

A and B are fixed. The dimensions are AB = 2 ft, AC = CD = DB = 1 ft.
140 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Find a point G on the centre line of the cross arm of which the locus is an
approximately straight line even for considerable displacements from the position
shown. L.U.A.

7. The distance between the fixed centres O and C of a Watt straight-line

motion. Fig. 85, is 10f in. The lengths of the three moving links OA, AD and
DC are respectively 6 in., 3 in. and 4 in. Find the position of a point Q on AD
which gives the best straight-line motion. Draw the complete path traced out
by this point when the levers move through their full range of movement.

8. Describe one form of mechanism, consisting of turning pairs only, that will
give an exact straight-line motion to a given point. Prove that the path followed
by the point is a true straight line.

9. Sketch two different forms of straight-line motion which are based on the
four-bar kinematic chain. Show how the best position for the tracing point may
be found.
10. Show that for the Tchebicheff straight-line motion, Fig. 87, the point P
which bisects the link BC will lie on a straight line parallel to AD when it is
directly above A, D and the mid-point of AD, if the proportions of the links are
BC: AD : AB :: 1: 2 : 2 -5.

11. A straight-line motion of the type shown in Fig. 89 (b) has the following
dimensions. The distance between the fixed centres C and Q is 2 in. and the length
of the link OC is 1 in. Find the best position for the tracing point P in order that
it may follow an approximately straight path perpendicular to CQ while OC
swings through an angle of 60° on each side of the dead-centre position.

12. What condition must be satisfied by the steering mechanism of a car in

order that the wheels may have a pure rolling motion when rounding a curve ?
Deduce the relationship between the inclinations of the front stub axles to the
rear axle, the distance between the pivot centres for the front axles and the
wheelbase of the car.
13. Sketch the Davis steering gear and show that it satisfies the required
conditions for correct steering.
If the distance between the pivots of the front axles is 3 ft 6 in. and the wheel-
base is 8 ft 6 in., find the inclination of the track arms to the longitudinal axis of
the car when the car is moving along a straight path.

14. The distance between the pivots of the front stub axles of a car is 51 in.,
the length of each track arm is 6 in. and the length of the track rod is 47-5 in.
If the wheelbase of the car is 112 in. and the track is 56 in., find the radius of
curvature of the path followed by the near-side front wheel at which correct
steering is obtained when the car is turning to the right.
IV] MECHANISMS WITH LOWER PAIRS 141
15. A car with a track of 4 ft 10 in. and a wheelbase of 9 ft has a steering
mechanism of the Ackermann type, but with the track rod in front of the
axle instead of behind it. The distance between the front stub axle pivots is
4 ft, the length of each track arm is 6 in. and the length of the track rod is
4 ft 4| in. Find the radius of curvature of the path followed by the near-side
front wheel when the steering is correct and the car is turning to the right.

16. Two shafts are coupled together by a Hooke’s joint, the driving shaft
rotating uniformly at 600 r.p.m.
Find the greatest permissible angle between the shafts if the maximum speed
of the follower shaft is 630 r.p.m. Prove your reasoning. What is then the
minimum speed of this shaft ?
State the conditions under which two shafts connected together by a double
Hooke’s joint shall have the same angular velocities. L.U.A.

17. Two shafts, the axes of which intersect, are coupled by a Hooke’s joint.
The driving shaft rotates uniformly and the total variation in speed of the driven
shaft is not to exceed 8% of the mean speed. What is the greatest possible
inclination of the centre lines of the shafts ? L.U.A.

18. A Hooke’s joint is to connect two shafts whose axes intersect at 150°. The
driving shaft rotates uniformly at 120 r.p.m. Deduce a general expression for
the angular velocity of the driven shaft.
The driven shaft operates against a steady torque of 100 lb ft and carries a
flywheel whose weight is 100 lb and radius of gyration 0-5 ft. What is the
maximum value of the torque which must be exerted by the driving shaft ?
L.U.A.

19 Two shafts A and B are connected together by a Hooke’s joint with the
axes inclined at 15°. The shaft A revolves at 2000 r.p.m. and the shaft B carries
a flywheel of weight 20 lb and radius of gyration 3 in. Find the maximum torque
in shaft B if it is assumed that the two shafts are torsionally rigid.
 CHAPTER V

VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS

62. The ideal form of the indicator diagram, which shows

the cycle of operations in a steam-engine cylinder, is illustrated
in Fig. 100. Admission of the live steam takes place at point
A, just before the piston reaches the end of the return stroke,
and continues until the piston reaches the point B on the out-
ward stroke. Cut-off then takes place, followed by expan-
sion of the steam to point C, when
B the valve opens to exhaust and release
takes place. Exhaust continues during
the return stroke until at point D the
valve closes. The steam which remains
in the cylinder is compressed from D to
A and acts as a cushion for the recipro-
cating parts.
In most steam engines a slide valve is used to determine the
positions of the piston at which admission, cut-off, release and
compression take place. Fig. 101 (a) shows diagrammatically the
usual arrangement of valve, valve chest and cylinder for a double-
acting engine. Steam from the boiler is admitted to the valve
chest through 0. The recess D in the valve is always in com-
munication with the port E and this, in turn, is open either to
atmosphere or to the condenser. Ports P serve to convey steam
to and from the cylinder. The valve is driven from an eccentric
keyed to the crankshaft. It reciprocates across the ports and
opens them alternately to admit high-pressure steam from the
valve chest and to exhaust the used steam through recess D to
the exhaust port E.
In the figure the valve is shown in its mid-position relative to
the ports. The outer edge of the valve overlaps the port P by
the amount s, termed the steam lap. The inner edge of the valve
overlaps the port P by the amount e, termed the exhaust lap.
In considering the displacement of the valve it will generally
be sufficiently accurate to assume that it takes place with simple
harmonic motion, since the obliquity of the eccentric rod is very
small. On this assumption the eccentric centre line OE will be
142
CHAP v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 143
at right angles to the line of stroke when the valve is in its mid-
position. This is shown to the right of Fig. 101 (a) for clockwise
rotation of the crank.
An alternative type of valve is shown in Fig. 101 (b). This valve
possesses certain advantages over the ordinary slide or D-valve,
particularly for high-pressure, superheated steam. The valve
consists essentially of two rigidly connected pistons which work in
cylindrical liners and control the admission to, and exhaust from,
the two ends of the cylinder. With this valve there is no un-
balanced steam thrust between the valve and its seat, such as
exists with the D-slide valve, and the power absorbed in operating

the valve is therefore reduced. The live steam is usually admitted

to the space between the two pistons and exhaust takes place from
the ends of the valve chest. This has the advantage that the
valve spindle packing, where the spindle passes through the end
of the valve chest, is only subjected to the relatively low tempera-
ture and pressure of the exhaust steam and leakage is reduced.
Most locomotives and the high-pressure cylinders of marine
engines are fitted with piston valves. For clockwise rotation of
the crank and with the valve in its mid-position, the eccentric
position is shown to the right of Fig. 101 (b).
63. Relative Positions of Crank and Eccentric Centre Lines.
(a) Outside Admission. At the beginning of the stroke of the
piston from left to right, Fig. 102 (a), the crank will be on the dead
centre and in order to admit steam the valve must be displaced
from its mid-position towards the right by an amount at least
equal to the steam lap s. In practice the displacement of the
valve is greater than this by an amount l, termed the lead of the
144 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

valve. Tlie provision of lead ensures a larger opening of the port

to steam during the early part of the stroke of the piston, and
results in less wire-drawing or throttling of the steam during the
admission period.
To give the above displacement of the valve from its mid-
position, the eccentric centre line must be in advance of the 90°
position by an angle a, such that sin a = (s+Z)/OE.
The angle a is termed the angle of advance of the eccentric.
The relative positions of the crank and eccentric centre lines
remain unchanged during rotation of the crank. They are shown
to the right of Fig. 102 (a).

(b) Inside Admission. At the beginning of the outward stroke

of the piston, from left to right, Fig. 102 (b), the crank is on the
inner dead centre and, in order to admit steam, the valve must be
displaced from its mid-position towards the left by an amount at
least equal to the steam lap s. As in the case of outside admission,
the valve is given lead and the relative positions of the crank and
eccentric centre lines are as shown at the right of Fig. 102 (b).
As before, sin a = (<s-M)/OE, but the angle of advance is now
180°+a.

64. Crank Positions for Admission, Cut-off, Release and Com-

pression. In this Article the case of a valve with outside admission
is considered. The same principles may be applied to a valve
with inside admission.
At admission and cut-off for the cover end of the cylinder the
outer edge of the valve coincides with the outer edge of the port.
The valve is therefore displaced from its mid-position towards the
v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 145
right by an amount equal to the steam lap s, Fig. 103. At
admission the valve is moving towards the right, as shown by the
arrow A, so as to open the port to steam, whereas at cut-off the
valve is moving towards the left, as shown by the arrow B, so as

to close the port to steam. For clockwise rotation of the crank

these conditions can evidently be satisfied only if the eccentric
centre line occupies the position Oa at admission and Ob at cut-off.
The corresponding crank positions are then given by OA and OB
where
AAOa = /.BOb = 90°+a
Similarly, at release and compression the valve is displaced
from its mid-position towards the left by an amount equal to the
exhaust lap e, Fig. 104, so that the inner edge of the valve coin-

cides with the inner edge of the port. At release the valve is
moving towards the left, as shown by arrow C, so as to open the
port to exhaust, while at compression the valve is moving
146 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

towards the right, as shown by arrow D, so as to close the port

to exhaust. To satisfy these conditions for clockwise rotation of
the crank, the eccentric centre line must occupy the position Oc
at release and Od at compression and the corresponding positions
of the crank centre line must be OC and OD, where
/_COc — ,/DOd = 90°-j-a
The four diagrams (a) and (b) of Fig. 103 and (c) and (d) of
Fig. 104 have been combined into a single diagram, Fig. 105 (a).
Below this diagram at (b) is shown the approximate shape of the
ideal indicator diagram, when the effect of the obliquity of the
connecting rod is neglected.

The crank positions at which admission, cut-off, release and

compression occur may be obtained directly by calculation as
follows:
If the valve is assumed to have simple harmonic motion, its
displacement from the mid-position for a crank angle 6 is given by
x — t sin (#-fa) .... (5.1)
where t = throw of eccentric and a = angle of advance of eccentric.
But at admission and cut-off x = steam lap s.
.*. s — t sin (0-f-a)
or
0+a = sin -1(s/0 .... (5.2)
The two values of 6 which satisfy this equation give the crank
positions for admission and cut-off.
v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 147
Similarly, at release and compression, x — exhaust lap e and is
negative.
.*. — e = t sin (0+a)
or 0+a = sin-1( — ejt) . . . (5.3)
The two values of 9 which satisfy this equation give the crank
positions for release and compression.
Example 1. Let s = 1^ in., e = J in., t = 2J in., a = 35°.
Then, from (5.2), at admission and cut-off,
0-j-a = sin-1(,s/£) == sin_1(lT25/2-25) = 30° or 150°
at admission 6 = 30°—35° = —5° and at cut-off 9 — 150°—35°
= 115°.
And from (5.3), at release and compression:
0+oc = sin-i(-e/0 = sin~i(-0-25/2-25) = 180°+6° 23'
or 360°—6° 23'
at release: 9 = 186° 23'—35° = 151° 23'
and at compression: 9 = 353° 37'—35° = 318° 37'
Fig. 105 is drawn to scale for the particulars given in this
example.

65. Valve Diagrams. There are several graphical constructions

which enable the crank positions for admission, cut-off, release

and compression to be found directly without first determining

the eccentric positions. Two of these constructions follow.
(a) The Reuleaux Diagram: Fig. 106. This diagram is simple
to draw and for most problems on slide valves is the best one to
148 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

use. A circle is drawn on AB as diameter, where AB is equal to

the valve travel. For clockwise rotation of the crank a diameter
PQ is drawn making an angle a (the angle of advance) with the
diameter AB. Chords FG and KH are drawn parallel to diameter
PQ and at distances from it respectively equal to the steam lap s
and the exhaust lap e. The extremities F, G, H and K of the
two chords are joined to the centre 0 of the circle in order to
give the crank positions required.
Thus OF is the crank position for admission,
OG ,, ,, cut-off,
OH ,, ,, release,
OK ,, „ compression.
Proof of the Construction. Take any crank position OC making
an angle 9 with the i.d.c. Draw CY perpendicular to PQ.
Then CY = OC sin COY = OC sin (0-j-a) = t sin(0-f-a).
But t sin (0+a) = x — the displacement of the valve from its
mid-position corresponding to crank angle 6, equation (5.1).
CY = x
With the above construction the length of the perpendicular
from C to the diameter PQ is equal to the valve displacement
from mid-position when the crank is in the position OC.
By construction the length of this perpendicular is equal to the
steam lap s when the crank is in the position OF or OG. There-
for OF and OG must be respectively the crank positions for
admission and cut-off.
Similarly, when the crank is in the position OH or OK the
length of the perpendicular from H or K on PQ is equal to the
exhaust lap e. OH and OK must therefore be respectively the
crank positions for release and compression.
Opening of the Port to Steam. For the crank position OC, the
displacement CY of the valve from its mid-position exceeds
the steam lap s by the amount CD. CD therefore represents the
amount of the port opening to steam. It follows from this that
when the crank is on the inner dead centre, the perpendicular
distance from A to chord FG will be equal to the lead of the valve.
The maximum possible opening of the port to steam is evidently
the difference between the half-travel t of the valve and the steam
lap s.
Similarly, the maximum possible opening of the port to exhaust
is the difference between the half-travel t of the valve and the
exhaust lap e. This difference may exceed the width of the
m VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 149
actual port P, Fig. 101, through which the steam is admitted to
and exhausted from the cylinder. In that case the port P will
remain fully open for a certain period of crank rotation. The
duration of this period may be found by drawing a chord LM
parallel to KH at a distance from it equal to the width p of the
steam port. The port will remain fully open to exhaust during
the rotation of the crank from OM to OL.
(b) The Bilgram Valve Diagram: Fig. 107. As before, a circle
is drawn on a diameter AB equal to the valve travel and diameter
PQ is drawn inclined at the angle of advance a to AB. With
centre P (or Q) two circles are drawn with radii respectively equal
to the steam and exhaust laps.

FO produced and OG are tangential to the steam lap circle.

They represent respectively the crank positions for cut-off and
admission. Similarly KO produced and OH are tangential to the
exhaust lap circle and they represent respectively the crank posi-
tions for compression and release.
Proof of the Construction. Take any crank position OC. From
P and Q draw lines PX and QY perpendicular to OC to meet OC
and CO produced respectively at X and Y. Then triangles POX,
QOY are equal in all respects.
QY = PX = PO sin POX
= t sin (0-j-a)
/.PY = PX = displacement of the valve from its mid-position
corresponding to crank position OC. Hence, with this construc-
tion, the displacement of the valve from its mid-position for a
given crank position is equal to the perpendicular distance of P or
Q from that crank position.
150 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Since, by construction, the perpendicular distance of Q from

crank positions OF and OG is equal to the steam lap, these two
crank positions must correspond respectively to admission and
cut-off. In a similar way the distances of Q from OH and OK
are each equal to the exhaust lap. Therefore, OH and OK must
be respectively the crank positions for release and compression.
The port is open to steam while the crank turns from OF to OG,
and is open to exhaust while the crank turns from OK to OH. The
amount of port opening for any crank position such as OC is the
difference between PX and the steam lap, i.e. SX. For the dead-
centre position the port opening or lead is given by DE, where QE
is perpendicular to AB.
The maximum opening of the port to steam is the difference
between the half-travel of the valve and the steam lap. It is
given by OM. Similarly, the maximum opening of the port to
exhrust is given by OL.
For general purposes there is little to choose between the
Reuleaux and the Bilgram diagrams. Both constructions are
simple and accurate. The former has the advantage that it shows
up more clearly the variation of port opening as the crank revolves,
but against this must be placed the fact that the Bilgram diagram
is very much more easily adapted to the solution of a particular
type of problem which is of frequent occurrence. The particular
problem is that which faces the designer of a steam engine,
namely: Given the crank positions at which cut-off and release
are required to take place, and also the width of port required to
give a reasonable steam speed, what must be the throw and angle
of advance of the eccentric and the steam and exhaust laps of the
valve ?
This problem cannot be solved directly by the Reuleaux dia-
gram, but the Bilgram diagram may be used as follows:
Referring to Fig. 107, it will be seen that the point Q is:
(a) at a distance from 0 equal to the steam lap plus the maxi-
mum opening to steam,
(b) at a distance from OG equal to the steam lap,
(c) at a distance from AB equal to the steam lap plus the lead.
Draw a line AB, Fig. 108, to represent the line of stroke.
Through any point 0 on AB draw OG to indicate the crank position
at which cut-off takes place. Draw a circle with centre O and
radius equal to the maximum opening to steam. Parallel to and
above AB draw a line VW at a distance from AB equal to the
lead of the valve. (N.B.—1The amount of the lead would have to
be assumed, say, | in. to \ in.) The problem then resolves itself
into finding the position of point Q such that Q equidistant
v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 151
from OG, VW and the circle already drawn with centre 0. The
point Q may be found by trial, particularly if the line bisecting
the angle between OG and VW is first drawn, as Q must lie on
this bisecting fine.

When the position of Q has been found, the inclination of OQ

to AB will give the angle of advance and the length OQ will
give the throw of the eccentric. Moreover, the distance of Q from
OG will be the steam lap required for the valve and the distance
of Q from the dotted line OH, which is the crank position for
release, will give the exhaust lap. The valve diagram may then
be completed as shown in Fig. 107 and the crank positions for
admission and compression determined.
66. The Piston Positions for Admission, etc. The Reuleaux and
the Bilgram diagrams determine the crank positions at which the
chief events in the cycle take place. The corresponding piston
positions obviously depend on the ratio n of the length of the

connecting rod to the length of the crank. To find the piston

position for a given crank position, the construction shown in
Fig. 109 may be used. Let x be the displacement of the piston
from the beginning of the stroke when the crank is in the position
OC. Then, obviously, if the arc CQ is drawn with P as centre and
152 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

PC as radius, DQ = x. With centre on the line of stroke and

radius PC draw an arc through 0; through C draw CE parallel to
the line of stroke. Then CE = QO = distance of the piston from
mid-stroke when the crank is in the position OC. Hence, for any
crank position such as OF, the displacement of the piston from
mid-stroke is given by FG, where FG is drawn parallel to the line
of stroke. The total displacement of the piston from the beginning
of the stroke is given by x = DO+GF. For a double-acting
engine, in which the steam and exhaust laps are the same for both
ends of the valve, the crank positions at which admission, etc.,
take place at opposite ends of the cylinder will be similarly situ-
ated with respect to the two dead-centre positions of the crank.
But, owdng to the effect of the obliquity of the connecting rod, the
corresponding piston positions will not be similarly situated with
respect to the ends of the stroke. Thus in Fig. 110 the full lines
correspond to the steam cycle at the cover end of the cylinder
and the dotted lines to the steam cycle at the crank end of the
cylinder, the steam and exhaust laps at the cover end of the valve
having the same values as those at the crank end.
Example 2. Fig. 110 is drawn to scale for an engine with a
connecting rod to crank ratio of 4; the valve is driven from an
eccentric with a throw of 2\ in. and an angle of advance of 35°

and the steam and exhaust laps are respectively 1| in. and \ in.
The fractions of the stroke completed by the piston at admission,
etc., are given in the following table:
Cover end Crank end
Admission 0-996 0-998
Cut-off 0-761 0-660
Release 0-952 0-925
Compression 0-848 0-902
v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 153
It will be seen from these figures that admission and compression
take place later and cut-off and release take place earlier at the
crank end than at the cover end.
It is generally desirable to equalise as far as possible the work
done at the two ends of the cylinder. With this object the steam
lap at the crank end may be made smaller than that at the cover
end. For instance, in order to obtain cut-off at 0-761 of the stroke,
the steam lap at the crank end would have to be reduced to 0-69
in. Admission would then take place at 0-982 of the stroke.

67. The Rectangular Valve Diagram: Fig. 111. This diagram

enables the relative positions of the piston and the valve at any
point of the stroke to be determined. The valve and piston
displacements are plotted, not necessarily to the same scale, on a
crank angle base. For convenience the two displacement curves
are drawn with the line OX representing mid-stroke. In plotting
the two curves the actual values of the piston and valve displace-
ments for given values of the crank angles may be obtained either
graphically or by calculation. If the angle of advance of the
eccentric is a, then the eccentric leads the crank by the angle 90-fa

and consequently the valve displacement reaches its maximum

value for an angle 90+a in advance of that for which the piston
displacement is a maximum. To determine the events on the
cover side of the piston, the full lines AB and CD are drawn as
shown parallel to OX. The distances of AB and CD from OX
are equal respectively to the steam and exhaust laps for the cover
end of the valve and are set off to the same scale as the valve dis-
placement curve. The line AB cuts the valve displacement curve
at F and G. At G the valve is closing and cut-off is therefore
taking place. At F the valve is opening and admission is taking
place. The corresponding fractions of the stroke may be obtained
154 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

by projecting vertically from the valve displacement curve to

the piston displacement curve and then horizontally to the
piston displacement scale, as shown by the dotted lines FF2, F1F2
and GG2, G2G2. Since G2 is on the outward half of the piston
displacement curve, the fraction of the stroke at which cut-off
occurs is obtained by projecting from G2 horizontally to G2,
when the fraction is read from the left-hand scale as 0-86.
Similarly, since F2 is on the return half of the piston displacement
curve, F2 is projected horizontally to F2 on the right-hand scale
and the fraction of the stroke at which admission takes place is
read off as 0*99.
In the same way the points of release and compression may be
found. At the point of intersection H of the line CD and the
valve displacement curve, the port is opening to exhaust and
release is taking place, while at the point of intersection K the
port is closing to exhaust and compression is taking place. The
corresponding piston positions for release and compression are
shown by H2 and K2.
Reading from the scales, release takes place at 0-98 of the
outward stroke and compression begins at 0*85 of the return
stroke. The lead of the valve at the cover end is given by AL.
The port is open to steam for all crank positions from A to G and F
to B, and it is open to exhaust from the crank position H to the
crank position K. To determine the piston positions at which
the events on the crank side of the piston take place, the steam
and exhaust lap lines corresponding to the crank end of the valve
must be drawn as indicated by the dotted lines ab and cd. From
the points f, g, h and k, where these lap lines intersect the valve
displacement curve, vertical projection lines are drawn to meet
the piston displacement curve and horizontal projection lines
are then drawn to the piston displacement scales. To prevent
confusion the vertical and horizontal projection lines are not
shown in the figure.

68. The Oval Valve Diagram: Fig. 112. If the displacements of

the valve are plotted as ordinates against the displacements of
the piston as abscissae, the oval valve diagram is obtained. The
arrows serve to indicate the direction of the relative displacements
as the piston moves on the outward and return strokes. Owing
to the effect of the obliquity of the connecting rod and of the
eccentric rod the curve is flatter on the return stroke than on
the outward stroke. This diagram may be used to give directly the
piston positions at which the various events in the steam cycle
take place. The line OX is drawn across the diagram to corre-
spond to the mid-stroke of the valve. Lines AB and CD are
v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 155
drawn parallel to OX and at distances from OX respectively equal
to the steam lap and the exhaust lap at the cover end of the valve.
At the points G and F, where AB intersects the oval curve, the
displacement of the valve from its mid-position is equal to
the steam lap. The displacement of the valve is increasing at the
point F, so that this point corresponds to admission of the steam
to the cylinder, while at point G the displacement is decreasing
so that the supply of steam to the cylinder is cut-off. The point
G lies on the outward half of the displacement curve and the
fraction of the stroke at which cut-off occurs is found by projecting
vertically from G to the piston displacement scale at the top of the
diagram. For the given diagram this fraction is 0*86 of the
stroke. Similarly, the point F lies on the return half of the dis-
placement curve and, by projecting vertically downwards to the

FIG. 112

piston displacement scale at the bottom of the diagram, the

fraction of the stroke at which admission takes place is read off as
0*99. In the same way the point at which release takes place is
found to be 0-98 of the outward stroke and the point at which
compression begins is found to be 0-85 of the return stroke.
The timing of the events on the crank side of the piston may be
determined in exactly the same way by drawing the dotted lap
lines ab and cd, which correspond to the steam and exhaust laps
at the crank end of the valve.
The oval valve diagram, Fig. 112, is drawn to scale for the same
particulars as the rectangular valve diagram, Fig. 111.
The rectangular and the oval valve diagrams are particularly
useful for examining the timing of the events in the steam cycle
of an engine which is fitted with a reversing gear, such as the
Stephenson or Walschaert gear. In such gears the valve is not
156 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

driven directly by a single eccentric, so that the Reuleaux or

Bilgram diagrams cannot be used except for an approximate
analysis.
69. Alteration of the Point of Cut-off with a Simple Slide Valve.
It is of interest to consider how the point of cut-off for a given
engine may be altered and what will be the effect of this alteration
on the points of admission, release and compression.
Four valve diagrams with the corresponding ideal indicator
diagrams are shown at (a), (b), (c) and (d) in Fig. 113. The first
of these, (a), is for a slide valve of normal proportions with a
normal angle of advance for the eccentric. It will be seen that
cut-off occurs when the crank is in the position OG approximately
115° from the inner dead centre. The other diagrams (b), (c) and
(d) relate to three different methods of obtaining cut-off at a crank
position 90° from the inner dead centre.

In diagram (b) the earlier cut-off is obtained in the simplest

possible way by increasing the angle of advance of the eccentric,
while the throw of the eccentric and the steam and exhaust laps
of the valve remain as in diagram (a). The effect of this alteration
is to advance the timing of release, compression and admission,
as well as that of cut-off, and the indicator diagram is modified as
shown. Any considerable change of the point of cut-off from the
normal by this method would involve objectionably early admis-
sion and release, and, in consequence, a shorter effective stroke.
In diagram (c) the earlier cut-off is again obtained by increasing
the angle of advance of the eccentric, but in addition the travel
of the valve is reduced by shortening the throw of the eccentric,
in order to retain approximately the same timing for admission
as in the normal diagram (a). The steam and exhaust laps are
untalered. Release and compression take place earlier than in the
v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 157
normal diagram, but not so early as in diagram (b). The objection
to this method is that the maximum opening of the port to steam
and exhaust will be reduced by shortening the valve travel and
wiredrawing or throttling of the steam will therefore take place.
It will be shown later, in Articles 74 et seq., that linking up or
notching up a steam-engine reversing gear is equivalent in its effect
on the steam distribution to increasing the angle of advance
and shortening the throw of the eccentric.
The fourth diagram (d) illustrates a method of obtaining earlier
cut-off to which there are practical objections. The travel and
the lead of the valve are the same as in diagram (a), but the steam
lap of the valve and the angle of advance of the eccentric are both
increased in order to give the earlier cut-off. The advantages of
this method would be a normal timing of the admission and a
smaller reduction in the maximum opening of the port to steam.
However, the necessity for increasing the steam lap of the valve
makes it unsuitable from a practical standpoint.
The disadvantages mentioned above in connection with the
methods of obtaining early cut-off with a simple slide valve are
accentuated, if cut-off is required to take place at a crank angle
of less than 90°. In the following article a valve gear is described
which enables cut-off to be obtained much earlier in the stroke
than is possible with the simple slide valve.

70. The Meyer Expansion Gear: Fig. 114. This gear not only
enables cut-off to take place early in the stroke with normal
timing for admission, release and compression, but it also enables
the cut-off to be varied while the engine is running. There are

two valves driven by separate eccentrics. The main valve M is

similar to the ordinary slide valve, except that it is provided
with extensions and the steam passes from the steam chest
through the ports A, A. The back of the main valve is machined
and a second valve, which generally takes the form of two
158 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

separate plates B, B, reciprocates across it and alternately admits

and cuts off the supply of steam to the ports A, A. Steam will
not be admitted to the cylinder, even when the main valve is in
such a position that ports A and P are in communication, unless
at the same time the expansion plate has uncovered port A.
In Fig. 114 both the valves are shown in mid-position. The
steam and exhaust laps of the main valve are denoted by s and
e and the steam lap of the expansion valve by a. Note that the
latter is negative, i.e. the port A is open to steam when the
valve is in mid-position. The main valve determines the points
of admission, release and compression and also the latest point of
cut-off. The expansion valve merely serves to cut off the steam
from the port A while this is still open to port P. The expansion
valve or plate will cut-off or admit steam to port A at those crank
positions in which its displacement relative to the main valve is
towards the left (if we consider the steam cycle on the left of the
piston) and equal to the steam lap a.

The main valve is driven by an eccentric having an angle of

advance of 25° to 30°. The expansion valve is driven by an
eccentric with an angle of advance of 80° to 90°. If an engine
has to be reversible, the angle of advance must be 90°, so that
cut-off will take place at the same fraction of the stroke for the
same setting of the expansion valve whatever may be the direction
of rotation of the crank. In Fig. 115 (a) the relative positions of
the crank and the two eccentric centre lines are shown with the
crank on the dead centre. The angle of advance of the main
eccentric OM is denoted by a and the angle of advance of the
expansion eccentric OE is taken as 90°. When the crank has
turned through an angle 6 from the dead-centre position, as
shown in Fig. 115 (b), the displacement of the main valve from its
mid-position will be represented by OX, the projected length of
OM. Similarly, the displacement of the expansion valve from its
mid-position will be represented by OY, the projected length of
v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 159
OE. In both cases it is assumed that the obliquity of the eccentric
rods may be neglected. XY, the difference between OY and OX,
will be the displacement of the expansion valve relative to the
main valve, in this case towards the right. If through 0 a line
OV is drawn parallel to and equal in length to ME, then OZ, the
projected length of OV, will be equal to XY and therefore to the
displacement of the expansion valve relative to the main valve.
OV is termed the “ virtual ” or “ equivalent ” eccentric. Its
angle of advance is A. Cut-off will take place for the crank position
in which Z lies at a distance a to the left of O. This position is
most easily found by applying the Reuleaux construction to the
“ virtual eccentric ” OV. In Fig. 116 (a) the Reuleaux valve

(a) (b)
FIG. 116

diagram has been drawn for the main eccentric OM, in order to
determine the crank positions for admission, release and compres-
sion and for the latest possible cut-off. In Fig. 116 (b) the Reuleaux
valve diagram has been drawn for the virtual eccentric OV,
bearing in mind that the steam lap for the expansion valve is
negative. In this figure OG is the crank position at which cut-off
takes place when the steam lap of the expansion valve is a.
An increase or decrease of the steam lap a gives respectively a
later or an earlier cut-off. One method of altering the steam lap
a is illustrated in Fig. 114. The valve spindle is screwed with a
right- and a left-hand thread so that, by rotating the spindle, the
distance between the two expansion plates may be increased or
decreased at will.
71. Minimum Width of the Expansion Plate. The Best Setting
Of the Plates. The maximum displacement, from the mid-position,
of the expansion valve relative to the main valve is equal to the
throw of the equivalent eccentric OV. The maximum overlap
of the expansion valve and the port will be OV —a. Hence, the
minimum width of the expansion plate = OV —a+p, where p
is the width of the port A in the main valve. This width of
160 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

expansion plate will just be sufficient to prevent steam from

being re-admitted past the inner edge of the plate.
If cut-off is required to take place at the same fraction of the
stroke for both strokes, then the steam lap a must be different for
the two expansion plates, owing to the effect of the obliquity of
the connecting rod. For instance, the difference between the two
steam laps will not be the same for cut-off at 0-3 of the stroke
as for cut-off at 0-4, or any other fraction of the stroke. When
the expansion plates are assembled on the valve spindle, they
may be given different laps, but the difference, once fixed, will
remain constant for all values of the steam lap. It is therefore
necessary to adopt that difference which will give as nearly as
possible equal cut-off on both strokes over the full range of cut-off
required.
Example 3. In a Meyer expansion gear the throw and the angle
of advance of the main eccentric are respectively 2 in. and 30°,
the steam lap is YI in. and the exhaust lap isYQin. The throw of
the expansion eccentric is 2\ in. and its angle of advance is 90°.
The ratio of connecting-rod length to crank length is 5. Find the
steam laps required on the expansion plates in order to give

FIG. 117

cut-off at 0-2, 0-3, 0-4, 0-5 and 0-6 of the stroke on both strokes.
What is the best setting of the plates ? If the width of the steam
port in the back of the main valve is 1| in., what is the minimum
width which the expansion plates may have ?
From Fig. 115, which is drawn to scale for the above gear, the
equivalent eccentric has a throw OV of 2-14 in. and an angle of
advance A of 144-2°.
v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 161
In Fig. 117 the Reuleaux diagram is drawn for the virtual
eccentric OV. A circular arc is drawn through 0 with centre on
OA produced and with radius equal to 5. OA. The crankpin
positions corresponding to the fractions of the stroke at which
cut-off is required to take place are then marked off as shown.
The required values of the steam lap a are measured from the
diagram and are entered in the table below.
Cut-off . . . .0-2 0-3 0-4 0-5 0-6
Steam lap (cover) . . 0-49 0-93 1-29 1-61 1-85
„ „ (crank) . . 0-81 1-26 1-59 1-84 2-02
Difference . . . . 0-32 0-33 0-30 0-23 0-17

From this table it appears that, if the expansion plates are set with
the steam lap at the crank end 0-3 in. greater than that at the
cover end, the cut-off will occur at approximately the same frac-
tion of the stroke for both ends of the cylinder.
The minimum width of the expansion plates = OV—a+u
= 2-14—0-49 + 1-125 = 2-78 in.
N.B.—This is actually the minimum width of the expansion
plate at the cover end. The minimum width of the expansion
plate at the crank end need be only 2-78—0-3 = 2-48 in.

72. Steam-engine Reversing Gears. Primarily the function of

the steam-engine reversing gear is to reverse the direction of
rotation of the crankshaft. Incidentally it also enables the point
of cut-off, and therefore the power developed by the engine, to be
varied while the engine is running.
Reversing gears are generally classified as either (a) link
motions or (b) radial valve gears. In the former class two
eccentrics are keyed to the crankshaft, one for forward running
and one for backward or reverse running. Between the eccentrics
and the valve rod suitable mechanism is introduced to enable the
valve to receive its motion either wholly from one of the two
eccentrics or partly from one and partly from the other. In the
latter class a single eccentric or its equivalent is used and the
mechanism between the eccentric and the valve rod enables the
valve to be given a motion suitable for either forward or reverse
direction of rotation of the crank, and for early or late cut-off.
To determine accurately the piston positions at which admission,
cut-off, release and compression take place for a given setting of
the gear, the displacement curves for the valve and piston may
be determined, either graphically or by calculation, and the
rectangular valve diagram as described in Article 67 used. In
most reversing gears the mechanism is so complicated that the
calculation of the valve displacement curve would be an exceed-
ingly laborious process. To obtain the required degree of accuracy
6—T.M.
162 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

by the use of graphical methods, the outline of the gear must be

drawn to a large scale and for a large number of different positions.
The graphical work may be simplified by the use of suitable
templates.
In order to determine the approximate piston positions at which
the various events take place, a simplified graphical construction
may be used. The method consists in finding the throw and angle
of advance of a single eccentric which, if driving the valve directly,
would give to it a motion as nearly as possible identical with that
which it receives from the reversing gear; this eccentric is termed
a virtual or equivalent eccentric. The method of finding the throw
and angle of advance of the virtual eccentric differs for the twro
types of reversing gear, and is dealt with in the following pages.
73. The Virtual Eccentric for a Valve with an Offset Line of
Stroke. In Fig. 118, OC is the crank centre line, OE the eccentric
centre line and EA the centre line of the eccentric rod. As the
crank revolves the end A of the eccentric rod reciprocates along
the line PA. It is required to find the throw and the angle of
advance of an eccentric with axis at P, which will give to A the
same motion as that which it derives from the actual eccentric OE.

Let a be the angle of advance of the actual eccentric, 6 the

angle through which the crank has turned from the dead centre.
Produce AE to cut at M a line through 0 perpendicular to PA.
If v& is the velocity of the jioint A and ve is the velocity of the
point E, then it follows from Article 43 that:
Vg OM sin OEM sin {(90—(0+a+£)}
—
ve ~ OE ~ sin OME sin (90—£)
_ cos (d-\-<x+p)
cos
v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 163
But ve — co.OE, where a> is the angular velocity of the crank.
OE
v& = ca.cog ^.cos (0-f-a+/l)

This is evidently the same velocity as A would have, if driven

directly by an eccentric with centre P, throw OE/cos /3 and angle of
advance a+/3. Although the angle is not constant, its variation
is small, as the eccentric rod EA is usually from 10 to 20 times as
long as the eccentric throw OE. The angle y represents approxi-
mately the mean value of /3, so that the virtual eccentric may be
taken to have a throw OE/cos y and an angle of advance a-f-y.
If the line of stroke lies below the axis of rotation of the eccentric
as for point B in Fig. 118, it can be shown in the same way that
the virtual eccentric has the same throw OE/cos y, but the angle
of advance is a— y.

The throw and angle of advance of the virtual eccentric may be

determined graphically by the simple construction shown in the
figure. Thus for A, the virtual eccentric is given by PG, where
PF is equal and parallel to OE, FG is perpendicular to PF and the
angle FPG is equal to y. Similarly, for B, the virtual eccentric
is given by QK, where QH is equal and parallel to OE, HK is
perpendicular to QH and the angle HQK is equal to y.
The usual arrangement in a link motion is for the ends A and B
of a straight or curved link to be driven by separate eccentrics,
which are keyed to the crankshaft and therefore revolve at the
same speed and always in the same relative positions. The
virtual eccentrics for the motion of the ends A and B may be
determined as indicated above and it remains to show how the
virtual eccentric for the motion of a given point D on the link AB
may be found. Referring to Fig. 119, the ends A and B of the link
AB are reciprocated along the paths shown by dotted lines. These
two paths are assumed to be straight parallel lines. The virtual
eccentrics for the motion of A and B are denoted at (a) by OF and
OG respectively, the angles of advance being a and oq. If the
1G4 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

crank OC turns through the angle 8, Fig. 119 (b), the displacement
of A from its mid-position is given by Of and the displacement of
B from its mid-position by Og, so that the displacement of D
from its mid-position will be given by Oz, where Oz is the projected
length of OZ and Z divides FG in the same proportion as D divides
AB. It follows that the virtual eccentric for the motion of D has
a throw equal to OZ and an angle of advance equal to angle YOZ.
The above principles may be applied to find the virtual eccentric
for a given setting of any link motion.

74. The Stephenson Link Motion: Fig. 120. This is the most
commonly used reversing gear of its class. It is simple in con-
struction and gives a good steam distribution. The figure shows
diagrammatically the arrangement of the gear in mid-position.
OC is the crank centre line and OE and OE! the two eccentric
centre lines. The throw and angle of advance is the same for
each of the two eccentrics. As shown by the thick full lines, the
eccentric rods EA and EjB are coupled to the extremities of the
curved link AB, which is suspended by link SA from the pin S.
The pin S is fixed in position for any given setting of the gear.
It can, however, be raised or lowered by means of the reversing
rod through the bell-crank lever RPS, which pivots about the

fixed fulcrum P. This causes the curved link AB to slide through

the block D and enables the latter to derive its motion from either
B or A, or from any intermediate point on AB. In this way the
point of cut-off may be altered and the direction of rotation of the
crank may be reversed. The valve receives its motion from the
block D and the valve rod is guided horizontally.
The Stephenson link motion described above, in which the
eccentrics OE and OEx drive respectively the ends A and B of the
curved link, is said to have open rods. If OE drives B and OEx
drives A, as shown by the thin full lines, the gear is said to have
crossed rods. This latter arrangement gives a different steam
distribution.
v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 165
When the curved link is lowered so that A and D coincide or
raised so that B and D coincide, the link motion is in the full-gear
position. The valve receives its motion wholly from one eccentric,
whilst the other eccentric merely oscillates link AB without
affecting the movement of the valve. On the other hand, when
the gear occupies an intermediate position, as shown in Fig. 121,
the valve will derive its motion partly from one eccentric and

partly from the other. The problem is to find the equivalent

eccentric for the intermediate position.
If we assume that the ends A and B of the curved link move
along straight paths which are parallel to the line of stroke of
the valve, the equivalent eccentrics for the ends A and B and for
the block D may be found as described in Article 73. This has
been done for the two positions of the open rod gear, and the

FIG. 122

construction is shown in Fig. 122 (a) and (b). In the former OM

is the equivalent eccentric for mid-gear and in the latter OZ is
the equivalent eccentric. If the construction is carried out for
several different positions of the gear, a curve may be drawn
through the various positions of Z. In practice a close approxima-
tion to this curve may be obtained by drawing a circular arc
through E, M and E1? as shown in Fig. 122 (a). The equivalent
166 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

eccentric for the gear position of Fig. 121 may then be found by
dividing the arc EMEX at Z in the same proportion as D divides AB,
and the result may be compared with that given by Fig. 122 (b).
Similarly, the equivalent eccentrics for the two positions of the
crossed rod gear may be determined as shown in Fig. 122 (c)
and (d).
Once the equivalent eccentric is known for a given setting of
the gear, the corresponding Reuleaux or Bilgram diagram may
be drawn. This will give the crank positions at which admission,
cut-off, release and compression take place.
The radius of curvature of the link AB in the Stephenson link
motion with either open or crossed rods is generally about equal
to the length of the eccentric rod EA or E^.
The effect on the steam distribution of the open and crossed
rod arrangements will be clear if Fig. 122 (a) and (c) are compared.
It will be seen that linking up the gear, i.e. moving from full
gear towards mid-gear, reduces the throw of the equivalent
eccentric much more rapidly with crossed rods than with open
rods. Since the displacement of the valve from its mid-position,
when the crank is on the dead centre, is equal to the steam lap
plus the lead, it follows that with open rods, the lead increases
as the gear is linked up, while with crossed rods it decreases.
The radius of the curve EMEX is approximately equal to
EE1.EA/2AB. This can be shown as follows:
From Fig. 122 (a) EF = OE tan y
and XM = EF cos a = OE tan y cos a
But OE cos a = EX
XM = EX tan y
Let R = the radius of the arc EME1}
Then (I2-XM)2+EX2 = R2
XM2+EX2
Hence R =
2XM
EX2 tan2 y-j-EX2
and, substituting for XM, R =
2EX tan y
EX sec2 y
2 tan y
EX
sin 2y
But EX — EEj/2 and from Fig. 120, sin 2y AB/EA.
/. R~EEi.EA/2AB
v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 167
75. The Gooch Link Motion: Fig. 123. As already pointed out,
the Stephenson link motion suffers from the disadvantage that the
lead varies as the gear is linked or notched up. Admission, there-
fore, takes place earlier or later according as to whether open or
crossed rods are used. The Gooch link motion was introduced
in order to give constant lead for all gear positions.
It differs from the Stephenson link motion in that the curved
link AB is convex towards the crankshaft instead of concave, and
is suspended by link FG from a fixed fulcrum G on the engine frame.
The valve rod is hinged at V and the portion DV is raised or lowered
by the bell-crank lever KLM operated by the reversing rod.
When D is raised so as to coincide with A, the valve receives its
motion from eccentric OE and the crank revolves clockwise. When
D coincides with B, the valve receives its motion from OEx and the
crank revolves counter-clockwise. It is obvious that for the lead
to be constant for all settings of the gear, the centre of curvature of
M

AB must coincide with V when the crank is on either dead centre.

It will then be possible to swing DV from one extreme position to
the other without altering the position of V and therefore without
displacing the valve relative to the ports.
The equivalent eccentric for any given setting may be found by
a method similar to that given for the Stephenson link motion, if
it is assumed that the motion of the valve is for all practical
purposes the same as that of the block D. In the full gear positions
D coincides with A or B and the equivalent eccentric is given
by OF or OF1? Fig. 123 (a), where OF and OFj are inclined at
angle y to OE and OET and EF and EjF! are respectively
perpendicular to OE and OE^ For any other position of block D
along the curved link AB the equivalent eccentric is given by
OZ, where Z divides FFX in the same proportion as D divides AB,
and its angle of advance is given by angle YOZ.
The Gooch link motion has not been very widely adopted because
168 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the advantage of constant lead is outweighed by the disadvantages

of greater complication and space requirement and less direct
drive to the valve in the full gear positions.

76. Radial Valve Gears. The principles which underlie the

operation of radial valve gears may be understood from Fig. 124.
Let OC be the crank centre line and let OE be the eccentric centre
line for a simple slide valve with outside admission; let OX and
OY be the projected lengths of OE parallel and perpendicular to
OC. When the crank has turned through the angle 6 from the
i.d.c., the displacement of the valve from its mid-position is given
by OM. But OM = ON-j-NM = ON-j-OP since OX and YE are
equal and parallel, so that the displacement which is given to the
valve by the eccentric OE is equal to the sum of the displacements
which would be given by the two component eccentrics OX and
OY. It follows, therefore, that a suitable valve motion may be
obtained by combining the displacement derived from an eccentric
which is 90° out of phase with the engine crank with a displacement

derived from an eccentric which is 180° out of phase with the

engine crank. If the valve has inside admission, the component
eccentric, OX, must be in phase with the crank.
An examination of Fig. 124 shows that:
(a) The throw of the 180° component eccentric is equal to the
displacement of the valve from its mid-position when the crank
is on the dead centre, i.e. it is equal to the sum of the steam lap
and the lead. If, therefore, the lead is to remain constant, the
180° component eccentric, OX, should have a constant throw for
all settings of the gear.
(b) To reverse the direction of rotation of the crank all that is
necessary is to change the direction of the 90° component eccentric
as shown by the dotted line.
(c) If the throw of the 90° component eccentric is reduced, the
resultant eccentric OE will have a larger angle of advance and a
shorter throw. This, as pointed out in Article 69, will cause
cut-off to take place earlier in the stroke of the piston.
 V] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 169
77. The Walschaert Valve Gear: Fig. 125. This is probably
the most extensively used of all reversing gears on modem loco-
motives. It shows very clearly the application of the above
principles. A single eccentric OE is used and is set so that,
when the crank is on the dead centre, F is in its mid-position’
The eccentric rod EF oscillates the radius link FGH about the
fulcrum G, which is fixed to the frame of the engine. The centre
of curvature of the radius link should coincide as nearly as possible
with pin K when the crank is on either of the dead centres. This
condition must be satisfied in order that the lead of the valve
shall remain constant for all settings of the gear. The position
of the die-block H on the radius link FGH is determined by the
reversing rod through the bell-crank UTS and the link SR.
The link KLM is termed the combination lever. It is suspended
from the pin L on the valve rod. Pin K derives its motion from
the die-block H and ultimately from the eccentric OE, while pin M

derives its motion from the crosshead through the union link- QM.
It follows that the 90° component of the valve motion will be
derived from the end K and the 0° component from the end M
of the combination lever.
When the gear is in the mid-position, the die-block H coincides
with the fulcrum G of the radius link and H remains stationary
while the crank revolves. The motion of the valve is then in phase
with that of the piston. The component OX therefore lies along
the crank and its throw is given by OC.LK/MK. The position
of the pin L on the link KM must be such that OX is equal to the
steam lap plus the lead.
Since OX lies along the crank, the valve must have inside
admission.
If the valve has outside admission, it is easily seen that the
pin K must lie between the pins L and M.
When the die-block H is in the position shown in Fig. 121, the
valve has a 90° component motion in addition to the 0° component
6*—T.M.
170 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

motion. This component is received from the end K of the com-

bination lever. The maximum displacement of K from its mid-
position is given approximately by OE. HG/FG. The pin M acts
as the fulcrum of the combination lever when transmitting the 90°
component motion to L. Hence the maximum displacement
of L from its mid-position is given approximately by OY
= LM/KM.HG/FG.OE. The displacement of H, and therefore
of L, is 180° out of phase with the displacement of F, since H and
F lie on opposite sides of the fulcrum G of the radius link. The
positions of the two component eccentrics OX and OY relative
to the crank OC are shown at (a). The equivalent eccentric OV
therefore corresponds to counter-clockwise rotation of the crank.
78. The Hackworth Valve Gear: Fig. 126. In this, the earliest
of the radial valve gears, the eccentric OE is set directly opposite
to the crank. The eccentric causes the die-block B to reciprocate
along the slotted bar SS, which is pivoted to the frame at P. The
slotted bar SS is inclined to OP, which is perpendicular to the line
of stroke. The inclination 9 is fixed for a given setting of the
gear and is a maximum for the full gear positions. The dotted
fine shows the position of the slotted bar for the direction of rota-
tion opposite to that indicated by the arrow.
For constant lead of the valve in all settings the length of
the eccentric rod EB must be such that B and P coincide, when

the crank is in either of the dead-centre positions. The valve

derives its motion from point D on EB, through the valve rod DV.
The approximate equivalent eccentric for the motion of the
valve may be determined as follows:
With the gear in its mid-position, the bar SS will be vertical
and the horizontal displacement of D will be to that of E as DB is
to EB. The 180° component eccentric for the valve motion is
therefore OE.DB/EB.
For the given setting of the gear the die-block B has a horizontal
displacement, which is approximately a maximum when OE, and
 v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 171
therefore the crank OC, is at right angles to the line of stroke.
This maximum horizontal displacement of B is equal to OE tan 9.
The motion of the point D on the eccentric rod which drives
the valve will be received partly from E and partly from B. The
component of D’s motion received from E will be equivalent to
that of a 180° eccentric with a throw OE. DB/EB. The component
received from B will be equivalent to a 90° eccentric with a throw
(DE/BE)OE tan 9.
The equivalent eccentric for the valve motion will be the
vector sum of these two components. Note that the 180°
component has a throw independent of the setting of the gear.
This throw is equal to the steam lap plus the lead. The magni-
tude of the 90° component will vary with the angle 9, i.e. with the
particular setting of the gear.
The whole of the work required to determine the equivalent
eccentric for a given setting may be done graphically as follows:
Set off OE, Fig. 126 (a), to represent the throw of the actual
eccentric. Through E draw EG inclined at angle 9 to OE,
downwards for the full line position of SS and upwards for the
dotted line position. Divide OE at d in the same proportion as
D divides BE. Through d draw a line perpendicular to OE to
meet EG at F and join O and F. Then OF is the equivalent
eccentric for the motion of the valve V.
79. The Marshall Valve Gear. This is not illustrated, but is in
general similar to the Hackworth gear. The point D divides EB
externally instead of internally, and in consequence the eccentric
is set parallel to the crank instead of opposite to it. The only
other difference is that the pin B is attached to one end of a link
which pivots about a fulcrum. This fulcrum is fixed for a given
setting of the gear, but its position is altered in order to change
the point of cut-off or to reverse the direction of rotation of the
crank. Hence B moves along a circular arc instead of along a
straight line. The approximate equivalent eccentric may be
determined in the same way as for the Hackworth gear, 9 being
the mean inclination to the vertical of the curved path of the
pin B.
80. The Joy Valve Gear: Fig. 127. This gear is unique in that
the valve motion is derived ultimately from a pin A on the con-
necting rod, and no eccentric is used.
At A the link AB is pinned to the connecting rod and at B it is
pinned to link BD which swings about the fixed fulcrum D. Link
EFG receives its motion from pin E on AB, whilst the die-block,
attached to EFG at F, slides along the curved slotted link which
is pivoted at H to the frame of the engine.
172 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Note that, if the lead is to remain approximately constant for

all settings of the gear, the pin F should as far as possible coincide
with the fulcrum H when the crank is on either dead centre.
The valve is driven from pin G through the valve rod GV.
Reversal of the direction of rotation of the engine is effected by
rotating the shaft, which carries the slotted link, about the axis
through H normal to the plane of rotation of the crank, so that it
is inclined in the opposite direction to the vertical. The mean
inclination of the curved slotted link to the vertical is given
by 0.
The method of determining the approximate equivalent eccen-
tric for the given setting of the gear is similar to that already
given for the Hackworth gear.

The paths followed by the pins A and E during the crank

rotation are indicated by thin full lines. The maximum hori-
zontal and vertical displacements of E are denoted respectively
by a and 6.
The throw of the 180° component eccentric is then given
approximately by a/2. GF/FE and the throw of the 90° component
eccentric by GE/FE.6/2.tan 6.
The complete graphical construction for the equivalent eccentric
is shown at (a), Fig. 127. Set off OM equal to a/2 and divide OM
externally at X in the same proportion as G divides FE. Through
0 and X draw lines perpendicular to OM and along OM mark off
ON equal to 6/2. Through N draw a line inclined at the angle 6 to
NO to cut the perpendicular through 0 at Q. Join M to Q and
produce to cut the perpendicular through X at V. Then OV
is the required virtual eccentric.
V] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 173

EXAMPLES V

1. Describe the action of a simple slide valve and show how the points of
admission, cut-off, etc., may be determined, given the necessary particulars of the
valve.
2. Show in section the arrangement of the steam chest with the valve in
mid-position when (a) the valve has outside admission, (b) the valve has inside
admission. What are the relative positions of the crank and the eccentric centre
line in each case ?
3. Show by means of sketches what is meant by the following terms: steam
lap, exhaust lap, lead, angle of advance and throw of eccentric.
4. A slide valve has a travel of 5 in. The angle of advance of the eccentric is
35° and cut-off and release are required to take place at 0-75 and 0-95 of the
stroke on both strokes. If the connecting rod is 4 cranks long, find the steam
and exhaust laps and the lead for each end of the valve.
5. The travel of a slide valve is 4 in. and the lead at the crank end J in. If the
connecting rod is 4-5 cranks long, find the angle of advance of the eccentric, and
the steam and exhaust lap3 to give cut-off at 0-65 of the stroke and release at
0-95 of the stroke.
6. The slide valve in a steam engine is required to cut-off the steam at 0-7 of
the stroke at each end of the cylinder. The lead is J in. at the cover end and the
angle of advance of the eccentric is 40°. Find the valve travel and the steam lap
at each end of the valve, taking the length of the connecting rod equal to
4£ cranks.
7. A slide valve cuts off at 0-7 of the stroke for both ends of the cylinder. The
steam lap and the lead at the cover end are f in. and J in. respectively. Find
the travel of the valve and the angle of advance of the eccentric and the lead
and steam lap at the crank end. The connecting rod is 4| cranks long. M.U.
8. A slide valve is driven by an eccentric having a throw of 2£ in. and an angle
of advance of 35°. The lead at the cover-end is £ in. and the connecting rod is
4 cranks long. Determine the maximum opening to steam and the fraction of
the stroke at which cut-off occurs. What exhaust lap will be required to give
release at 0-95 of the stroke?
9. A slide valve has a travel of 6 in. The lead at the cover end is 0-25 in. and
cut-off is required to take place at 0-7 of the stroke on both strokes. If the
connecting rod is 5 cranks long, determine the angle of advance of the eccentric,
and the maximum opening to steam and the steam lap for the two ends of the
valve.
10. A slide valve is required to give cut-off at 0-75 stroke for the cover end of
the cylinder when the ratio of connecting rod length to crank length is 4, the
maximum opening to steam is 1^ in., and the lead of the valve is J in. Find the
throw and angle of advance of the eccentric and the steam lap of the valve. If
the steam lap is the same for both ends of the valve, at what fraction of the return
stroke will cut-off take place ?
11. A slide valve is required to cut-off the steam at 0-7 of the stroke on both
strokes, the maximum opening to steam and the lead at the cover end being
1£ in. and in. respectively and the connecting rod 5 cranks long. Find the
angle of advance and the throw of the eccentric and the steam laps for the two
ends of the valve. M.U.
12. A piston valve admits steam from the inside. The maximum width of the
port opening to steam is 1£ in., the lead is i in. Find the travel of the valve,
the angle of advance of the eccentric and the steam lap to give cut-off at 0-72 of the
stroke. The connecting rod is 4£ cranks long. Sketch the relative positions of
the crank and the eccentric.
174 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

13. A piston valve with inside admission has a travel of 5 in. and is required
to give cut-off at 0-8 of the stroke for both strokes. Choosing a suitable lead for
the cover end, find the angle of advance of the eccentric and the steam laps.
The connecting rod is 4 cranks long. Sketch the relative positions of the crank
and eccentric.
14. It is required to change the point of cut-off for an engine with a simple
slide valve from 0-8 to 0-6 of the stroke without making any change in the valve
dimensions. How may this be done and what effect will the change have on the
points of admission, release and compression ? The effect of the obliquity of the
connecting rod may be neglected.
15. Explain carefully how to find the equivalent eccentric giving the relative
displacement of the main and expansion valves of a Meyer valve gear, and prove
that the construction is correct.
Then show how the steam lap of the expansion valve may be obtained to give
cut-off at a given fraction of the stroke.
16. The main eccentric of a Meyer expansion valve gear has an angle of advance
of 30° and a throw of 2\ in. The expansion valve has an angle of advance of 90°
and a throw of 2J in. The connecting rod is four cranks long and cut-off is to
take place at 0-3 of the stroke on each stroke. Determine the steam lap required
at each end of the expansion valve.
17. A Meyer expansion valve gear cuts off the steam at 0'4 of the stroke on
both strokes. The main eccentric has a throw of 2f in. and an angle of advance
of 35°. The expansion eccentric has a throw of 2£ in. and an angle of advance
of 90°. The connecting rod is 4 cranks long. Determine the steam laps
required for the two ends of the expansion valve.
18. In a Meyer expansion valve gear the main eccentric has an angle of advance
of 35° and a throw of 3 in. The expansion eccentric has an angle of advance of
90° and a throw of 3 in. The connecting rod is 5 cranks long. What laps
will be required at the two ends of the expansion valve in order to give cut-off
at 0-2 and 0-6 of the stroke on both strokes? M.U.
19. In a Meyer expansion gear, the main valve has a travel of 5 in.; steam
lap 1 in.; exhaust lap A in.; angle of advance of eccentric 30°. The expansion
plate is driven from an eccentric of 2£ in. throw and angle of advance 90°.
Determine the lap of the expansion plate to cut-off at ■§■ of the stroke and draw
the probable indicator diagram. The connecting rod is 5 cranks long. M.U.
20. The following particulars refer to a Moyer expansion valve: travel of
main valve 5 in.; lead at each end \ in.; angle of advance of main eccentric
35°; throw of expansion eccentric 2f in. and angle of advance 90°. Cut-off and
release are required to take place at 0-35 and 0-93 of the stroke respectively for
both strokes. The length of the connecting rod is 4£ cranks. Find the steam
and exhaust laps of the main valve and the steam lap of the expansion valve at
each end. Sketch the arrangement showing the position of the main and
expansion valves in relation to the cylinder ports when the piston is just about to
commence the outward stroke.
21. In a Meyer expansion valve gear, the main eccentric has a throw of 2-J in.
and an angle of advance of 30°. The expansion eccentric has an equal throw,
but an angle of advance of 90°. The connecting rod is 5 cranks long and it is
required to vary the cut-off 02 to 0-6 of the stroke, keeping it as nearly as
possible equal on both strokes. What will be the best setting of the expansion
plates ?
22. In a Meyer expansion valve gear the main valve has a travel of 6 in. and
angle of advance 30°. The expansion valve has a travel of 5 in. and angle of
advance 80°. The connecting rod is 4 cranks long and the steam and exhaust
laps for the main valve are 1J- in. and § in. respectively. Determine, for the
cover end only, the fractions of the stroke at which admission, release, and
compression take place and the steam lap required on the expansion plate to
give cut-off at 0-4 stroke.
v] VALVE DIAGRAMS AND VALVE GEARS 175
23. The following data are taken from a horizontal steam engine fitted with a
Meyer expansion valve: travel of main valve, 4 in.; angle of advance, 22-|°;
lead, 0-25 in. at both ends of the cylinder. Travel of expansion valve, 4 in.;
angle of advance, 90°; width of port through main valve, 1-5 in. Ratio of
connecting-rod length to crank length 4:1, and release takes place at 170° on the
out-stroke.
Find the latest point of cut-off possible for both ends of the cylinder, the point
of release on the instroke and the points of admission and compression for both
ends, the laps at both ends being equal.
Obtain the steam laps of the expansion valve to cut-off steam at 0-2, 0-3, 0-4,
0-5 and 0-6 stroke for both sides of the piston and deduce the best value for the
difference of the laps as a compromise for this range of cut-offs.
What is the width of the narrowest possible expansion plate ? L.U.A.
24. A variable cut-off valve of the Meyer type is required for a vertical engine in
which the ratio connecting rod to crank is 4. The range of cut-off is from 0-1
to 075 for the out-stroke and 0T to 0-7 for the in-stroke. The greatest port
opening on the main valve is 1 Ar in., with a lead of £ in. for the out-stroke. The
radii of the expansion and main eccentrics are the same and the angle of advance
of the expansion eccentric is 90°.
Draw the necessary valve diagrams and sketch the valves and ports for mid-
position for the two extreme cut-offs. Give the following particulars:
(1) Steam laps of main valve for both in and out-strokes and lead for up-stroke.
(2) Negative laps of expansion valve for earliest and latest cut-off.
(3) The cut-off on the in-stroke when cut-off on the out-stroke is 0-25.
(4) The exhaust laps on main valve for release at 0-95 on each stroke.
L.U.A.
25. The displacements in inches of the main and expansion valves of a Meyer
gear are x = 1*5 cos and x — 1*5 cos (d-\--n). The outside lap of the main
valve is 0-8 in. Find the point of cut-off by the main valve on the outward
stroke and the negative laps for the expansion valve to give cut-off respectively
at 0-2 and 0-3 of the outward stroke. The length of the connecting rod is 5-5 times
the length of the crank. L.U.A.
26. Sketch and describe one form of valve gear for reversing a steam engine.
Show how reversal is effected and how the points of cut-off and release may be
determined given the steam and exhaust laps of the valve.
27. In a Stephenson link motion with open rods each eccentric has a throw of
3 in. and an angle of advance of 18°. The length of the curved slotted link is
16 in. and its radius of curvature is equal to the length of the eccentric rod,
45 in. Determine the throw and angle of advance of the equivalent eccentric when
the motion is in the position mid-way between full-gear and mid-gear. Draw the
valve diagram if the steam and exhaust laps are f in. and in. respectively.
28. Sketch and describe a Stephenson link motion. Point out the different
results obtained due to linking up for open and crossed rods respectively. The
eccentrics in such a motion each have 4 in. throw. The eccentric rods are open
and 6 ft long; the connecting link is 2 ft long and the angle between the eccentrics
is 130°. Determine the equivalent eccentric when the block is 6 in. from one
end of the link. If the steam lap is 1-5 in. and the connecting rod is 5 cranks
long, at what point does cut-off take place ?
29. Describe a method of obtaining the equivalent eccentric for a Stephenson
link motion with open rods. How is the lead of the valve affected during the
movement of the mechanism from full-gear to mid-gear ?
If the throw of each eccentric is 3 in., the angle of advance 20°, the length of
the slotted link 18 in. and of each eccentric rod 60 in., find the equivalent eccentric
for (a) mid-gear and (b) half-way between full-gear and mid-gear.
30. What are the principles underlying the action of a radial valve gear ?
Show how these principles are applied in the case of a Walschaert valve gear and
indicate how the equivalent eccentric for any given setting of the gear may be
determined.
176 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP, V]

31. Referring to the Walschaert gear, Fig. 125, the line of stroke of the valve is
18 in. from the line of stroke of the piston. The dimensions of the various links
are: OC, 13 in.; CP, 97in.;FG, 12 in.; GH, 9 in.; KL, 4| in.; LM, 29f in.; OE, 6 in.
Find the throw and the angle of advance of the equivalent eccentric for the
given setting of the gear. If the steam lap is If in. and the exhaust lap £ in.,
draw the valve diagram and find the crank positions at which admission, cut-off,
release and compression take place. Sketch the relative positions of the crank
and the equivalent eccentric.
32. The dimensions of a Hackworth valve gear, Fig. 126, are as follows: OC,
12 in.; CP, 42 in.; OE 5| in.; EB, 32 in.; ED, 22 in. The pin B coincides
with the fulcrum of the slotted link SS when the crank is on the dead centre.
Find the throw and the angle of advance of the equivalent eccentric when the
angle 9 is (a) 30°, (b) —20°.
33. The dimensions of a Joy valve gear, Fig. 127, are as follows: OC, 13 in.;
CP, 74 in.; CA, 49 in.; AB, 20 in.; BD, 28 in.; AE, 7 in.; EF, 20 J in.; FG, 3 in.;
GV, 42 in. The line of stroke of the valve is 16 in. from the line of stroke of the
piston. The pin D is 16 in. from the line of stroke and 77 in. horizontally from
the crankshaft centre. The fulcrum H of the slotted link is 13f in. from the
line of stroke and 49 in. horizontally from the crankshaft centre. Find the
angle of advance and the throw of the equivalent eccentric when the angle 0
is 25°.
34. Choose a type of “radial” valve gear and determine the main dimensions
to give the following distribution of steam in “ full gear ” to a locomotive: lead,
0-2 in.; maximum opening to steam, 1 -55 in.; latest cut-off on out-stroke, 135°;
crank radius, 13 in. Neglect the obliquities of all rods. What is the equivalent
eccentric radius of the gear when cutting off steam at a crank angle of 90° on the
out-stroke ? L.U.A.
 CHAPTER VI

FRICTION

81. The sliding of one solid body relative to a second solid body,
with which it is in contact, is always resisted by a force called the
force of friction. The force of friction acts in the opposite direction
to that of the relative motion and is tangential to the surfaces of
the two bodies at the point of contact. It follows that at every
joint in a machine, owing to the relative motion between the
two parts, friction forces arise and energy is absorbed. In order
to reduce this waste of energy, it is clearly necessary that every
effort should be made to reduce the magnitude of the friction
forces. It is sometimes possible to alter the design of a joint
so that a rolling motion between the parts is substituted for sliding
motion, as, for instance, when a ball or roller bearing is used
instead of a plain bearing in a turning pair. But in most practical
joints it is not feasible to eliminate the sliding motion and the
friction can be reduced only by the introduction of some form of
lubricant between the surfaces, which will enable the surfaces
to slide more easily. The ideal arrangement would be to have the
contact surfaces completely separated by a layer or film of lubri-
cant, so that fluid friction is substituted for solid friction. In
considering the laws which govern the friction between two
surfaces it is therefore necessary to distinguish between the three
possible states of the surfaces: (a) dry; (b) greasy or partially
lubricated; and (c) film or completely lubricated.

82. Friction between Dry Surfaces. Numerous experiments

have shown that, when two solid bodies with smooth, dry surfaces
are in contact, the least force required in order to cause the one
body to slide over the other obeys approximately the following
laws:
(1) The friction force is directly proportional to the normal load
between the surfaces for a given pair of materials.
(2) The friction force depends upon the material of which the
contact surfaces are made.
(3) The friction force is independent of the area of the contact
surfaces for a given normal load.
177
178 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

(4) Tlie friction force is independent of the velocity of sliding of

the one body relative to the other body.
Referring to Fig. 128 (a), let Rn be the normal reaction between
the surfaces and F the force required tangential to the contact
surfaces in order to cause sliding with uniform velocity in the direc-
tion of F. Then F will be equal and opposite to the friction force
and the first law states that F is directly proportional to Rn. The
ratio of F to Rn is termed the coefficient of friction and is denoted
by the Greek letter p. The value of p varies for different materials.
The third law is only approximately true. There is a limit to
the intensity of pressure that can be allowed between a given
pair of materials. When this limit is exceeded the phenomenon
of “ seizing ” occurs; particles of material are torn from one, or
both, of the surfaces and become welded to the other surface. For
intensities of pressure below that at which seizing takes place, the
value of p is practically independent of the intensity of pressure.
The results of experiments also show that the fourth law is
only approximately true. It is a well-known fact that in order
to initiate sliding of one body over a second body a greater force
is required than that which is necessary to maintain a uniform
sliding motion. For this reason the ratio of the friction force,
just before motion begins, to the normal load between the surfaces
is referred to as the coefficient of stiction or the coefficient of static
friction. Careful experiments have also shown that the coefficient
of friction usually diminishes slowly but continuously as the
velocity of sliding increases.
Although the laws of dry friction as given above are only
approximately true, their use enables many problems into which
friction enters to be solved with sufficient accuracy for most
practical purposes.
Where a small amount of lubricant is introduced between the
surfaces, so that they are in a greasy or partially lubricated
condition, it is usual to assume the laws of dry friction hold
and that the effect of the lubricant is simply to reduce the value
of the coefficient of friction.
The friction of lubricated surfaces is dealt with in Articles 92
et seq.
83. The Limiting Angle of Friction. In Fig. 128 (b) a body of
weight W is shown resting on a horizontal plane. If a horizontal
force F is applied to the body, no relative motion will take place
until F is equal to pTF. But before motion begins the body will
be in equilibrium under the three forces F, W, and the reaction
R between the plane and the body. The reaction R must
therefore be equal and opposite to the resultant of F and W and
VI] FRICTION 179
will be inclined at the angle a to the normal reaction Rn. As the
force F is increased the angle a will increase until the body begins
to slide along the plane. At this point the friction force has its
maximum value and F = fiW so that tan a. = F/W = This
limiting value of the inclination to the normal of the reaction
between the surfaces is termed the limiting angle of friction and is
denoted by <^>, so that tan </> = /JL. Hence, when one body slides
over another body, the true reaction between them is always in-
clined at the angle </> to the normal to the contact surfaces. Fur-
ther, the direction of the reaction is such as to oppose the sliding
motion.
The limiting angle of friction may be shown in another way. If
the plane on which the body rests is tilted, as shown in Fig. 129,

and the angle of inclination a of the plane to the horizontal is

gradually increased, the body will remain at rest until a = </>,
when it will begin to slide down the plane. Whatever the value
of a, the weight W may be resolved into two components; one,
W sin a, parallel to the plane, tends to cause the body to slide
down the plane, the other, W cos a, perpendicular to the plane,
is balanced by the normal reaction between the plane and the
body. The body will only begin to slide when the component
down the plane is equal to the limiting friction force between the
body and the plane, i.e. when W sin a = plF cos a or tan a — fx.
But when tan a = fi, the inclination a must be equal to the
limiting angle of friction <f>. The reaction R of the plane on the
body is equal and opposite to the weight W and it is obviously
inclined at the angle (f> to the normal to the plane at the instant
the body begins to slide.
84. The Inclined Plane. In one form or another the inclined
plane is very frequently used, and it is worth while to examine in
some detail the relationship between the various forces which act
180 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

on a body when it slides either up or down an inclined plane.

Referring to Fig. 130 (a), let W be the weight of the body; a the
inclination of the plane to the horizontal; </> the limiting angle of
friction for the contact surfaces. Also let the force F be applied
in the given direction in order to cause the body to slide with
uniform velocity parallel to the slope. Then there are two different
cases to consider, viz. (a) motion of the body up the plane and
(b) motion of the body down the plane.

(a) Motion up the Plane. Neglecting friction, let F' be the

force required. Then the body is in equilibrium under the three
forces F', W and the normal reaction Bn. The triangle of forces
is triangle oab, Fig. 126 (b),
F' bo sin oab sin a
— (6.1)
W oa sin oba sin (9 —a)
When friction is taken into account let F be the force required.
Then the reaction R between the plane and the body is inclined
to the normal at the friction angle and the triangle of forces is
triangle oac, Fig. 130 (b),
F
co sin oac sin (a+</>)
—
W oa sin oca sin [9—(<*+</>)} *
The ratio of the force required without friction to the force
required with friction is given by:
F' sin a sin [9—(a+</>)}
=
~F sin {9—a)' sin (oc+</>) (6-3)
sin a sin 9 cos (a+0)— cos 9 sin(a+<^)
sin 9 cos a—cos 9 sin a' sin (a-|-<£)
cot (a+0)—cot 9
cot a—cot 9 (6.4)
VI] FRICTION 181
The ratio F'/F obviously represents the efficiency 17 of the
inclined plane as a machine, so that:
cot {a+<£) —cot 6
5-0
^ cot a—cot 6 '
If 9 — 90°, i.e. if the force is applied horizontally, then from (6.2):
F sin (a+<£)
— tan (a (6.6)
W cos (a+<£)
and from (6.5), since cot 90° = 0
cot (oc+</>) tan a
'n (6.7)
cot a tan (a+</>)
(b) Motion Down the Plane. Neglecting friction, the triangle of
forces is triangle oab just as for motion up the plane.
When friction is taken into account let F1 be the force required.
Then the reaction B is inclined to the normal at the friction angle
(h, as shown by the dotted line, and the triangle of forces is triangle
oad, Fig. 130 (b),
Fx do sin oad sin (a—</>)
’ * W ~ oa sin oda sin (0—(a—</>)}
and by analogy from (6.4)
F' cot (a—<f>)— cot 9
Fl ~ cot a—cot 9
For motion down the plane the force W becomes the effort and
the force F1, or F', the resistance. The efficiency of the inclined
plane as a machine is given by the ratio of the resistance Flf
which can be overcome with friction, to the resistance F', which
can be overcome without friction,
cot a—cot 6
(6.9)
*1 ~ F’ cot (a—</>)— cot 6
no ifcal, this equation
90°, i.e. if the force is horizontal, eq' reduces to:
cot a tan (a—</>)
V (6.10)
cot (a—</>) tan a

85. Maximum Efficiency. For given values of d and 4> there is

a value of a which gives maximum efficiency. When the direction
of motion of the body is up the plane this value of a may be
found most easily from (6.3):
F' sin a sin{0—(a+</>)}
—
^ F ~ (sin d—v.)' sin (a-f</>)
182 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Expressing the product of two sines in the numerator and in the

denominator as the differences of two cosines, this may be written
__ cos 2a)—cos (0—0)
—
^ cos (0—0 —2a) — cos (0+0)
This is clearly a maximum when cos (0—0 —2a) is a maximum,
i.e. when 0—0—2a = 0
or when a — (0—0)/2 (6.12)
Then substituting in (6.11),
1—cos (0—0)
Vmiix = 1—cos (0—0) (6.13)

If 0 = 90°, i.e. if the force is horizontal, then for maximum

efficiency:
a = (90—<f>)/2 = 45—<f>/2 . (6.14)
1—cos (90—cf>) 1—sin 0
and hmax j—cos (90+0) 1 +sin 0 (6.15)

A graphical method of proving that the efficiency is a maximum

when (6.12) is satisfied is shown in Fig. 131. From the triangle
of forces, Fig. 130 (b), the efficiency is given by:
ob 1
^ oc 1+bc/ob
Hence the efficiency is a maximum when bc/ob is a minimum,
i.e. when ob/bc is a maximum, and the problem resolves itself into
that of finding the value of a
which, with 0, 0 and be fixed,
will make ob a maximum.
Since angle bac has the fixed
value 0, we know from a well-
known theorem in geometry
that the locus of a is a circle
which passes through b and c.
Draw this circle as shown in
Fig. 131. The centre d is the
point of intersection of the line
ed which, bisects be at right
angles, and the line bd, which makes an angle 90—0 with be.
Since the point a lies on the circumference of the circle and oa
must make an angle 0 with be, it follows that the fine oa must be
tangential to the circle if ob is to be a maximum. Set off angle
eda = 0 and draw ao perpendicular to da. Then angle oab is the
value of a which gives maximum efficiency.
VI] FRICTION 183
Applying well-known principles of geometry, we have:
/_oae ade = 9/2
Also /_ bae = /_ eac = <f>/2
a = /_ oab s /_ oae— /_ bae = 9/2—</>/2 = (9— <f>)/2
For the sake of clearness the angle <f) has been taken very much
larger than its normal value in setting out Fig. 131.

86. The Inclined Plane with Guide Friction. As a further

example of the inclined plane, consider the arrangement shown in
Fig. 132. The elements A and B are free to slide through guides
and they are in contact along the inclined plane surface CC.
The angle between CC and the axis of sliding of A is 90—a and
that between CC and the axis of sliding of B is 90—/?.

A force Fa is applied to A in order to overcome the force Fb,

which resists the sliding of B. It is required to find the relation
between Fa and Fh and the efficiency of the arrangement as a
machine when the limiting angle of friction for the contact surfaces
of A and B is <f> and that for the contact surfaces of each element A
and B and the corresponding guides is <f)l.

(a) Neglecting Friction. The reactions between the various

contact surfaces are along the normals to those surfaces. The
element B is in equilibrium under the three forces Fb, the sum of
the normal reactions of the two guides and the normal reaction
Rn of A. The triangle of forces is triangle Pnb,
= Fb/cOS $
Similarly, the element A is in equilibrium under the three forces
184 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Fa, the sum of the normal reactions of the two guides and the
normal reaction Eu of B. The triangle of forces is triangle Pma,
= ^a/C0S a
But the reaction of B on A is equal to the reaction of A on B, so
that:
FJcos a = Fb/cos /3
or Fa — Fb.cos a/cos fi . . . (G.16)
(b) With Friction. The true reactions between the contact
surfaces are inclined to the normals at the friction angle and in a
direction opposite to that of the relative sliding. Hence the true
reactions are shown in Fig. 132 (b).
The triangle of forces for B is triangle Prb,
E Pr sin Pbr sin (90-[-</>!)
Fh Pb sin Prb sin (90—
cos <Ai
= (6 17)
cos W+t+fa) ' '
The triangle of forces for A is triangle Psa,
E Ps sin Pas sin (90— </>,)
F'& Pa sin Psa ~ sin (90—(a—<£—
COS (f)]
(6.18)
cos
Dividing (6.17) by 6.18),
cos (a.—(f)—(f>l)
(6.19)
Fb cos (/?+</>+</>i)
The efficiency of the arrangement as a machine is given by the
ratio of the force Fa required without friction to that required
with friction when Fh is constant, therefore, from (6.16) and
(6.19),
cos a cos (/?+(/>-(-</>,)
—
^ cos /3‘cos (a— (f>—
Since /3 = 6- a, this may be written:
_ cosa cos (0-»+<ft+^i)
^ cos (0—a)’ cos (a—cf>—<f>i) ' • \ )
Expressing the product of the two cosines in the numerator
and in the denominator as the sum of two cosines,
cos ($+*/>+(/>!)-]-cos (2a—6—
(6.21)
cos (6—<J)—0i)-f-cos (2a—6—<f>—cf>j)
vi] FRICTION 185
For given values of 6, and cf>1 the efficiency is clearly a
maximum when cos (2a—6—</>—t^) is a maximum, i.e. when
2a—#—</>—</>! = 0, or when

9
(6.22)

Substituting for a in (6.21), we have:

COS (0+0+^i) + l
Vmax . . (6.23)
~ ooa(d-<f,-fa)+l •

If the friction at the guides is negligible, (f>\ = 0 and the above

equations may be simplified.
Example 1. If the angle 6 is 60°, the coefficient of friction for
the contact surfaces of A and B is 0T5 and that for the guides
is 0T0, find the maximum efficiency.
(f> = tan-1 0-15 = 8° 32' and fa = tan”1 0*10 = 5° 4 3'
From (6.22), maximum efficiency is obtained when:
60° + 8° 32'+5° 43'
a = — = 37° 7-5'
A

From (6.23), maximum efficiency is given by:

_ cos 74° 15'-fl 1-2715
max = 0-7489 or 74-89%
^ cos 45° 45'+ 1 1-6978
If the friction of the guides is negligible, the corresponding
values are a = 34° 16' and 7ymax = 84-16%.

Example 2. Fig. 133 shows an arrangement in which a hori-

zontal effort P is applied to a wedge in order to raise the slider
against the vertical resistance Q. It is required to find the ratio
186 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

of Q to P (a) when there is no friction at the contact surfaces,

(b) when the friction angle at the contact surfaces of the wedge is
</>! and at the contact surfaces of the guide is <£.
(a) Without Friction. The reactions at all the contact surfaces
are normal to those surfaces as shown at (a).
The wedge is in equilibrium under the effort P, the reaction M
of the base and the reaction R on the inclined face. These three
forces therefore meet at a point and, from the triangle of forces,
P = R sin a, M — R cos a and M — P cot a
The slider is in equilibrium under the force R applied by the
wedge, the resistance Q and the reaction of the guide. Since R
has a component perpendicular to the axis of the guide, the slider
will tend to tilt in the guide and thus give rise to reactions S and
T at the corners of the guide as shown, and
S—T = R sin a — P
Q = R cos a = M = P cot a ... (1)
S.a = P(a-f6)
S = (a+6)/6.P = (1 +a/b)P
T — a/b.P
(b) With Friction. The reactions at the contact surfaces are
inclined at the friction angle to the normals in such a way as to
oppose the relative sliding, as shown at (b).
The condition for equilibrium of the wedge gives:
P Mt R1
— —
sin (180—a—2</>j) sin(90+a+^>1) sin (9O+0j)
From which
cos
p p .... (2)
1 'sin (a + 2</.1)

and w ___ p cos (a+^j)

1 .... (3)
'sin (a+2^)
The slider is in equilibrium under the four forces Rl} Q1} SY and Tl.
Resolve R1 into its two components parallel and perpendicular
to the axis of the guide and take moments about A, the point of
intersection of Sx and T1. Then:

(Pj cos (a+^i)— QJz = {R1 sin (a+^i)}y

But x = (6/2) cot <f) = b/2[x
and y = 6/2-(c/2) tan <£+a = 6/2+a— yc/2,
VI] FRICTION 187

cos
{-®i (a+^i)—1Qihjr^

[l+a- r) sin
(a+0i)

Qi = P^cos (a+^i)— sin (a+00) (4)

If a and c are small in comparison with b, this equation reduces

to
Qi = P^cos (a +(f>i)—fj. sin (a-+<f>i)}
and, since /JL — tan </>, this becomes
cos (a+<£i+<£)
$1 — Pi (5)
COS (f>

Suppose a = 40°, </q = 10°, 0 = 6°, a = 0-36, c = 0-36 and '

P = 50 lb.
Then, without friction, from (1):
Q = P cot a = 50.cot 40° = 59-6 lb
and, with friction, from (2):
COS (f>i cos 10° ...
RY = P. 50.-^—«AO = 56*9 lb
sin (a+200 sm 60
and, from (4), since p, = tan 6° = 0T051,
Qj = P^cos 50°—0-1051(1+0-6—0-1051.0-3) sin 50°}
= Pj{0 • 6428—0 T051 (1 *569)0 *7660}
= P1(0-6428—0-1263) = 0-5165PJ
= 29-4 lb
The efficiency of the arrangement
= QJQ = 29-4/59-6 = 0-493 or 49-3%
If equation (5) is used, which is equivalent to neglecting the
effect on the guide reactions of the tilting of the slider, then
Qx = 32-0 lb, and the efficiency is 53-7%.

87. Friction of a Screw and Nut. (a) Square Thread. The

development of a screw thread when unwound from the body of
the screw is an inclined plane, the inclination of the plane being
equal to the helix angle of the thread, as shown in Fig. 134.
Strictly speaking the helix angle decreases slightly from the root
to the tip of the thread, but the depth of the thread is small in
comparison with the radius of the screw and for practical purposes
188 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the helix angle at the mean radius of the thread is used. Let
l be the lead of the thread or helix, i.e. the axial distance through
which the nut would move if given one complete turn on a fixed
screw; let r be the mean radius of the thread and a the lead angle
or inclination of the equivalent inclined plane. Then:
tan a = Ifiirr
It follows that rotation of the nut on the screw, or of the
screw in the nut, is equivalent to sliding along an inclined plane.
The tangential force F required at the mean
radius of the screw in a plane normal to
the axis of the screw may therefore be ex-
pressed in terms of the axial load W, the
inclination a of the developed plane and
the angle of friction <f>. The conditions are
analogous to those already considered for an
inclined plane with the force acting parallel
to the base of the incline, i.e. 6 — 90°. If
the nut is rotated so as to move the screw
against the axial load, the latter has in effect
been moved up the incline and the force F
required may be calculated from equation
FIG. 134
(6.6). The turning moment which has to
be exerted on the nut is therefore F.r.
If an effort P is applied to a spanner at a distance L from the axis
of the screw, then:
P.L = F.r = W .r tan (a+</>) . . (6.24)
If the nut is rotated in the opposite sense, the load in effect
moves down the incline, and from equation (6.8) with 6 = 90°:
Pi .L = — W .r tan (ce —</>) . . . (6.25)
where Px is the effort which has to be exerted on the spanner
in the sense of rotation of the nut. If a > <f>, P1 is negative,
i.e. the nut will not remain at rest under the axial
load W unless a torque is applied to it in order to pre-
vent rotation. The efficiency of a screw and nut may
be found from equation (6.7), and it follows from
(6.14) that the efficiency is a maximum when the lead
angle a = 45°—f/2.
(b) Vee Thread. In practice many screws are provided
with vee threads and the normal reaction between the
screw and the nut is therefore greater than when a
square thread is used. The axial load W, Fig. 135, is FIG. 135
YI] FRICTION 189
assumed for simplicity to be concentrated at a single point on
the thread. Since the axial component of the normal reaction i?n
must be equal to W, we have:
Rn cos ft = W or Rn — JF/cos ft
where 2ft is the included angle between the sides of the thread.
But the friction force which acts tangentially to the surfaces of
the threads is given by:
PRn = p.W/cos ft = [xx W
where = /x/cos ft and may be regarded as a virtual coefficient of
friction.
The conditions for the vee thread, so far as friction is concerned,
are identical with those for a square thread in which the coefficient
of friction is . The corresponding friction angle is — tan- Vi-
This virtual friction angle may be substituted for the actual
friction angle (f> in the equations already given for the square-
threaded screw.

88. Pivot and Collar Friction. It frequently happens that a

rotating shaft is subjected to an axial thrust, and a bearing surface
must be provided in order to take this thrust and to preserve the
shaft in its correct axial position. Examples of shafts which
carry an axial thrust are to be found in the propeller shafts of
steamships, the shafts of steam turbines, vertical machine shafts,
etc. The surface or surfaces on which the thrust is carried are
usually plane surfaces at right angles
to the axis of rotation, but occasionally
conical surfaces, in which the axis of
the cone coincides with the axis of
rotation, may be used. Relative motion
between the contact surfaces of a thrust
bearing is resisted by the friction be-
tween the surfaces, and before such
relative motion can take place a torque
or couple must be applied to the shaft.
The magnitude of the torque required
may be determined approximately as
follows:
Referring to Fig. 136, an axial load W is supported by a conical
bearing surface -with an apex angle 2a. The extreme radii of the
actual area of contact are and r2.
Consider a ring of bearing surface of radius r, radial width 8r
and width 81 parallel to the conical surface.
Let p be the normal intensity of pressure between the surfaces
190 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

at radius r and p, the coefficient of friction between the surfaces at

radius r. Then the area of the ring of bearing surface = SA
= 2TTT . SI and the normal load supported by the ring
= SP = p.SA — p. rr.81

The axial load supported by the ring

= SIF = 8P sin a = p. rr. SI sin a
But SI sin a = Sr,
STF -p.27rr.Sr
and the total axial load
W — f p.27rrAr .... (6.26)
J r-t

The friction force on the ring of bearing surface

= SF = ix.SP = fxp .2TTT .SI

and the friction moment about the axis of rotation of the shaft
= SM — SF.r = ixp.27rr2.8l — /xp.2TTT2.Sr/sin a

The total friction moment which resists the rotation of the shaft

=M = j
J r.
/xp. 27TT2 . dr/sin a . . (6.27)

Before equations (6.26) and (6.27) can be integrated, the way

in which p and p vary with the radius r must be either known or
assumed. Sufficient has already been said to emphasise the
uncertainty regarding the value of fx, which varies with the degree
of lubrication, the relative speed and the intensity of pressure
between the two surfaces. In the absence of more exact informa-
tion it is usual to assume that [x is constant for all points on the
bearing surfaces.
There is also considerable uncertainty as to the distribution of
the axial load over the area of the contact surfaces. If the fit
between the two surfaces is assumed to be perfect, then the
normal intensity of pressure will be the same at all points on the
bearing surface. But the rate of wear of the surfaces must
depend not only on the intensity of pressure but also on the velocity
of rubbing between the surfaces, i.e. rate of wear = f(p, v). There
is very little information available as to the exact relationship
between rate of wear, intensity of pressure and rubbing speed.
If it is assumed that the rate of wear is directly proportional to
the product pv, then, since v varies directly with r, the rate of wear
oc p.r.
VI] FRICTION 191
Equations (6.26 and (6.27) will therefore be integrated on the
assumptions that the coefficient of friction is the same at all
points on the bearing surface and that either (a) the intensity of
pressure is uniform or (b) the rate of wear is uniform, i.e.
pr = constant.
(a) Uniform Intensity of Pressure. From equation (6.26):

W = 2npJ rdr = p.7r(r12—r22) . . (6.28)

and from equation (6.27):

M
~ "^sin </£ r2ir
- 3 sin . (6.29)

On substituting forp from (6.28) in (6.29):

2 a /\3—r<>2s
M = 5 r w ‘
3 sm a rY2— r22
„ . . . (6.30)

It is clear that, for a flat pivot or collar, equation (6.28) remains

unchanged, but since a = 90°, sin a = 1 and equation (6.30)
reduces to:

M
= ■ ■ ■ (6-31)
The friction moment for a conical pivot is therefore identical
with that for a flat pivot which has a higher coefficient of friction
pi = /r/sin a.
(b) Uniform Rate of Wear: (pr = C). Substituting C for pr
in equation (6.26):
1
W = 2TTC\ dr = 2TrC(r1—r2) . . (6.32)
Ju
and from equation (6.27):

M — 277"
pG
sm a.; s: rdr

and substituting for C from equation (6.32):

=
uC
7T-.— {rf2—r22)
sm a'
(6.33)

pW r!+r2
M = (6.34)
sm a
For a flat pivot equation (6.32) remains unchanged, while
equation (6.34) reduces to
^1+^2
M =pW . (6.35)
2
192 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Which of the two assumptions, uniform intensity of pressure or

uniform rate of wear, should be used in any given problem is a
matter of opinion. It would seem better to use that assumption
which will give a result on the safe side. For instance, a com-
parison of equations (G.31) and (6.35) shows that the calculated
friction moment is higher if uniform intensity of pressure is
assumed than if uniform rate of wear is assumed. If, therefore,
the problem is concerned with the power absorbed by friction in a
thrust bearing, use the former assumption. If, on the other hand,
the problem is to find the power which can be transmitted by
friction between the surfaces, use the latter assumption.

89. The Thrust Bearing. The general arrangement of a thrust

bearing of the ordinary type is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 137.
A number of collars C is turned integrally with the shaft. Between
each pair of collars there is a horse-shoe shaped bearing pad B,
which is held in position by two or more lugs L. Long screwed

FIG. 137

bolts S pass through the lugs, and nuts N on either side of the
lugs locate the bearing pads in the axial direction. When the
pads are correctly adjusted, each one should carry an equal share
of the total axial thrust W.
If n is the number of collars, then the friction moment for each
collar from equation (6.31) is equal to:

2 W rl3—r23
3^ n r{2—r22

and the total friction moment for n collars:

2 —r03
^ =
3^^ f ^2 r^2 • (6.36)

Thus the number of collars docs not affect the friction moment.
The sole reason for providing a large number of collars is to
reduce the intensity of pressure on the bearing surfaces, so that
vi] FRICTION 193
they may be effectively lubricated. In practice the bearing
pressure is limited to about 50-60 lb/in2.
According to Tower’s experiments1 the coefficient of friction
for this type of bearing is about 0-035 to 0-040 when well lubri-
cated.

Example 3. The thrust along a propeller shaft is 16 tons. The

internal diameter of the bearing pads is 12 in. and the external
diameter is 16 in. If the intensity of pressure is limited to
50 lb/in2, the r.p.m. are 120 and /z is 0-04, find the power absorbed
in overcoming friction and the number of collars required.
The total friction moment from equation (6.36) is:

__ 2 83 63 —

M =-.0-04.16.2240.p-g-2

= 10 100 lb in.
M. 2TTN 10 100.277.120
h.p. absorbed =
12.33 000 12.33 000
19-3
If the bearing pads are shaped as in Fig. 137, the effective bearing
surface per pad is easily calculated from the dimensions to be
58-5 in2.
16.2240
number of collars required =
58-5.50
= 12-25 (say 12)
If the bearing pressure is a nominal bearing pressure based on
the annular area of the collar, then the number of collars required
is:
16.2240
71 = 2 2
= 8-15 (say 8)
77(8 —6 ).50

90. Plate and Disc Clutches. Two types of friction clutch that
are very widely used and that operate on the same principle are
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 138. The clutch shown at (a) is
a single plate clutch. The flywheel A is bolted to a flange on the
driving shaft B. The plate C is fixed to a boss, which is free to
slide axially along the driven shaft D but by means of splines is
compelled to revolve with the shaft D. Two rings G of special
friction material are riveted to A and E or, alternatively, to the
plate C. The presser plate E is bushed internally, so as to
revolve freely on the driven shaft D, and is integral with the
1
Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., 1886.
7^-T.M.
194 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

withdrawal sleeve F. A number of spiral springs are arranged

round the clutch as shown at S, so as to provide the axial thrust
between the friction surfaces. The action of the clutch is as
follows. When the withdrawal sleeve is displaced to the right,
there is no axial pressure between the friction surfaces and the
flywheel A revolves freely, while the plate C and the shaft D
remain at rest. When the withdrawal force is removed from the
sleeve F, the springs S force the presser plate E against the rings
G and the friction between the contact surfaces of the rings G and
the plate C transmits a torque to the shaft D. Provided that the
friction torque on C is greater than the resisting torque on D, the
shaft D will revolve. This type of clutch therefore enables the
driven shaft to be started or stopped at will. To preserve the align-
ment of the driven shaft, a small spigot bearing is provided in the
end of the driving shaft.

The clutch shown at (b) is similar to that shown at (a) except

that the number of surfaces at which slip can take place is in-
creased. The outer casing A is bolted as before to the driving
shaft B, but has a number of axial grooves cut on the internal
surface. Alternate discs, marked Cl5 have tongues or pro-
jections on the outer edge, as showm at (c). These are a sliding
fit in the internal axial grooves on the casing A. The internal
diameter of each disc is greater than the diameter of the
driven member D. The other discs C have an external diameter
less than the internal diameter of the casing A and are provided
with tongues on their inner edges, as showm at (d). These
are a sliding fit in the axial grooves on the driven member D. It
follows that the discs CL must revolve with the casing A and the
discs C must revolve wdth the driven member D. The action of the
VI] FRICTION 195
clutch is the same as that already described for the single plate
clutch. The axial thrust exerted by the spring S forces the discs
Cx and C into contact and the friction between the contact surfaces
enables a torque to be transmitted from the casing A to the shaft
D. Displacement of the withdrawal sleeve F to the right removes
the axial load from the discs and allows the outer casing to
revolve freely, while the shaft D remains at rest. As already
pointed out, the friction torque between each pair of contact
surfaces should be determined from equation (6.35). It is given
by:
M = fiW
2
where W is the axial load and and r2 are the external and in-
ternal radii of the contact surfaces.
It should be noted that, since the discs are free to slide axially
under the spring pressure, each pair of contact surfaces is subjected
to the full axial load W. Hence the total torque transmitted
from the driving to the driven shaft is equal to n times the torque
given by the above equation, where n is the number of pairs of
surfaces between which sliding can take place. For the single
plate clutch, n — 2, since there are two pairs of contact surfaces
corresponding to the two sides of the plate C and the adjacent
surfaces of the rings G. For the disc clutch shown it is easily
seen that n — 10, since only one face of each of the outer discs Cj
is effective.

Example 4. A car engine rated at 12 h.p. gives a maximum

torque of 65 lb ft. The clutch is of the single-plate type, both
sides of the plate being effective. If the coefficient of friction
is 03, the mean axial pressure is limited to 12 lb/in2, and the
external radius of the friction surface is 1-25 times the internal
radius, find the dimensions of the clutch plate and the total
axial pressure which must be exerted by the springs.
Let rx, r2 be the external and internal radii of the friction
surfaces.
Then the total axial thrust
W — p .7r(rl2—r22)
2 2
= 12.7r.r2 (l -25 — 1)

= 21 -2r22lb
Friction moment for each surface, from (6.35) = -f r2).
Total friction moment for the two sides of the clutch plate
= M = /nW(rl-\-r2) = 0-3.2-25TFr2 = 0-675 Wr2
196 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Substituting for W, M — 0-675.21-2r23

But the required friction moment = 65 lb ft = 780 lb in.
0-675.21 -2r23 = 780
780
= = 3-79 in.
0-675.21-2
r1 = 4-74 in.
The dimensions of the friction surfaces are: outside dia. 9-5 in.,
inside dia. 7-6 in.
Example 5. A multi-plate friction clutch is required to transmit
100 h.p. at 3600 r.p.m. The plates are alternately steel and
phosphor bronze and they run in oil. The coefficient of friction
is 0-07, the axial pressure is 20 lb/in.2 and the internal radius of the
friction surfaces is 0-8 of the external radius, which is 5 in. Find
the number of plates required and sketch the arrangement.
The area of each friction surface
= r22)
2
= TT.25(1—0-8 )
= 28-3 in2
.*. total axial thrust on the plates = W = 20.28-3
= 566 lb
The friction moment for each pair of contact surfaces is given
by (6.35):
M = hiW{rx+r2) = |.0-07.566.5(l+0-8)
= 178 lb in.
But total torque to be transmitted:
H.33 000.12
1
~ 2rrN
where H is the horse-power and N is the r.p.m.
100.33 000.12
T = 1752 lb in.
277.3600
.*. no. of effective friction surfaces required = 1752/178 ~ 10
Hence, the plates must be arranged so that there are ten
surfaces at which slip can take place. The arrangement will be
similar to that shown diagrammatically in Fig. 138 (b), that is
there must be eleven plates altogether, six revolving with the
driver and five with the driven shaft.
VI] FRICTION 197
91. Friction Circle. Friction Axis. The two members of a
turning pair are shown in Fig. 139 (a) with the necessary
mechanical clearance between the contact surfaces much exag-
gerated. When the pin is at rest in the bearing and the contact
surfaces are frictionless, the reaction of the bearing on the pin
will lie along the radial line AO through the point of contact A.
But if the coefficient of friction is p, corresponding to a friction
angle the direction of the reaction may lie anywhere between
the two extreme positions AR and AS, which are inclined to the
radial line AO at the angle </>. The limiting position of the
reaction will be given by AR when the point of contact on the
pin slides towards the right relative to the point of contact on
the bearing, i.e. when the pin turns in the counter-clockwise sense
relative to the bearing. Similarly, the limiting position of the
reaction will be given by AS when the pin turns in the clockwise
sense relative to the bearing. From O drop perpendiculars on
each of the lines AR and AS. Then each of these perpendiculars

will have a length, OA sin </>. But </> is usually small, so that
sin cf) may be assumed to be equal to tan </> or p without sensible
error. It follows that, if a circle is drawn with centre O and
radius pr, the limiting positions AR and AS of the reaction of the
bearing on the pin will be tangential to this circle. The circle is
known as the friction circle, and so long as the pin is rotating in
the bearing the reaction of the bearing on the pin must act along
a line which is tangential to the friction circle. If, for example,
the resultant force on the pin is vertical and the point of contact
is at A, Fig. 139 (b), when the pin is at rest, then, when the pin
rotates counter-clockwise relative to the bearing, the point of con-
tact will move round to B, Fig. 139 (c), such that the line of action
of P is tangential to the friction circle.
Note that the pin tends to climb up the bearing in the opposite
sense to that of the rotation of the pin.
When a link of a mechanism is coupled by pin-joints to two
adjacent links and the pin-joints are frictionless, the line of action
198 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

of the thrust or pull transmitted along the link must coincide

with the line joining the centres of the pins. But we have just
seen that, when friction is taken into account, the reaction between
a pin and its bearing no longer passes through the pin centre but is
tangential to the friction circle of the pin. Hence the line of
action of the thrust or pull along the link must coincide with the
common tangent to the friction circles of the two pins. Since
there are four common tangents to a given pair of friction circles,
it is necessary to determine in any particular problem which of
the four gives the true line of action of the thrust or pull. The
line of action of the thrust or pull is known as the friction axis of
the link. In order to fix the particular common tangent which
determines the friction axis, it must be remembered that the
friction at each pin opposes the relative motion between the pin
and its bearing. Hence the thrust or pull along the friction axis
must exert a moment about the pin centre which will overcome the
friction moment. One or two examples will make the method clear.

Example 6. Find the friction axis of the link BC in each of the

two given positions of the four-bar chain, Fig. 140, when a clock-
wise torque is applied to AB in order to overcome a resisting
torque on CD. For clearness the friction circles of the pins at B
and C are shown to a much enlarged scale.
Referring to Fig. 140 (a), the angle ABC is diminishing, so that
BC is swinging counter-clockwise relative to AB and the friction
of the pin-joint B exerts a clockwise moment on BC. Since BC

is in tension, it follows that, to overcome this friction moment, the

friction axis must be tangential to the friction circle of the pin B
at a point above the centre of the pin. Similarly, the angle BCD
is increasing so that CB is swinging counter-clockwise relative to
CD and the friction of the pin-joint exerts a clockwise moment on
CB. In order to overcome this friction moment, the friction
axis must be tangential to the friction circle of pin C at a point
below the centre of the pin. Hence, the friction axis must be as
shown by the full line.
VI] FRICTION 199
Again, referring to Fig. 140 (b), the angle ABC is increasing,
so that the friction of the pin-joint B exerts a clockwise moment
on BC. But BC is under compression and therefore the friction
axis must be tangential to the friction circle of pin B at a point
below the centre of the pin. Similarly, the angle BCD is de-
creasing, so that the friction of the pin-joint C exerts a counter-
clockwise moment on CB. In order to overcome this friction
moment the thrust along BC must be tangential to the friction
circle of pin C at a point below the centre of the pin. Hence the
friction axis must be as shown by the full line. It is left as an
exercise for the student to show that if CD is the driving crank and
AB the driven crank and the sense of rotation of AB and CD is
unchanged, the friction axes will occupy the positions shown by
dotted lines.

Example 7. The arrangement of the eccentric drive for the

exhaust piston of a large two-stroke Diesel engine is shown in
Fig. 141. The stroke is 16 in., the diameter of the eccentric is
30 in. and the diameters of the crankshaft journal and the cross-
head pin are 14 in. and 8-8 in. The length of the eccentric rod
between centres is 80 in. and the pull on the crosshead is 6 tons
when the angle COP is 60°.

Find the turning moment on the crankshaft (a) when friction

at the bearings is neglected, (b) when the coefficient of friction at
the bearings is 0-05.
The radii of the friction circles at O, C and P are: at O, r0
= 0-05.7 = 0-35 in., at C, rc = 0-05.15 = 0-75 in. and at P,
rp = 0-05.4-4 = 0-22 in.
These circles are shown, in the figure, which is not drawn to
scale.
200 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Let Q be the tensile force transmitted along the eccentric rod.

Then, since CP is swinging in the clockwise sense about the
axis P, the force Q must exert a clockwise moment about P in
order to overcome the friction between the pin and the bearing.
Hence the line of action of Q must be tangential to the friction
circle at a point above P.
Similarly, the angle OCP is increasing, so that the eccentric rod
is swinging in the clockwise sense relative to the eccentric and in
order to overcome the friction between the eccentric and the
strap the line of action of Q must be tangential to the friction
circle at a point below C.
The friction axis, or line of action of Q, is therefore as shown.
The force Q applied to the eccentric is equivalent to an equal
and parallel force applied to the main bearing by the crankshaft
journal. To overcome the friction between the journal and the
bearing this force must be tangential to the friction circle at a
point above 0, as shown.
The effective turning moment applied to the crankshaft
Q•
The force Q may be found by drawing the triangle of forces at
P, the third force being the side thrust of the guide bars on the
crosshead. The distance x may be measured from a large-scale
drawing. But, in view of the relatively small radii of the friction
circles, x can only be found accurately by calculation.
If </> is the angle CPO and a is the inclination of the friction
axis to the line of centres CP, then
sin (f> = OC/CP.sin 6 = 0-0866 and <f> = 4° 58'
and sin a = (rc-frp)/CP = 0-97/S0 = 0-0121, a = 0° 42'
.*. Q — P/cos ((f)—a) = 6-018 tons
Also x = OC cos{30°—(cf>—a)}—(rc+r0)
= 8 cos 25° 44' —1-10 = 6-106 in.
.'. turning moment applied to OC = Q.x
— 3-06 ton ft
Without friction,
Q = Ffcos (f) = 6-024 tons
and x = perpendicular distance of CP from O
= OC cos (30°-(f) = 8.cos 25° 2' = 7-248 in.
turning moment applied to OC = 3-64 ton ft
According to the above calculations, the efficiency of the
mechanism is 3-06/3-64 = 0-84 or 84%.
 VI] FRICTION 201
In experiments quoted by C. C. Pounder1 on an eccentric drive
of approximately the same dimensions the coefficient of friction
varied between 0-0035 and 0-0075. This would give a much
higher efficiency.
Example 8. A horizontal pump, 4 in. stroke, is driven by means
of an eccentric 11| in. dia., keyed to a shaft 4 in. dia. The shaft
is driven by a vertical belt on a 14-in. dia. pulley. The belt
embraces an arc of 180° and the coefficient of friction is 0-25.
If the tension on the tight side of the belt is 350 lb, find the
maximum horizontal force that can be transmitted to the pump
when the radius of the eccentric is at 60° to the i.d.c. Assume
the eccentric rod to be very long. The coefficient of friction
between the eccentric strap and sheave and between the shaft
and the bearing is 0-1.
From (7.4) TXIT2 = eM0 = e0-25" =2-193
But Ti = 350 lb, so that
T2 = 350/2-193 = 159-6 lb

Let P be the horizontal force transmitted to the pump and

let R be the resultant load on the shaft bearings.
Then
R = V/{P 2 + (^1 + ^2)2) = 100. ^{(-^7100)2+5-0962}
and the friction torque on the shaft
= /A. R.radius of shaft = 0-2R lb in.
But the radius of the eccentric sheave is 5f in., so that the radius
of the friction circle of the sheave is 0-575 in. and the line of
action of the horizontal thrust along the eccentric rod must be
1
C. C. Pounder, M.I.Mech.E. : “ Some Current Types of Marine Diesel Engine,”
Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng, Vol. 160, 1949.
7*—T.M.
202 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

tangential to this friction circle. Hence the distance of the line

of action of P from the axis of rotation of the shaft is
0-575 + 2.0-8GG = 0-575 + 1-732 = 2-307 in.
The total resisting torque on the shaft is given by:
P.2-307+0-212 lb in.
and this must be equal to the effective torque applied by the belt,
i.e.
(Tl — T2)7 = 190-4.7 lb in.
/. 1-904.7 = 2-307.P/100+0-2+{(P/100)2 + 5-0962} . . (1)
66-64-11-535.P/100
= V{(P/100)2+5-0962}
4441 — 1538P/100 +133-1(P/100)2
= (P/100)2+25-97
132-1(P/100)2 — 1538P/100+4415
= 0
2
(P/100) — 11-63P/100+33-42
=0
.‘.P/100 = 5-815++(33-82 — 33-42)
= 5-815++0-40
= 5-815+0-633
= 6-448 or 5-182
.*. P = 644-8 or 518-2 lb
The larger of these two values is inadmissible. It corresponds
to a negative sign in front of the second term on the right-hand
side of equation (1).

92. Lubricated Surfaces. The results of experiments carried

out by different observers on the friction of dry surfaces have
frequently shown considerable discrepancies. There is little
doubt that many of these discrepancies have been due to the
presence of exceedingly minute traces of foreign matter on the
surfaces. Recent research has shown that even a trace of lubri-
cant is sufficient to modify appreciably the friction force required
and that the bond between the lubricant and the metal surface
is so strong that it is exceedingly difficult to ensure that no such
trace remains.
The two most important properties of a lubricant, so far as the
reduction of friction is concerned, are viscosity and oiliness.
vi] FRICTION 203
The viscosity is a measure of the resistance offered to the sliding
of one layer of lubricant over an adjacent layer. The absolute
viscosity of a lubricant is defined as the force required to cause a
plate of unit area to slide with unit velocity relative to a parallel
plate when the two plates are separated by a layer of lubricant of
unit thickness.
The layers of lubricant immediately adjacent to the surfaces
have no motion relative to those surfaces. Thus, if one of the
plates, say the lower plate, is fixed, the layer
of lubricant adjacent to this surface is at rest \\\\\\\\\\\\\\x\\\\\v
while the layer adjacent to the surface of the
upper plate moves with the same velocity as ;v ; ; A; / ;/77//yyy> /;/)
that plate. The intermediate layers move FIG. 143
with velocities which are directly propor-
tional to their distances from the surface of the fixed plate,
Fig. 143.
Hence, it follows that the viscous force F required in order to
cause a plate of area A to slide with velocity v relative to a parallel
plate which is separated from it by a layer of lubricant of thick-
ness y is given by:
F = yA.vjy (6.37)
where y is the viscosity of the lubricant.
In the C.G.S. system of units, in which the unit of force is the
dyne and the unit of length the centimetre, the unit of viscosity
is termed the poise.
For practical methods of determining the absolute viscosity of
a lubricant reference should be made to the specification of the
British Standards Institution, B.S. 188:1937.
For commercial purposes the viscosities of liquids are measured
by noting the time in seconds taken for a given volume of the
liquid to flow through an orifice of given dimensions under specified
standard conditions. The Redwood viscometer is an instrument
of this type.
The viscosity of a liquid diminishes rapidly with an increase of
temperature, but is only slightly affected by increase of pressure.
Oiliness is a property of the lubricant which it is more difficult
to define. If two lubricants with identical viscosities are lightly
smeared on two surfaces and the friction between those surfaces
is tested under otherwise identical conditions, the friction force
will be lower with one lubricant than with the other. The
lubricant which gives the lower friction force is said to have the
greater oiliness.
Viscosity and oiliness are entirely independent properties and
which of the two properties exercises the controlling influence on
204 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the friction between two surfaces depends on the thickness of the

layer of lubricant. If the layer is of finite thickness, so that no
actual contact takes place between the surfaces, the friction is
determined by the viscosity of the lubricant. If the layer is
only a few molecules thick, the friction is determined by the
oil in ess of the lubricant.

93. Boundary Friction. However carefully the surfaces of a

bearing are machined they are never perfectly smooth. Con-
sidered in terms of the dimensions of a molecule of lubricant the
surfaces must be regarded as rough, so that contact will take place
only at the high spots. The low areas between the high spots will
be separated by a layer of lubricant of small but finite thickness.
It is at the high spots that the condition known as boundary
lubrication exists. The thickness of the film at these spots is
exceedingly small, so small indeed that the viscosity of the
lubricant plays no part in determining the friction between the
surfaces, the oiliness of the lubricant being the important factor.
But oiliness is a property which varies not only with different
lubricants, but also with the same lubricant according to the
material of the bearing surfaces. It has been established by
the experiments of Hardy and others that there is some form of
bond between the molecules of lubricant and the metal surface,
a bond which is of the same nature as a chemical bond and the
strength of which depends partly on the lubricant and partly on
the metal. The lubricant is said to be adsorbed by the metal.
The adsorbed film is exceedingly thin, but it is also exceedingly
difficult to remove from the surface. The friction between two
surfaces on which such a film has formed is essentially solid fric-
tion, i.e. there is no velocity gradient in the film, but the friction is
considerably lower than for dry surfaces. The two surfaces are
also much less liable to seize than are dry surfaces.
A feature of great practical importance is that once a film has
been formed on the surfaces by running the bearing with a
lubricant possessing a high degree of oiliness, it is possible to
change to a lubricant with a much lower oiliness. The particular
advantage of this lies in the fact that lubricants of high oiliness
arc liable to decompose or oxidise and are not suitable for general
lubrication purposes. Vegetable oils such as castor oil, rape oil,
and olive oil, particularly the first named, possess a high degree of
oiliness, while mineral oils are relatively deficient in this property.
Hence the practice has arisen of using an oil consisting of a mix-
ture of mineral oil and a small percentage of vegetable oil. The
vegetable oil has a greater affinity for the metal surface and is
adsorbed on that surface. Perhaps the most striking results have
VI] FRICTION 205

been obtained with the solid lubricant graphite. The graphite is

prepared in an extremely finely divided and chemically pure form
known as colloidal graphite. In this form it can be mixed with a
lubricating oil and the particles of graphite remain in suspension
for an indefinite period. The graphite is deposited in a very thin
layer on the surface of the metal and apparently increases the
adsorption of oil on the surface. Tests carried out at the N.P.L.
have shown that a bearing treated in this way is almost immune
from seizure.

94. Film Lubrication. Film lubrication, in which the bearing

surfaces are completely separated by a layer of lubricant, so that
friction arises from the relative movement of the layers of oil and
not from the rubbing of the actual surfaces, may be regarded as
the ideal form of lubrication. Unfortunately special conditions
of operation of the bearing are necessary in order to enable
the film to be produced and maintained between the surfaces,
and these conditions can only be satisfied in certain types of
bearings.
The presence of a film of oil which completely separated the
two bearing surfaces was first shown to exist in the course of
experiments carried out on a journal bearing by Beauchamp
Tower. These experiments are fully recorded in the Proceedings
of the Insitution of Mechanical Engineers, 1885, to which reference
should be made for a description of the apparatus used and the
complete results. In the present connection the chief interest lies
in the results of the experiments on a journal bearing with oil bath
lubrication. In these experiments the bearing pad embraced
rather less than one-half of the circumference of the journal and
the bottom of the shaft dipped into a supply of oil which was
contained in a reservoir. The oil adhered to the surface of the
journal and was carried round to the bearing pad by the rotation
of the journal. Tower found that the coefficient of friction was
not constant, as it should be if the laws of dry friction held, but
diminished with an increase of bearing pressure and increased
with an increase of surface speed of the journal. Further, the
actual value of the coefficient of friction was very small, being of
the order 0-001 to 0-002 with mineral oil as the lubricant when the
temperature of the bath was 90°F. Perhaps the most interesting
result of the experiments was that relating to the pressure of the
oil in the oil film. Small holes were drilled in the pad at various
points along both its length and its width. Each of the holes was
connected in turn to a Bourdon pressure gauge, so that the
pressure of the oil in the film could be measured while the journal
was rotating. Across the width of the pad the pressure was found
206 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

to increase from zero at the inlet edge to a maximum value at a

point a little to the outlet side of the centre line of the bearing
and then to decrease to zero again at the outlet edge. Along the
length of the pad the pressure remained very nearly constant,
except near the two ends, where it rapidly fell down to zero,
Fig. 144. The maximum pressure of the oil was much greater

5
5s 23
CO
co CO
Co

8! £

FIG. 144

than the nominal bearing pressure, but the total load correspond-
ing to the oil pressures, as recorded on the pressure gauge, was
substantially equal to the load carried by the bearing pad. This
proved conclusively that the load was carried by the film of oil
which separated the two surfaces and prevented metallic contact
between them. Other results obtained by Tower in this series
of experiments were:
(a) The tangential friction force per square inch of bearing sur-
face was very nearly independent of the load.
(b) The tangential force diminished with an increase in the
temperature of the lubricant in the oil bath.
(c) The tangential force was independent of the material used
for the bearing pad.
(d) The tangential force was different for different lubricants.
(e) The thickness of the oil film was greater at the inlet or on-
side of the bearing pad than at the outlet or off-side.
Since Tower’s experiments had clearly shown that it was pos-
sible for a complete film of oil to separate the surfaces of the
bearing and to transmit the bearing load, Osborne Reynolds was
led to the conclusion that the conditions in the film of oil should
be subject to hydrodynamic laws. In 1886 he read his classical
paper on the mathematical theory of lubrication before the Royal
VI] FRICTION 207
Society. In this paper he showed that the conditions essential
to the formation of such a film are:
(a) A relative motion between the two surfaces in a direction
approximately tangential to the surfaces.
(b) A continuous supply of oil to the surfaces.
(c) The ability of one of the surfaces to take up a small inclina-
tion to the other surface in the direction of the relative
motion.
(d) The line of action of the resultant oil pressure must coincide
with the line of action of the external load between the
surfaces.
In order to simplify the mathematical analysis Osborne Reynolds
assumed that the cylindrical bearing surfaces were of infinite
transverse width, so that the flow of the lubricant took place wholly
in the direction of the relative motion. Where, as in practical
bearings, the width is finite, the analysis is complicated by the
fact that flow also takes place in a direction at right angles to the
relative motion, but the above conditions must still be fulfilled.

95. The Film Lubrication of Plane Surfaces. Although the

existence of a film of oil which completely separated the two
bearing surfaces was first demonstrated by Tower’s experiments
on a journal bearing, it will be simpler first of all to consider
conditions as they apply to such a film between plane surfaces.
Let Fig. 145 represent a section, taken parallel to the direction of
relative motion, of the wedge-shaped
film between two surfaces wdiich are of
infinite width normal to the section.
The surface B moves with velocity v in
the direction shown, while the surface
A is at rest. The kyer of oil im-
mediately adjacent to the upper surface
has the velocity v while the layer im-
mediately adjacent to the surface A is
at rest. The intermediate layers of oil
have velocities which vary both across
the thickness and along the length of
the film. Since the surfaces are as-
sumed to be of infinite width in the direction perpendicular to the
section, no flow of oil is possible, except in the direction of v, and
therefore the same quantity of oil must flow past all transverse
sections of the film. Suppose that at the transverse section aa of
the film the velocity gradient is constant, as it would be for a film
between two parallel surfaces, then the mean velocity is v]2 and the
208 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

quantity of oil flowing past this section in unit time is proportional

to the area of the shaded triangle. It follows that for any other
transverse section the shape of the velocity curve must be such
that the corresponding shaded area will be equal to that of the
triangle. For instance, at the inlet edge the film thickness is
greater than at the section aa, so that the mean velocity is less
than v/2 and therefore the velocity curve is convex when viewed
in the direction of motion. On the other hand, at the outlet edge
the film thickness is less than at aa, so that the mean velocity is
greater than v/2 and therefore the velocity curve is concave when
viewed in the direction of motion.
It is not possible to enter here into the theory of film lubrication,
but mathematical analysis shows1 that :
(a) For a thin film, in which the pressure may be assumed to
be constant at all points of any one transverse section,
the rate of change of velocity gradient across the film is
constant.
(b) The slope of the curve of pressure variation along the film
is, at any one transverse section, equal to the product of
the viscosity of the oil and the rate of change of velocity
gradient across the film.

From (a) it follows that the velocity curves are parabolic arcs,
while from (b) the following facts may be deduced:
(i) The pressure in the film increases from zero at the inlet edge
to a maximum at the section aa, where the rate of change of the
velocity gradient is zero, and then diminishes again to zero at the
outlet edge.
(ii) The transverse section at which the pressure is a maximum
lies nearer to the outlet edge than the inlet edge, and the line
of resultant pressure lies between the section of maximum pres-
sure and the section midway along the film.
(iii) The shape of the curve of pressure variation depends only
upon the ratio of inlet to outlet film thickness. The higher the
ratio, the nearer to the outlet edge are both the section of
maximum pressure and the line of resultant pressure.
(iv) The ordinates of the pressure curve for any one value of
the ratio of inlet to outlet film thickness depend upon the values
of the viscosity, the velocity, and the mean film thickness. The
higher the viscosity or the velocity the greater is the pressure, but
the thicker the film the lower the pressure.
It is assumed that the viscosity of the lubricant remains con-
stant along the film.
1
R. O. Boswall: The Theory of Film Lubrication, Chapter I.
VI] FRICTION 209
Where, as in actual bearings, the viscosity diminishes along
the film, owing to the rise of temperature caused by the heat
generated in the film, this has the effect of shifting the line of
resultant pressure towards the inlet edge.
Leakage of oil in the transverse direction, which is inevitable
in bearings of finite transverse width, has the opposite effect.
The line of action of the resultant pressure may be shifted
towards the inlet edge by extending the surface A beyond the
inlet edge in the form of a rounded corner.
Since the speed v, the viscosity of the oil and the external load
supported by the film may all vary, it is clearly necessary for the
surface A to be able to alter its inclination to the surface B.
This may be allowed for, in practice, by supporting on a pivot the
pad which forms surface A. Although theoretically the pivot
should be nearer to the outlet edge than to the inlet edge, since
the lines of action of the resultant pressure and the external load
must coincide, it is found that the shifting of the line of resultant
pressure owing to the causes mentioned above is sufficient to
enable a central pivot to be used quite satisfactorily.

96. The Michell and Kingsbury Bearings. Film lubricated

plane surfaces were applied to thrust bearings in 1905 by A. G. M.
Michell in England and A. Kingsbury in the United States.
Working independently, they were the first to design bearings
with the specific object of incorporating the principles which

had been laid down by Osborne Reynolds. A Michell bearing is

shown in Fig. 146. The thrust is transmitted from the shaft to
the bearing casing through a single collar C. The actual bearing
surface is divided into a number of sector-shaped pads P, which
may form a complete ring round the shaft or alternatively may
extend only part way round. Each of the pads is supported in
210 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the casing in such a way that, although prevented from moving

circumferentially, it is free to tilt and take up a small inclination to
the surface of the collar in the direction of motion. Alternative
methods of supporting the pads are shown in Fig. 146. Lubri-
cant is supplied under pressure in large bearings, but the collar
may simply dip into a well of oil in small bearings. The oil is
carried round by the collar and a wedge-shaped film is formed
between the surface of the collar and the surface of each pad.
This film transmits the thrust from the collar, to the pads and
thence to the casing.
For this type of bearing the friction is very much lower and the
allowable bearing pressure is very much higher than for a bearing
of the horse-shoe type, Fig. 137. Experiments have shown that
the coefficient of friction is only about 0-003, whereas in Tower’s
experiments on a collar bearing the coefficient of friction was
0-035. The intensity of pressure reached the extremely high
figure of 7000 lb/in2 1 in some experiments carred out on a Kings-
bury bearing by the Westinghouse Co., U.S.A., and then the
bearing failed not by rupture of the film but by the plastic flow
of the white metal surface of the pads. In practice the bearing
pressure used is about 300-400 lb/in2. These pressures should be
compared with the maximum pressure of 75 lb/in2 at which the
bearing seized in Tower’s experiments on a collar bearing and the
normal pressure of about 50 lb/in2 used in the design of horseshoe
thrust bearings.

97. The Journal Bearing. In a simple journal bearing the

bearing surface is bored out to a slightly larger diameter than that
of the journal. Thus, wdien the journal is at rest, it makes contact
with the bearing surface along a line, the position of which is

(b)
FIG. 147

determined by the line of action of the external load. If the load

is vertical, as in Fig. 147 (a), the line of contact is parallel to the
axis of the journal and directly below that axis. The crescent-
shaped space between the journal and the bearing will be filled
1
Hodgkinson: “ Journal Bearing Practice ”, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., 1929.
VI] FRICTION 211
with lubricant. When rotation begins the first tendency is for
the line of contact to move up the bearing surface in the opposite
direction to that of rotation, as shown at (b), since when the
journal slides over the brass, the true reaction of the brass on the
journal is inclined to the normal to the two surfaces at the
friction angle ^ and this reaction must be in line with the load.
The layer of lubricant immediately adjacent to the journal tends
to be carried round with it, but is scraped off by the bearing, so
that a condition of boundary lubrication exists between the high
spots on the journal and bearing surfaces which are actually in
contact.
As the speed of rotation of the journal increases, the viscous
force which tends to drag the oil between the surfaces also in-
creases, and more and more of the load is taken by the oil film
in the convergent space between the journal and the brass. This
gradually shifts the line of contact round the brass in the direction
of motion of the journal Ultimately the film may break through,
so that the two surfaces are completely separated and the load is
transmitted from the journal to the brass by the oil. The film
will only break through if it is possible for the resultant oil pressure
to be equal to the load, and to have the same line of action.
The pressure of the oil in the divergent part of the film may fall
below that of the atmosphere, in which case air will leak in from
the ends of the bearing. Assuming that the necessary conditions
are fulfilled and that the complete film is formed, the point of
nearest approach of the journal to the brass will by this time have
moved to the position shown at (c) and the pressure distribution
in the effective part of the oil film will be approximately as shown
by the ordinates of the shaded polar diagram.
Let us consider how the tangential force F, which opposes the
rotation of the journal, might be expected to vary as the speed of
rotation increases.
At the instant rotation begins, there is solid friction between the
surfaces and the force required is large. It is given by fxW,
where p is the coefficient of friction, the value of which depends
on the oiliness of the lubricant used. If there were no lubricant
other than the greasy film on the surfaces, the force F would
remain approximately constant at all speeds, as shown by the
line AF, Fig. 148. On the other hand, if we imagine the surfaces
to be separated by a film of lubricant and assume that the thick-
ness of the film and the viscosity of the lubricant both remain
constant, the force F will vary directly with the speed, equation
(6.37), as shown by the line OF). But, as we have seen, the effect
of an increase of speed in the bearing with a plentiful supply of
lubricant is to cause more and more of the load to be supported
212 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

by the convergent film and less and less to be supported by the

small surface of the bearing which is actually in contact with the
journal. Hence that part of the force F which is due to solid
friction will diminish continuously, as shown by the line AB,
and it will be zero for that value of the speed at which the film
breaks through and separates the surfaces. The variation in the
total value of F during this period will be approximately repre-
sented by the line AC. When the film has formed, the value of
F will not follow the line CD for two reasons. First, the thickness
of the film is not constant, but tends to increase as the speed
increases, and, secondly, the viscosity of the lubricant diminishes
as the speed increases, owing to the greater amount of heat
generated in the film and the consequent rise of temperature of
the lubricant. As shown by equation (6.37), an increase of film
thickness and a decrease of viscosity both operate in the same
direction to reduce the value of F for a given area A and velocity v.

FIG. 148

The resulting variation of F for the journal bearing is shown by

the line CE. That the curve ACE does indeed represent the way
in which F (or p.) varies with the speed for a journal bearing is
confirmed by experiment.
Both theory and experiment agree in showing that the simple
cylindrical bearing surface which is shown in Fig. 147 is not the
best for film lubrication. The oil pressure builds up in the
convergent part of the film in a way similar to that already
explained in connection with plane surfaces. But the maximum
pressure is attained before the point of nearest approach of the
two surfaces is reached, after which the pressure begins to fall.
Theoretically, the oil pressure should become negative in the
divergent part of the film and, in practice, the partial vacuum
created will cause air to leak in from the ends of the bearing. It is
therefore desirable to reduce the length of the arc over which the
film has to be maintained and to provide a relatively large clear-
VI] FRICTION 213
ance between the journal and the brass over the remainder of
the circumference. The arc of the brass over which the film is
maintained may be either scraped so as to provide as nearly as
possible a perfect fit between the bearing and the journal, in
which case the brass is said to be “ bedded ”, or, alternatively, it
may be bored out to a slightly larger diameter than the journal,
so as to provide a small though finite clearance between the
journal and the brass, in which case the brass is said to be a
“ clearance ” brass.
In a paper by Boswall and Brierley,1 the authors give the
results of experiments on both bedded and clearance brasses.
They point out that with clearance brasses no difficulty was
experienced in obtaining film lubrication until the length of the
arc exceeded 105°, but that with bedded brasses the film refused
to form if the length of the arc exceeded about 60°. The brasses
were mounted in such a way that the line of action of the load
occupied one of three positions in relation to the inlet and outlet
edges of the brass. These three positions were (a) 0-6 of the arc

of contact from the inlet edge, (b) midway between the inlet
and the outlet edges and (c) 0*4 of the arc of contact from the
inlet edge. They are shown in Fig. 149 for a clearance brass with
an arc of contact of 90°.
For a given arc of contact and a given position of the load line,
the coefficient of friction y varied with the viscosity of the lubri-
cant, the speed of rotation of the journal and the load. But, if
values of y were plotted against the function r]N/p, a single curve
was obtained, which conformed to the general equation:
fJL — K(rjN /p)n
where 77 is the inlet viscosity of the lubricant in poises, N is the
r.p.m. of the journal and p is the nominal bearing pressure in
lb/in2, i.e. bearing load -f- the product of diameter of journal and
length of bearing. The index n had a value of approximately
0*58 in all cases and the coefficient K varied both with the arc of
1
“ The Film Lubrication of the Journal Bearing ”, R. O. Boswall and J. C.
Brierley, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., 1932.
214 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

contact and with the position of the load line. Values of K for
clearance brasses under different conditions are shown in the table
below.
VAI/UE OF K

0-6 eccentric Central loading 0-4 eccentric

Arc subtended loading loading
45° 0-001 74 0-001 87 0-001 94
90° 0-001 60 0-001 87 0-002 14

In the above experiments the diameter of the journal was 2| in.

and the length of the bearing surface was 4 in.; the clearance
brasses were bored out to a diameter of 2-51 in., the inlet viscosity
varied from about 0’22 to 0-56 poise and the speed of rotation of
the journal from 2500 to 6500 r.p.m., while three values of the
nominal bearing pressure were used, viz. 40, 80 and 120 lb/in2.
The range of values of r]Njjp covered by the experiments was from
about 2-5 to 30.
The authors pointed out that even at the lower limit of this
range film lubrication was obtained.

98. Rolling Friction. Friction only arises when one body slides,
or tends to slide, relative to a second body with which it is in
contact. If the relative motion between two bodies is one of
pure rolling, the two bodies make contact at a single point or
along a line parallel to the axes of rotation of the two bodies.
There is no relative sliding at the point or fine of contact and
therefore there is no friction. But in practice a pure rolling
motion never exists. The surfaces of the two bodies are always
more or less deformed by the reaction between them, so that the
ideal point or line of contact degenerates into an area of contact.
The harder the materials of the contact surfaces the less will be
the deformation under a given reaction and the smaller will be
the area of contact, but even with the hardest materials some
deformation is inevitable. It is this deformation of one or both
of the contact surfaces which gives rise to rolling friction.
Osborne Reynolds put forward a theory to account for rolling
friction. This theory was based on an examination of two
extreme cases in which the deformation of one of the contact
surfaces is easily seen. In Fig. 150 (a) is shown the deformation
produced in a thick sheet of some flexible material, such as rubber,
when a hard steel roller rests on it. The lowest point of the roller
sinks below the original surface level of the rubber sheet and
squeezes out the rubber on each side of the roller as sfiowH. The
VI] FRICTION 215
roller and tlie rubber are in contact over a surface and the sur-
face fibres of the rubber are stretched where they make contact
with the roller. If now the roller rolls on the rubber towards the
left, the unstretched rubber fibres in advance of the roller must
stretch when they come into contact with the roller, i.e. they must
slip forwards relative to the roller surface thus introducing fric-
tion, while the stretched fibres under the roller must contract
as the roller leaves them, i.e. they must slip forwards relative to
the roller surface, thus again introducing friction. Both these
frictional effects will tend to retard the rolling motion of the
roller. The effect is obviously very similar if a flexible rubber
roller rolls on a hard steel plate, the deformation of the roller
being somewhat as shown in Fig. 150 (b) and the alternate ex-
tension and contraction of the rubber fibres setting up a scrub-
bing action winch retards the motion of the roller. As already
pointed out, in practice the deformation takes place on both
surfaces. Where both the surfaces consist of hard materials the

(a) (b)
FIG. 150

deformation and therefore the magnitude of the rolling resist-

ance is small, but where one or both of the surfaces consist of
soft material, the deformation and therefore the magnitude of
the rolling resistance may be large. Since the rolling resistance
depends upon the extent of the deformation of the contact sur-
faces, it may be expected to vary in magnitude not only with
the material of the contact surfaces and the load which acts
between them but also with the relative curvature of the sur-
faces. In practice it is usual to assume that for a given pair of
materials the rolling resistance is directly proportional to the
load and is independent of the relative curvature of the contact
surfaces.
Rolling resistance enters into all problems on the traction of
wheeled vehicles and, as generally measured, it includes not merely
the true rolling resistance between the wheel tyres and the surface
of the track but also the frictional resistance at the bearings of the
wheel axles. It is usually expressed as so many lb per ton of
load supported by the wheels, and varies in extreme cases from a
216 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

few lb per ton up to some hundreds of lb per ton. If the wheel

or axle bearings are plain, the tractive resistance will be higher
when starting from rest than when a steady slow speed has been
reached. If ball or roller bearings are fitted the starting resistance
will be no higher than the running resistance. Eor railway rolling
stock, where both the tyres and rails are hard and smooth, the
tractive resistance when in motion is about 5 to 10 lb per ton.
For pneumatic-tyred vehicles on a concrete roadway it is about
25 to 35 lb per ton.

99. Ball and Roller Bearings. The substitution of rolling fric-

tion for the sliding friction, which is normally present between
the two elements of a turning pair, results in a very considerable
reduction in the frictional resistance which has to be overcome.
This has led to the development of ball and roller bearings, in which
the surfaces of the two elements of the turning pair are separated
by a number of balls or rollers. Each
ball or roller has rolling contact with
the adjacent surfaces of the elements
and sliding friction is eliminated.

(a) Ball Bearings. These are de-

signed as either radial bearings or
thrust bearings. The former type of
bearing, Fig. 151, is intended to
support loads at right angles to the
axis of rotation of the shaft, although
it will also sustain a certain amount
of axial thrust. The inner and outer races on which the balls
roll, as well as the balls themselves, are of hardened steel
and are manufactured to extremely close limits, so that when
the bearings are assembled there is no appreciable shake. The
balls are separated from each other and spaced evenly round
the races by means of a light metal cage. When mounting
the races on the shaft and housing, the inner race should be
a tight fit on the shaft and the outer race a tight fit in the
housing so as to limit relative motion to that between the
balls and the races. The ball races are grooved as shown, the
radius of each groove being only slightly greater than the radius
of the ball. Each ball then makes point contact with both the
inner and the outer races. The double-row ball bearing shown
in Fig. 152 (a) is manufactured by the Skefko Ball Bearing Co.
Ltd., and the outer race is spherical with the centre on the axis
of the shaft. By this construction the bearing allows the axis
of the shaft to tilt relative to the housing and thus eliminates
VI] FRICTION 217
bending stresses in the neck of the shaft on which the inner race is
mounted.
A single-row thrust bearing to support end thrust only is shown
in Fig. 152 (b).

FIG. 152

(b) Roller Bearings Roller bearings are in general similar in

construction to ball bearings, but the use of cylindrical rollers
instead of balls enables greater journal loads to be carried for a
given overall diameter of the bearing. Where the rollers are solid,
Fig. 153 (a), they usually have a length equal to the diameter. The
inner race is grooved, while the outer race is plane or, in some
designs, slightly convex. The double-row Skefko roller bearing,
Fig. 153 (b), has a spherical outer race, in order to allow self-align-

ment of the shaft. The rollers in this bearing obviously cannot

be cylindrical but must be slightly barrelled. The Hyatt roller
bearing, Fig. 154 (a), has long flexible rollers, which are in effect
closely coiled helical springs, alternate rollers being wound with
right- and left-hand spirals. The slight amount of flexibility
provided in the roller ensures that the load is distributed over its
full length.
In the bearing shown in Fig. 154 (b) tapered rollers are used
and the bearing will support an end thrust as well as a radial
218 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

load. The inner and outer races are conical and the inner race
is grooved so as to prevent the rollers from running askew.
A comparatively recent development is the needle roller bearing,
Fig. 154 (c). In this bearing the rollers are very small in diameter,
from 2 to 4 mm, and there is no cage, the rollers filling the annular

space between the races. These bearings are particularly suitable

for supporting heavy loads when the amount of relative motion
between the races is small, as in the case of the small end bearings
of internal-combustion-engine connecting rods.
The chief advantages of ball and roller bearings over plain
journal bearings are:
(a) They are much shorter for a given load-carrying capacity.
(b) They give a lower coefficient of friction which lies between
0-0015 and 0-004. Although a well-designed and efficiently
lubricated plain bearing may give as low a coefficient of friction
when running, it has an enormously higher coefficient when
starting from rest, because of the squeezing out of the oil film.
On the other hand, the ball or roller bearing gives, if anything, a
slightly lower coefficient of friction when starting from rest than
when running.
(c) They allow of much more accurate centring of the shaft in
the housing, since there is no clearance such as must be provided
in the plain bearing in order to enable the oil film to be formed.
The chief disadvantages of ball and roller bearings are:
(a) They are generally more expensive than plain bearings.
(b) If overloaded or if an unsuitable lubricant is used, the
hardened surfaces of the balls, rollers and races flake off. Once
flaking begins the bearing becomes noisy and is rapidly destroyed.
So far as lubrication is concerned the chief purpose of the
lubricant is to protect the surfaces of the balls or rollers and of
the races from corrosion. It also serves to lubricate the contact
 V1] FRICTION 219
surfaces of the balls or rollers and the cages. Very little lubricant
is required and the bearings are usually packed with a high-
quality grease on assembly and then run for long periods without
further attention. Suitable covers must be fitted to the bearing
housing in order to retain the lubricant and to prevent the ingress
of any foreign matter.

EXAMPLES VI

- V.Explain the meaning of the following terms: limiting friction; coefficient

of friction; angle of friction.

2. Derive an equation for the efficiency of a square-threaded screw and nut

when (a), the load is raised, (b) the load is lowered. What helix angle of the
thread will give maximum efficiency ?

3. A load of t ton is raised by means of a screw jack. The thread is square

with a pitch of £ in. and the mean diameter of the screw is 2 in. What force must
be applied to the end of a lever 12 in. long which rotates the nut, if the coefficient
of friction is 0T5 ?

4. A tumbuckle is used to tighten a wire rope. The threads are right and left-
hand and are square in section. The pitch is § in. and the mean diameter of the
screw is 1 \ in. Assuming that the coefficient of friction between the screws and
the nut is 0-15, determine the turning moment necessary (a) to tighten, (b) to
slacken the wire, when the pull is 2000 lb. The wire rope is to be assumed not
to twist. L ^j

5. A V-threaded screw passes through a nut which rests on a ball-thrust washer.

The angle of the vee is 55°, the pitch of the screw is J in. and the mean diameter
of the screw is 2 J in. If the axial load is 5 tons, the coefficient of friction for the
screw and nut is 0-16 and the friction of the thrust washer is negligible, find the
turning moment required on the nut in order to move the screw axially (a) against
the load, (b) with the load.
What is the efficiency of the screw in case (a) ?

6. A vertical screw of mean diameter 2£ in. and with square threads of £ in.
pitch supports a load of 5000 lb. It passes through the boss of a spur wheel of
70 teeth which acts as the nut. The axial thrust is taken on a collar bearing of
3 in. inside diameter and 5 in. outside diameter. The coefficient of friction for
the screw and the collar bearing is 0-12. To raise the load the wheel is turned by
means of a pinion of 18 teeth. If the efficiency of the wheel and pinion is 90%,
what torque must be exerted on the pinion shaft ?

7. A bevel gear is used for lifting a sluice gate. The gate, which weighs 5 tons,
is subjected to a mean pressure of 50 lb/in2 over a surface of diameter 10 ft.
The vertical spindle which lifts the sluice has a square-threaded end which
engages with a screwed bush fixed to the sluice. The mean diameter of the
thread is 3£ in. and the pitch of the thread is 1 in. The coefficient of friction
between the sluice and the vertical facing on which it presses, and also between
the screw and the bush, is 0-08. The bevel wheel keyed to the vertical spindle
has 60 teeth and the bevel pinion with which it gears is driven direct by a constant-
torque motor which develops 60 b.h.p. at a maximum speed of 600 r.p.m.
Assuming that frictional losses—other than losses due to friction at the screw
thread and sluice facing—amount to 10% of the total power available, determine
the maximum number of teeth for the bevel pinion. L.U.

8. The ends A and B of a link carry pins which fit into blocks, the blocks sliding
in straight slots mutually at right angles and in the same plane. In a certain
220 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

position the link AB makes an angle of 60° with the path of A. A force acting on
the block A in the direction of the slot overcomes a corresponding force on the
block B. What is the efficiency of the mechanism if /a is the coefficient of friction
between the blocks and the slots ? Show how the friction on the pins may also
be taken into account. W.S.S.

9. The slotted arm in Fig. 155 turns about a pin O and moves the guided
link CD through the agency of the block A sliding in the slot. The block A is
free to pivot about a pin fixed to CD. The coefficients of friction between the
block and slot and between the link CD and its guides may be assumed equal.
A torque of 30 lb ft is applied to the arm. What is the maximum value of /z if,
when 6 = 60°, the torque is just insufficient to move the link CD ?
Taking this value for /JL, calculate the pull in the direction CD wh°n 9 = 45°.
What would its value be, for this position, if fj. were zero ? W.S.

10. A flat footstep bearing, 6 in. dia., supports a load of 1 -5 tons. If the
coefficient of friction is 0-05 and the r.p.m. 90, calculate the h.p. lost in over-
coming friction.

11. Deduce an expression for the friction moment of a collar thrust bearing,
and state what assumptions are made.
A thrust bearing has 12 collars, 16 in. external diameter and 12 in. internal
diameter, and carries a load of 24 tons. If the coefficient of friction is 0-05,
calculate the h.p. absorbed in overcoming friction at a speed of 105 r.p.m.

12. Sketch and describe a multiple-disc clutch.

A clutch has 9 discs, the contact faces of which are 6 in. external dia. and 4£ in.
internal dia. The coefficient of friction between the metal surfaces is 0-08 and
the axial force is limited to 300 lb. What h.p. can be transmitted by the clutch
at 1000 r.p.m. ?

.13. Describe, with sketches, the construction of a plate clutch.

A single-plate clutch has friction surfaces 9 in. internal and 12 in. external
diameter. The intensity of pressure is limited to 10 lb/in2 of contact surface
and the coefficient of friction between the surfaces is 0-3. What is the maximum
h.p. which can be transmitted by the clutch at 2500 r.p.m. if both sides of the
plate are effective ?

14. A motor-car clutch is required to transmit 45 h.p. at 3000 r.p.m. It is of

the single-plate type, both sides of the plate being effective. If the coefficient
of friction between the surfaces is 0-25, the axial pressure is limited to 10 lb/in*
vi] FRICTION 221
of plate area and the external diameter of the plate is 1*4 times the internal
lameter, determine the dimensions of the plate. State what assumptions are
made m the calculations and sketch the arrangement. M.U.

15. A conical pivot supports a load of 2 tons. The cone angle is 120° and the
intensity of normal pressure is not to exceed 50 lb/in*. The external diameter
is three times the internal diameter. Find the dimensions of the bearing sur-
face. If the coefficient of friction is 0-06 and the r.p.m. of the shaft 120, what
h.p. is absorbed by friction ?

16. A conical friction clutch with cast-iron contact surfaces transmits 130 h.p.
at 1500 r.p.m. The cone angle is 20° and the coefficient of friction 0-20. If the
mean diameter of the bearing surface is 15 in. and the intensity of normal pressure
is not to exceed 40 lb/in2, find the breadth of the conical bearing surface and the
axial load required.

17. A leather-faced conical friction clutch has a cone angle of 25°. The intensity
of normal pressure between the contact surfaces is not to exceed 8 lb/in2 and the
breadth of the conical surface is not to be greater than one-third of the mean
radius. If the coefficient of friction is 0-2 and the clutch transmits 50 h.p. at
2000 r.p.m., find the dimensions of the contact surfaces.

18. The mean radius of the contact surfaces bf a conical clutch is 8 in. and the
breadth of the conical surface is 3 in. The clutch is lined with Ferodo and
the coefficient of friction may be taken as 0-30. The cone angle is 35° and the
intensity of normal pressure between the contact surfaces is 10 lb/in2. What
is the maximum h.p. that can be transmitted by the clutch at 1800 r.p.m. and
what is the axial load required ?

.19. What is meant by (a) the friction circle of a pivot or journal, (b) the
friction axis of a link ? Show how the direction of the friction axis may be
determined, given the nature of the force transmitted by the link, i.e. whether
tension or compression, and the sense of rotation of the link relative to the adjacent
links at the pin-joints.

20. The crank of a steam engine is 15 in. long and the connecting rod is 72 in.
long. The journals at the crankshaft, crankpin and crosshead are respectively
7 in., 5£ in. and 4 in. dia. If the effective thrust at the crosshead is 25 000 lb
when the crank makes an angle of 60° with the i.d.c., find the reduction in the
turning moment available at the crankshaft due to the friction of the journals
The coefficient of friction is 0-05.

21. ABCD is a four-bar chain with AB as the driving link and AD as the fixed
link. The lengths of the links are: AB, 3 in.; BC, 7 in.; CD, 6 in.; and AD,
9
in. The diameter of the pins at A, B, C and D is 1 in. and the coefficient of
friction is 0T0. What torque must be applied to the driving shaft to which AB
is keyed in order to overcome a resisting torque of 15 lb ft applied to the shaft
to which CD is keyed, when the angle BAD is (a) 90°, (b) 180°, (c) 270°?

22. A body tied to a string is made to describe a circle 4 ft in diameter on a

rough horizontal floor at a steady speed of 20 ft/s. In order to maintain this
steady motion, the other end of the string must be constrained to move in a circle;
the string is horizontal and tangential to this circle.
If the coefficient of friction between the body and the floor is 0-2, find the
diameter of this circle and state the power exerted for each pound weight of the
body- W.S.
23. Distinguish between the laws of friction for dry surfaces and for film-
lubricated surfaces. What conditions must be satisfied in order that film-
lubrication may be obtained ?

24. Explain the difference between the properties oiliness and viscosity of a
lubricant. In what circumstances will each of these properties exert the con-
trolling influence on the friction between two lubricated surfaces ?
222 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP. Yl]

25. Describe with sketches the Michell thrust bearing. Explain the principle
on which it works and the advantages which it possesses over a thrust bearing
of the horse-shoe type.

26. A journal under load begins to rotate in a bearing and the speed of rotation
is gradually increased. If there is a plentiful supply of lubricant, explain how
the position of the journal relative to the bearing and the friction on the journal
vary from the instant at which rotation of the journal begins.

27. In an experiment to determine the variation of the coefficient of friction of

a journal bearing with rubbing speed, a shaft which carried a heavy rotor was
run up to speed, disconnected from the driving motor and allowed to run down
under its own momentum. The following readings of the r.p.m. at different time
intervals were taken:

Time, min.. 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 34 35

R.p.m. . 300 261 223 188 156 125 96 69 43 27 0

The moment of inertia of the rotor was 5-75 ton ft2, the combined weight of
the rotor and shaft was 3-56 tons and the diameter of the journal bearings was
3 in. Assuming that the whole of the retardation arose from the friction of the
bearings, plot a curve from the results to show the variation of /x with surface
speed of the journal.
What conclusions do you draw from the shape of the curve ?

28. Explain how rolling friction arises and why the coefficient of rolling friction
is lower than the coefficient of sliding friction for a given pair of materials.

29. WThat are the advantages possessed by ball and roller bearings over plain
bearings ? Sketch and describe one type of self-aligning ball or roller bearing.
 CHAPTER VII

BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVE

100. Ratio of the Tensions. Where power lias to be transmitted

between two shafts which are a considerable distance apart, a
belt or rope drive is frequently used. In such drives the power
transmitted depends upon the friction between the belt or rope
and the pulley rim. Referring to Fig. 156 (a), let 6 be the angle
subtended at the pulley centre by that part of the belt or rope
which is in contact with the pulley rim. Alternative forms for
the cross-section of the pulley rim are shown at (b), (c) and (d).
The cross-section shown at (b) is the one most commonly used;

the rim of the pulley is flat, or at least approximately so. In

practice it is slightly crowned, since this is found to assist in
maintaining the belt centrally on the rim. The grooved cross-
sections (c) and (d) are used with wedge-section or circular section
belts or ropes, and it should be noticed that the belt or rope does
not rest on the bottom of the groove, but is wedged between the
sides of the groove. The flat rim section may be regarded as the
limiting case of a grooved section in which the groove angle
2a = 180°.
If the tension at one end of the belt is T2 and the tension Tx at
223
224 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the other end is increased gradually, the belt will ultimately begin
to slip bodily round the pulley rim. The value of Tl at which slip
takes place will depend upon the values of T2, 6 and the coefficient
of friction p between the belt and the rim. Consider a short
length mn of belt, which subtends an angle 86 at the pulley centre.
Let T be the tension on the end m and T-\-8T the tension on the
end n. Then the difference of tension 8T must be due to the fric-
tion between the length mn of the belt and the pulley rim, and it
will depend upon the normal reaction between mn and the rim
for the flat section (b), and upon the normal reactions between mn
and the sides of the groove for the sections (c) and (d). Let R be
the radial reaction between the pulley rim and the length mn of
belt or rope and let RQ be the normal reaction between each side
of the groove and the side of mn for the sections (c) and (d).
Then for section (b):
8T = fxR (7.1)
and for sections (c) and (d):
8T = 2 fxRn
But for these sections the radial reaction R is the resultant of
the two normal reactions Rn so that R = 2Rn sin a and, sub-
stituting for Rn in terms of R,
8T — iiR/sin a = pxR .... (7.2)
where px = p/sin a = pcosec a . (7.3)
It follows, therefore, that the friction between mn and the grooved
rim is the same as that between mn and a flat rim, if the actual
coefficient of friction p is replaced by the virtual value p: = p/sin a.
In the plane of rotation of the pulley the three forces which act
on mn are the tensions T and T-\-8T on the ends m and n and
the radial reaction R. Since mn is in equilibrium under this
system of forces the triangle of forces may be drawn as shown
at (e).
From this triangle, since 86 and 8T are small, R ~ T.86, and
substituting this value of R in (7.1),
8T~lxT86 or 8T/T ~ fi86
If both sides of this equation are integrated between corresponding
limits, then:
p(d T/T) = fpd 6
J T, JO
logetsyzy = 1-iB

or jyr2 = e“* . (7.4)

 vn] BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVE 225
As it stands this equation applies to the flat rim (b), but if /xj
is substituted for [x, it will apply equally well to the grooved rims
(c) and (d).
It must be emphasised that (7.4) gives the limiting ratio of the
tensions T1 and T2 when the belt or rope is just about to slip
bodily round the pulley rim. The actual ratio of the tensions
may have a lower value, but cannot have a higher value than this
limiting ratio.
The limiting ratio is very much increased, for given values of
fi and 6, by using a grooved section. For instance, if d is 165°
and fx is 0-25, the limiting ratio for the flat rim is given by:
TYjT2 = e°-25-11,7/i2 __ 2-054
If a wedge-section belt is used with a groove angle of 30°, then
Pi = 0-25/sin 15° = 0*966 and TI/T2 = e°*9C6-11,7V12 — 16*15
Similarly, if a rope of circular section is used with a groove
angle of 45°, then
0,653 ll7r 12
P! = 0-25/sin 22*5° = 0*653 and Tl/T2 = e • / = 6*56
The maximum effective tangential pull exerted by the belt or
rope on the pulley rim is, in each case, given by the difference
between Tj and T2. It may be expressed in terms of the tension
Ti of the tight side, the magnitude of which is, of course, deter-
mined by the cross-section of the belt or rope and the allowable
stress in the material.
For the flat belt under the above conditions the effective tension
T — ^1(1 —^2/^1) = 0-513T7!; for the wedge-section belt,
T = 0*938Tx\ and for the rope, T = 0*848T1. It is clear from
these figures that the use of a grooved pulley rim with a suitable
belt or rope section enables the materials to be employed more
efficiently than where a flat rim is used.
So far it has been assumed that the pulley is stationary. If the
pulley is mounted on a shaft, which is supported in bearings, then
the effective tangential force exerted by the belt or rope on the
pulley may be used to transmit power from the belt or rope to the
pulley and thence to the shaft. The power transmitted may be
determined when the effective tension and the speed of the belt
or rope are known. But when the belt or rope is in motion the
stresses in the material are not simply those which arise from the
power transmitted. There is in addition the centrifugal stress
due to the inertia of the belt or rope as it passes round the pulley
rim. The magnitude of this stress may be determined as shown
in the following article.
8—T.M.
226 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

101. Centrifugal Stress in a Belt or Rope. Referring to Fig. 157,

let r be the radius of the pulley, v the speed of the belt or rope, a
the cross-sectional area and w the weight of the belt or rope per
unit length. The weight of the short length mn which subtends
the angle 86 at the pulley centre, is w.r89 and the centripetal force
which must be applied to mn is given by:
wr86 v2 wv2
FP = .— = —. 86
9 r g
So far as the tension in the moving belt is concerned, the condi-
tions are the same as if the belt were at rest and a force equal to
Fc were applied radially outward to mn as shown in Fig. 157.
This force will give rise to tensile forces Tc at the ends of mn, and
from the triangle of forces Tc may be expressed in terms of Fc.

Since 86 is small Fc ~ Tc86, and, substituting for F0 from the

above equation:
wv2Jg.8d = Tc.86
.’. Tc = wv2/g .... (7.5)
The stress per unit area of the belt or rope material due to the
inertia is given by:
fe = Tcja = w/a.v2/g .... (7.6)
It should be particularly noticed that the centrifugal stress i
independent of the radius of curvature of the path.
It has been assumed so far that the rim of the pulley is flat and
that the centrifugal inertia force therefore gives rise to a stress
in the belt or rope material which is additional to the stresses
caused by the tensions Tx and T2. If, however, the pulley rim
is grooved as at (c) and (d), Fig. 156, it would appear at first sight
that the centrifugal force may be either wholly or partly balanced
by the friction between the sides of the belt or rope and the sides
of the groove, in which case f0 will be either zero or will have a
VII] BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVE 227
value less than that given by equation (7.6). But there are two
other factors which have to be taken into account in this con-
nection. First, if the power transmitted by the belt or rope is
such that limiting friction exists in the tangential direction, i.e. if
the belt or rope is just on the point of slipping bodily round the
rim, there can be no friction force opposed to the centrifugal
force. Since this condition of limiting friction rarely, if ever,
exists in practice, there can be no doubt that the centrifugal
stress in that part of the belt or rope, which is in contact with
the rim, will be less than the stress calculated from equation (7.6).
Secondly, and this is the more important factor, it has to be
remembered that in any actual drive the part of the belt or rope
between the pulleys is not straight but hangs in a curve. The
free parts of the belt must therefore be subjected to the centrifugal
stress given by equation (7.6). Hence, there is no justification
for the assumption which is sometimes made that the centrifugal
stress in a belt or rope running on a grooved pulley is less than
that in the same belt or rope when running on a flat pulley.

102. The Power transmitted by a Belt or Rope. The power

transmitted by a belt may be calculated, if the effective tension
and the speed are known, from the equation:
H = Tv/55 0 (7.7)
where T is the effective tension in lb, v is the speed in ft/s and
H is the horse-power.
For a given belt the value of H will be a maximum when the
product Tv is a maximum. In what follows we shall refer to a
belt drive, but it will be understood that similar conditions apply
to a rope drive.
Let us consider, first of all, the ideal case in which the belt is
made of a perfectly elastic material that is without mass. In
these circumstances the free portions of the belt between the
driving and the driven pulleys will be perfectly straight and there
will be no centrifugal stress in the material. When the belt is
fitted to the pulleys it will be given an initial tension T0 and, under
this tension, its total length will be L. As soon as power is supplied
to one of the pulleys and transmitted to the other, the tensions in
the two free lengths of belt will be changed; on the tight side the
tension will increase from T0 to Tx and on the slack side the
tension will decrease from T0 to T2. But the belt material is
assumed to be perfectly elastic, so that, since the length L is
unchanged, the mean tension must also be unchanged and
Tl—T0 = T0—T2. If the torque applied to the driving pulley is
increased until the belt begins to slip, the two tensions Tl and T2
228 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

will then have their limiting ratio, and the actual values of Tl and
T2 may be calculated from the two equations:
TY-TQ = TQ-T2
T
and
1
2

Writing k for TYIT2 and substituting for T2 in terms of Tx in the

first of these equations, we have:
Tl + T1/k = 2T0
m 2k _
Tl=
k+vT° • • • • (7-8)
It will of course be understood that with an open drive the belt
will begin to slip on the smaller pulley, since the angle of lap is
smaller on this pulley than on the larger pulley. Hence the value
of k must be calculated for the smaller pulley. In a drive with
a crossed belt, the angle of lap is the same for both pulleys and
slip should theoretically begin at the same instant on both pulleys.
Example 1. A flat belt is installed with an initial tension of
500 lb; the coefficient of friction between belt and pulley is 0-3;
the angle of lap on the smaller pulley is 165° and the belt speed
is 3600 ft/min. Determine the maximum horse-power which the
belt can transmit, if it is assumed to be perfectly elastic and
without mass.
fxS = 0-3. HTT/12 = 0-864; k = TJT2 = eO-864 = 2-37

From (7.8):

T2 = TJk = 297 lb
the effective tension T = Tl — T2 = 406 lb
and the horse-power transmitted,
406 3600
II — 44-3
550' 60
103. The Power transmitted by a Belt. Further Comments.
Conditions in practice differ very widely from those assumed in
the last article. Some of these differences and the effect which
they have on the power transmitted will be briefly examined.
One important difference has been repeatedly demonstrated by
experiment—the sum of the tensions Tx and T2 when the belt is
VII] BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVE 229
transmitting power is always greater than twice the initial tension
JT .
0 There are two reasons for this difference. In the first place
the belt material is not perfectly elastic, so that the stress-strain
curve is not a straight line. Instead the stress always increases
at a greater rate than the strain. Consequently, for a given
increase of strain a proportionately larger increase of stress is
required at high values than at low values of the strain. But, if
the length of the belt is the same when transmitting power as when
at rest, the increase of strain on the tight side is equal to the
decrease of strain on the slack side. It follows, therefore, that
the increase of tension T1 — T0 on the tight side is greater than the
decrease of tension T0—T2 on the slack side and T1 + T2 > 2T0.
The shape of the stress-strain curve is, however, not in itself
sufficient to account for the large increase in the sum of the ten-
sions which experiment shows. The second reason for the in-
crease is to be found in the properties of the catenary curve in
which the free lengths of the belt between the two pulleys hang,
when the drive is horizontal or inclined. For a given span the
length of the catenary curve varies
wdth the tension at the supports.
If s is the span, w the uniform load
per unit span and T the tension at
each support, Fig. 158, it can be
shown that the length of the curve
exceeds the span approximately by
the amount w2s3j2^T2.1 Hence,
if it is assumed that the span is
constant under all conditions, the length of the actual belt exceeds
the length of a weightless belt by the amount 2w2s3j24:T02, when
the belt is running light, and by the amount (w2s3/24:)(l/T12
-f-1 /T22), when the belt is transmitting power. If the total length
of the belt remains constant, then these two amounts must be
equal and
l/T^ + l/TJ =2/T02 . . . . (7.9)

From this equation the values of (TlJrT2)/2T0 and of

(Tl — T2)/T0 may be calculated for different values of TY/TQ as
given in the table below.
TJT0. ... 1-2 1-4 1-6 1-8 2-0
(iq + T^To . 1-038 1-110 1-194 1-285 1-378
(T1-T2)/T0 . . 0-325 0-581 0-812 1-031 1-245

1
Morley: Strength of Materials, Article 145.
The tension T at the supports ~ ws2j8z.
The difference between the length l of the catenary and the span s ~ 8z2/3s.
eliminating z, l—a ~ 8/8s .w2ail64:T2 ~ti>2s3/24T2
230 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

It is clear from these figures that, as the power transmitted in-

creases, i.e. as (Tl — T2)/T0 increases, the ratio (Tl-\-T2)/2T0
also increases. Of course, it has to be remembered that, as the
sum of the tensions Tx-\-T2 increases, so will the length of the belt
increase, so that equation (7.9) is not strictly correct. Although
the tightening effect of the catenary paths of the free parts of the
belt is not so great as that shown in the table, nevertheless it is
considerable. In order to determine its value with greater
accuracy, it would be necessary to know the actual shape of the
stress-strain curve for the belt material. For further information
and for the results of experiments confirming the tightening effect,
reference should be made to a paper by Hr. H. W. Swift.1
There is another difference between conditions as they exist in
practice and the ideal conditions assumed in the last article.
When power is transmitted by a belt or rope, there is always a
difference between the peripheral speed of the driving pulley and
that of the driven pulley. In a well-proportioned drive the dif-
ference is small. Nevertheless it is present, even though the
ratio of the tensions TxjT2 is much less than the limiting ratio.
The partial slip, which takes place with even low values of the
ratio of the tensions, is generally referred to as creep, to dis-
tinguish it from the bodily slip which takes place when the limiting
ratio of the tensions is reached. The phenomenon of creep may
be explained as follows. Since the tension of the belt decreases as
it passes over the pulley from the tight to the slack side, the
stretch of the belt must also decrease. Hence it follows that the
driving pulley must receive a longer length of belt than it pays out,
and therefore the belt must creep back slightly relatively to the
driving pulley rim. On the other hand, the driven pulley receives
a shorter length of belt than it pays out, so that the belt must creep
forward slightly relatively to the driven pulley rim. Obviously
the difference between the peripheral speeds of the driving and the
driven pulleys will depend upon the respective stresses in the tight
and slack sides of the belt and the corresponding strains. Given
a stress-strain curve for the belt material, the percentage loss of
speed due to creep could be determined. In the paper already
mentioned Swift suggests that creep does not take place over the
complete arc of contact between the belt and the pulley, but is
limited to an arc determined by the equation TX\T2 = eM/3. The
effective angle of lap /3 extends backwards from the point at which
contact between the belt and the pulley rim ceases. Over the
remainder, 0— /3, of the actual angle of lap there is no change of
tension and the inside surface of the belt and the pulley rim have
1
H. W. Swift: “Power Transmission by Belts”, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.,
1928.
vn] BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVE 231
identical speeds. In support of the above theory Swift points
out that experiments show (a) that the peripheral speed of the
pulley is identical with that of the oncoming belt and (b) that
there is always a non-slipping or idle arc except when the limiting
ratio TY/T% — e^9 is reached.

104. The Effect of Centrifugal Tension on the Power transmitted.

The analysis of the effect of centrifugal tension on the power
transmitted by a belt or rope, if made with the usual assumptions,
gives results which are liable to be misleading. In what follows
the usual analysis is first given and then the problem is examined
in greater detail, separate consideration being given to vertical
and horizontal drives.
The horse-power transmitted is given by (7.7):
H = Tv/550 = (Ti — TzXvl550) = ^(l-I/jfcJ^/BSO)
But the total tension on the tight side, which determines the
maximum stress in the belt,
= Tt = T, + Tc
.'. H = (Tt-To)(l-l/k){v/550) . . (7.10)
If Tt is assumed to be constant, the horse-power will first increase
to a maximum and then decrease to zero as the speed is increased.
But from (7.5) Tc = wv2jg, so that H is a maximum when
(Tt—wv2jg)v is a maximum.
Differentiating with respect to v and equating to zero, this
gives:
Tt—3wv2lg = 0 or Tt — 3TC
v
= V(Ttgfiw) . . . . (7.ii)
also, from (7.10), H — 0, when T0 — Tt, i.e. when
v
= V(Tt 9M .... (7.12)
If Tt is expressed in terms of the maximum safe stress / and the
cross-sectional area a, Tt =f.a, and the speed for maximum H
may be obtained from (7.11) and the corresponding value of H
from (7.10).
In this analysis no reference is made to the initial tension T0
with which the belt is assembled on the pulleys and it is tacitly
assumed to be possible so to choose T0 that, when the belt is
transmitting power and the ratio of the driving tensions has its
limiting value (7.4), the maximum tension Tt on the tight side
remains constant at all speeds. In practice, however, it is im-
possible to satisfy this condition even for a vertical drive.
232 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

(a) The Vertical Drive. Referring to Fig. 159 (a), let T0 be

the initial tension in the belt when placed in position on the two
pulleys. Then the total downward force on the bearings which
support the upper shaft = 2T0 + TFb, where Wh is the total weight
of the belt, and the total upward force on the bearings which
support the lower shaft = 2 T0. This, of course, assumes that the
effect of the inclination of the sides of the belt to the vertical is
negligible. Let us suppose that the speed of rotation of the
upper shaft is gradually increased and that there is no resistance
to the rotation of the lower shaft. The centrifugal tension Tc in
the belt will increase with the speed according to equation (7.5).
But if the portions of the belt between the pulleys remain straight,
the total length of the belt remains constant and there is no change
in the belt tension. What happens is simply that the tension
arises more and more from the tendency of the two parts of the
belt which are in contact with
the pulley rims to fly outwards
and less and less from the re-
actions of the pulley rims on the
belt. The load on the bearings
of the upper shaft decreases to
2(T0—Tc)-\- Wh and the load on
the bearings of the lower shaft
decreases to 2(T0—Tc). When
the speed is such that Tc = T0,
the load on the bearings of the
upper shaft is that due to Wb and
the load on the lower shaft is
zero. If the speed of the belt
is still further increased, so that Tc > T0, the belt stretches
and hangs clear of the lower pulley, as shown in Fig. 159 (b).
Although in practice the portions of the belt between the
pulleys will not remain perfectly straight, the above argument is
in the main true, except that the load on the lower shaft will
not be reduced to zero until the speed is somewhat greater than
that for which Tc = T0. For an actual photograph of a rubber
belt running in the condition represented by Fig. 159 (b), the
reader is referred to the late Professor Goodman’s Mechanics
Applied to Engineering (ninth edition), p. 357, Fig. 338.
Let us now suppose that the belt is running at a speed v, lower
than that which makes Tc = T0, and that at the same time power
is transmitted from the upper to the lower shaft. Let Tt, Ta be
the total tensions and TY, T2 be the driving tensions on the tight
and slack sides respectively. Then Tt = TY -f- Tc, and Ta — T2-\-
But, if the belt is perfectly elastic and its length remains un-
VII] BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVE 233
changed, the mean tension also remains unchanged, so that
(Tt + Ts)l2 = T0.
T1+T2+2To = 2T0
or
T1 + T2=2(T0-Tc) . . (7.13)
Clearly, for a given initial tension T0, the value of T1 + T2 will
decrease as the belt speed, and therefore Tc, increases. The
limiting condition is reached when Tc = T0. Under the assumed
conditions, the belt is then incapable of transmitting any power.
For a speed intermediate between zero and that for which TC = T0,
the power transmitted may be found as follows:
Substitute Tl = kT2 in (7.12), then

To =
k+l
(T0-Tc)
and the effective tension:
T = T1—T2 = ^~(T0-TC)

The horse-power transmitted is given by (7.7):

n=Tv _ 2{k—1) T0-Tc
(7.14)
550 A: + l 550 'V
The value of H is proportional to (T0—wv2/g)v. Hence it follows
that if T0 is substituted for Tt in equations (7.11) and (7.12), the
speeds for maximum and zero horse-power may be found.
(b) The Horizontal Drive. Let us assume, as in the case of the
vertical drive, that the initial tension is T0 when the belt is
at rest, and that the speed of the belt is gradually increased, no
resistance being offered to the rotation of the driven shaft.

Consider the conditions which exist so far as one of the hanging

portions of the belt is concerned. When at rest, Fig. 160 (a),
this portion of the belt has a span s approximately equal to the
distance between the pulley centres, a weight w per unit length and
a sag s. The tension T0 is given approximately by ws2/8z.
8*—T.M.
234 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

When running at the speed v, the load per unit length consists of
the sum of the weight w and the inertia force wv2/gR, where R is
the radius of curvature of the path followed by the belt. The
radius R, of course, varies from point to point along the path, but,
since the path is not very different from a circular arc, R may be
assumed to have the constant value s2/8z. The tension under
these conditions is therefore given by:
wv2 8z\ S 1
9 ' SV 8z
It should, however, be noted that the belt is elastic and therefore
its length will be slightly greater when running than when at rest.
The sag will also be greater and the tension will be slightly less
than T0-\-wv2lg. It will be seen that the tension in the belt in-
creases continuously as the speed increases. In this respect the
horizontal drive is quite different from the vertical drive, in which
the tension remains constant at the value T0 until Tc > T0.
Hence it is impossible in the case of a horizontal drive for a condi-
tion ever to arise in which the belt ceases to make contact with the
pulley rim.
If the belt is transmitting power, the total tension on the tight
side is Tt = TlJrTc and the total tension on the slack side is
T8 = T2-\-Tc. Assuming the total length of the belt to remain
unaltered, Tt, T8 and T0' will be related by an expression similar
to (7.9), which may be written:
2/2ys = 1/Tt2+1/T2 . . . (7.15)
This equation, taken in conjunction with (7.4), which gives the
limiting ratio of the tensions, and (7.5), which gives the centri-
fugal tension, may be used to calculate the probable maximum
horse-power at which the belt will slip bodily round the rim of the
pulley. As already pointed out in Article 103, the length of the
belt increases when power is transmitted owing to the increased
mean tension, so that the relation expressed by (7.15) is only
approximately true.
Example 2. Use the same particulars as in Example 1, p. 228.
In addition take the weight of the belt as 1-2 lb/ft and find the
maximum horse-power which the belt can transmit when the
drive is (a) vertical, (b) horizontal.
(a) Vertical drive
From (7.5):
1-2.602
vn] BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVE 235
From (7.14):
2.1*37 500 — 134
H = .60 = 32*5
3*37 550
'500.32*2
N.B.—Maximum H occurs when — 66*8 ft/s
its value is H — 32*9. 3.1*2

(b) Horizontal drive

T0' = T0 + Tc = 500 + 134 = 634 lb
Also Tt = Tl^rTc = Tj + 134 and Ts = T2+T0 = T2 + 134
From (7.15):
2/Ty2 = i/iy+i/?v
But the limiting value of TX\T2 — e^9 = 2*37,
2 1 1
*• 6342 (2*37T2 + 134)2 + (T2 + 134)2
By a process of trial and error T2 is found to be 367 lb,
Tx = 2*37.367 - 870 lb, Tt = 1004 lb and Ts = 501 lb
(Tl—T2)v 503.60
Horse-power transmitted — = 54*9
550 550
105. The Use of a Gravity Idler. In short belt drives, particu-
larly where the velocity ratio between the pulleys is high, the
maximum power which can be transmitted by the belt is much
smaller than for a long drive operating under otherwise identical
conditions. There are two reasons
for this. First, the arc of contact
on the smaller pulley is reduced
when the centre distance is small
and the limiting ratio of the ten-
sions is correspondingly reduced.
Secondly, the tightening effect of
the catenary path followed by the
free portions of belt between the
pulleys is less marked, the shorter
the centre distance. In order to
enable the same amount of power
to be transmitted with the short
drive, it is therefore necessary to employ a much higher initial ten-
sion in the belt, and this is undesirable because of the greater bear-
ing loads to which it gives rise. It is, however, possible to improve
conditions in a short drive by adopting the arrangement shown in
Fig. 161. A jockey pulley or idler is supported on an arm which
236 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

is free to turn about pivots in a fixed frame. A deadweight is

attached to the arm in such a way that it causes the idler to press
against the slack side of the belt. This arrangement constitutes
the well-known Lenix drive. The first and most obvious effect
of the idler is to increase the arc of contact on the smaller pulley,
and thus to increase the limiting ratio of the tensions at which the
belt begins to slip bodily round the pulley. But a second and
equally important effect of the idler is to increase the tension on
the slack side of the belt, or perhaps it would be more correct to
say that the second effect of the idler is to prevent the tension on
the slack side from diminishing so rapidly, with an increase in the
power transmitted, as it otherwise would do. This will be clear
when it is remembered that the initial tension in a belt with a
gravity idler is determined by the effective force exerted on the
belt by the idler.
Thus R = 2T0 cos (0/2)
But R = Wl/a
where Wl is the total gravity torque on the arm to which the idler
is attached and a is the perpendicular distance of the line of action
of R from the pivot.
Wl
T
*‘ ° ~ 2a cos (0/2)
Suppose now that power is transmitted by the belt. Then,
clearly if we neglect any change of length of the belt or of sag on
the tight side of the belt, the position of the pivoted arm will
remain unaltered and, in order to support the idler, the driving
tension T2 on the slack side must remain equal to T0. Thus, the
effective tension TI~T2 will increase continuously as the power
transmitted increases until the limiting ratio of the tensions is
reached, corresponding to the angle of lap and the coefficient of
friction. The gravity idler therefore provides on a short-centre
drive a similar tightening effect to that which is automatically
provided by the change of sag on a long-centre drive.
It should be noticed that the increase of mean tension with
increase of power transmitted will actually cause an increase of
the length of the belt; also the increase of tension on the tight
side of the belt will slightly decrease the sag. Both these effects
will result in the pivoted arm of the idler turning through a small
angle in the counter-clockwise sense in Fig. 161 and T2 will be
somewhat less than T0.
Owing to the reverse bending of the belt as it passes over the
idler pulley and the greater frequency of the stress changes due
to bending, which is inseparable from a short-centre drive, the
VII] BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVE 237
conditions are more severe than for the belt of a long-centre drive.
It is therefore desirable to operate with a lower intensity of stress
in such drives. For the same reasons an endless belt should be
used.

106. Belt and Rope Materials, (a) Flat Belts. In addition to

leather, belts are frequently made of other materials for which
special advantages are claimed. There are several proprietary
brands which consist of layers of woven camel hair or cotton,
cemented together and impregnated with balata and other gums.
These belts may be built up to any desired thickness by increasing
the number of layers or plies of fabric. They are preferable to
leather in warm climates, in damp atmospheres and in exposed
positions. Rubber belts, consisting of layers of fabric impregnated
with a rubber composition and having a thin layer of rubber on
the faces, are very flexible but are quickly destroyed if allowed
to come into contact with oil or grease. One of the principal
advantages of these belts is that they may easily be made endless.
The coefficient of friction between belt and pulley is a rather un-
certain quantity under running conditions, probably owing to the
fact that some allowance should be made for the pressure of the
atmosphere on the outside of the belt. It is usual to assume a
value of jii from 0-25 to 0-35 for leather and fabric belts on cast-
iron pulleys, but the apparent coefficient of friction obtained
from experiments on actual drives is often much higher.
The breaking strength of leather belting varies with the quality
from 2000 to 8000 lb/in2 and that of woven cotton belting from
6000 to 9000 lb/in2. The thickness of a single leather belt is from
YQ in. to in. Double-thickness belts are obtained by cementing
l

together two layers of single belt, and laminated belts of greater

thickness by sewing together narrow strips of leather placed on
edge. The usual thickness of woven cotton belts is from 0-25 to
0-35 in., but thicker belts may be obtained by increasing the
number of layers or plies of fabric.
The maximum stress in belts is limited to from 200 to 400 lb/in2,
according to the quality, the type of joint used and the thickness
of the belt. The thicker the belt the lower the stress used because
of the additional stress caused by bending round the pulley rim.
A rough rule sometimes used is that the effective tension per inch
width should not exceed 40 lb for a belt of single thickness and
65 lb for a belt of double thickness.
Thin steel belts have been in use for some years, chiefly on the
Continent. They are made from a specially prepared homogeneous
steel in various thicknesses up to about 1 mm and are run on
pulleys without camber, which are covered with a thin layer of
238 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

cork. They have the advantages that there is no permanent

stretch and the centrifugal tension is much lower for a given
speed than in the case of a leather belt, so that higher belt speeds
may be used. Their disadvantages are that shafts must be
perfectly aligned and the pulley rims perfectly true, and that an
absolutely satisfactory joint is difficult to devise. Recently this
last difficulty has been overcome by producing endless belts which
are rolled from seamless tubes.
(b) Vee-belts. Vee-belts may be built up of leather links, but,
more often, they are made of fabric impregnated and covered
with rubber and moulded to a trapezoidal shape. The groove
angle of the pulley is generally 40°, but may, for some purposes,
be as low as 30°. These belts are made endless and are particu-
larly suitable for short drives. The wedging action of the belt
in the groove gives a high value for the limiting ratio of the
tensions, so that the material is efficiently used and it is therefore
unnecessary to instal the belts with a high initial tension. The
disadvantage is that the velocity ratio between the driving and
the driven pulleys is liable to change as wear on the belt and groove
takes place.
(c) Ropes. Ropes for transmitting power are usually made of
cotton and are of circular, or sometimes of square, cross-section.
In order to ensure long life, a large factor of safety is employed.
It is usual to express the safe maximum tension on the rope in
terms of the diameter, and a value of 160d2 lb, where d is the
diameter in inches, is generally employed. The weight of the
rope is approximately 0-28d2 lb. Various diameters up to 2\ in.
are used, but the most common sizes for the transmission of large
powers are If or If in. dia. In this country and on the Continent
separate ropes connect corresponding grooves on the driving and
the driven pulleys, but in the United States a continuous rope is
threaded over all the grooves and then passed over a guide pulley
in order to lead it from the last groove back to the first groove.
The guide pulley shaft is mounted on slides and subjected to a
gravity or spring pull which takes up any permanent stretch in
the rope and maintains an approximately uniform tension.
One big advantage of rope drives is that a number of separate
drives may be taken from the one driving pulley. For instance,
in many spinning mills the lineshaft on each floor is driven by
ropes passing directly from the main engine pulley on the ground
floor.
The groove angle varies from 40° to 60°, but is generally 45°.
As in the case of the vee-belt, the limiting ratio of the tensions is
high, the actual coefficient of friction being about 0-3, but the
VII] BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVE 239
wedging action of the rope in the groove gives a much higher
virtual coefficient of friction.

(d) Wire Ropes. Where power has to be transmitted over long

distances, as in mining, hauling, winding, etc., steel-wire ropes
are used. The ropes run on grooved pulleys, but, contrary to the
practice adopted with cotton ropes, they rest on the bottom of
the grooves and are not wedged between the sides of the grooves.
In order to increase the frictional grip, the bottom of the groove
is provided with a wood or leather insertion. Eor the long spans
used in wire rope power transmission, the tightening effect of the
catenary path followed by the free portions of the rope is very
marked. A sufficiently close approximation to the true magni-
tude of the tightening effect cannot always be obtained by assum-
ing the curve in which the rope hangs to be a parabola, and it is
necessary to take into account the true shape of the catenary
curve.
The weight per foot and the working tension of wire ropes are
generally expressed in terms of the circumference of the rope in
inches. Average values are: weight per foot 0T5<72 lb and
working load 0-3C2 tons, although there are wide variations,
particularly in the working load, according to the design of the
rope and the quality of the steel used.

107. Chain Drives. A chain may be regarded as a belt built up

of rigid links, which are hinged together in order to provide the
necessary flexibility for the wrapping action round the driving
and driven wheels. These wheels have projecting teeth, which
fit into suitable recesses in the links of the chain and thus enable
a positive drive to be obtained. They are known as chain sprockets
and bear a superficial resemblance to spur gears.
The pitch of the chain is the distance between a hinge centre of
one link and the corresponding hinge centre of the adjacent link.
The pitch circle diameter of the chain sprocket is the diameter of
the circle on which the hinge centres lie, when the chain is wrapped
round the sprocket.
Referring to Eig. 162 (a), it will be seen that, since the chain
links are rigid, the pitch becomes a chord, not an arc, of the pitch
circle. The relation between the pitch circle diameter d, the
pitch p and the number of teeth T on the sprocket, may be found
as follows. The angle 26 subtended at the sprocket centre by one
pitch AB = 360°/T. But AC = OA sin 9, so that
p/2 = (d/2) sin (180°/T)
or d = p cosec (180°/T) . . . (7.16)
240 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CIIAP.

Because each link of the chain is rigid, the relation between the
chain speed and the angular velocity of the sprocket will vary
with the angular position of the sprocket. The extreme conditions
are shown in Fig. 162 (a) and (b). Thus, if v is the speed of the
chain and co the angular velocity of the sprocket, then, for posi-
tion (a) v = co. OA and, for position (b), v — to. OC = co.OA cos 6.
In order to bring out clearly the kinematic conditions which
obtain in a chain drive, an arrangement in which the sprockets
have only 6 and 9 teeth is drawn in Fig. 163. Let the sense of
rotation of the sprockets be counter-clockwise, with the smaller
sprocket as the driver. Let 20, 2(f> be the angles subtended by the
chain pitch at the centres of the driving sprocket and the driven
sprocket respectively. Then, obviously, the straight length of
chain between the two sprockets must be an exact number of
pitches and the positions in which its inclination to the line of
centres is respectively a minimum and a maximum will be repre-
sented by AB and AjB^ where A, B2 and B are in one straight

line, as also are A1; C and Bj. Starting with the pin-centre on
the driving sprocket in the position A, the length AB of chain will
remain straight as the sprockets turn, until A reaches A: and B
reaches Bj. As the driving sprocket continues to turn, the link
A^ of the chain will hinge about the pin-centre C and the straight
length of chain between the two sprockets will be reduced to CB^
While C moves to A, Aj moves to A2 and Bj to B2 and the length
CBj of the chain remains straight. By this time each of the
sprockets will have turned from its original position through an
angle corresponding to one chain pitch. During the first part of
the angular displacement, i.e. while OA moves to OAx and QB to
QB:, the arrangement is kinematically equivalent to the four-bar
chain OABQ. Similarly, during the second part of the angular
displacement, i.e. while OAx moves to OA2 and QBX to QB2,
the arrangement is kinematically equivalent to the four-bar
chain OCB^. In these circumstances the ratio of the angular
velocities of the two sprockets cannot be constant. This may
vii] BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVE 241
perhaps most easily be shown by making use of the three centres
in line theorem, Article 44, in order to find the instantaneous
centre for the relative motion of the two links OA and QB. This
centre lies at the point of intersection P of BA produced and QO
produced, Fig. 164. Then, if to, cox are respectively the angular
velocities of the driving and the driven sprockets, it follows that
co.OP = coj.QP or
co/coj = QP/OP = (QO+OP)/OP = 1+QO/OP . (7.17)
For a given chain drive, QO is constant but OP undergoes a
periodic variation as the sprockets revolve, the period correspond-

ing to a rotation of the driving sprocket through an angle 2d.

Referring to Fig. 164, PO is a maximum, and the velocity ratio
is therefore a minimum, when the straight length of chain occupies
the position AB; whereas PO is a minimum, and the velocity
ratio a maximum, when the straight length of chain occupies the
position A1B1.
For the sake of clearness, Figs. 163 and 164 have been drawn
for sprockets with impracticably small numbers of teeth. Nor-
mally, the smaller sprocket would have at least 17 teeth and the
actual variation of velocity ratio would only amount to a few per
cent, of the mean value.

108. Types of Chain. Two types of chain are described, namely

(a) the roller chain and (b) the inverted tooth or silent chain.
The former has practically superseded all other types for the
transmission of power, so that the latter is chiefly of academic
interest.
(a) The Roller Chain. The construction of this type of chain
is shown in Fig. 165. The inner plates A are held together by
steel bushes B, through which pass the pins C riveted to the outer
links D. A roller R surrounds each bush B and the teeth of the
sprocket bear on the rollers. The rollers turn freely on the bushes
and the bushes turn freely on the pins. All the contact surfaces
are hardened so as to resist wear and are lubricated so as to reduce
242 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

friction. Fig. 165 (a) shows a simple roller chain, consisting of

one strand only, but duplex and triplex chains, consisting of two
or three strands, may be built up as shown in Fig. 165 (b), each
pin passing right through the bushes in the two or three strands.

The sprockets are so shaped that the rollers rest on the bottom
of the recesses between the teeth. The centre of curvature of
each recess lies on the pitch circle of the sprocket and the radius
of curvature is a few thousandths of an inch larger than the radius
of the roller. As each link of the chain enters or leaves the
sprocket, the roller centre at one end will describe a circular arc
relative to the roller centre at the other end, which is resting in
a recess of the sprocket. Hence, if the chain is to enter the wheel
without shock, the profile of the sprocket tooth should theoreti-
cally be a circular arc, concentric with the adjacent recess and of
radius equal to the pitch of the chain less the radius of the roller,
see Fig. 166 (a). There are, however, practical objections to this

shape of profile. For instance, it will not accommodate the in-

crease of chain pitch which results from wear on the bearing
surfaces without-, at the same time, increasing undesirably the
inclination a of the linf> of thrust between the tooth and the roller
VII] BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVE 243
to the line of centres of the link. A more serious practical objec-
tion is that a different cutter would be required to machine the
tooth spaces for each size of sprocket.
The British Standards Institution in B.S. 228:1934,1 recom-
mend a modified profile so that three cutters for each pitch will
cover the complete range of numbers of teeth on the sprockets.
No. 1 cutter is to be used for sprockets with from 9 to 12 teeth,
No. 2 cutter for sprockets with from 13 to 19 teeth and No. 3
cutter for sprockets with 20 or more teeth. The shapes of the
profiles of the three cutters are shown in Fig. 167. The corre-
sponding tooth shapes are also shown for sprockets with the
smallest number of teeth in each range. It will be seen that the
root curve ab of the tooth extends in each case over an arc of
120° only. For the No. 1 cutter the remainder of the profile
consists of a single arc, tangential to the root curve and of radius

1-2 times the chain pitch. For the No. 2 cutter the working part
be of the profile has a chord length of 0-32p and a radius of 3p,
while the top cd of the tooth has a radius of 0-48p. Finally, for
the No. 3 cutter the working part be of the profile is straight and
has a length of 0-42p, while the top cd of the tooth has a radius of
0-lOp. In all cutters the different curves which form the profile
meet tangentially and the radius of curvature for the root of the
tooth is approximately 1% greater than the radius of the roller.
It is not possible to express the root radius in terms of the pitch
because the roller diameter is not a constant fraction of the pitch,
but varies from 0-575p to 0-670p, with a mean value of 0-628p.
In the roller chain used for the drives of bicycles the pitch is
0-625 in. and the roller diameter is only 0-305 in. or 0-488p.
1
This information is abstracted by permission from British Standard 228 :1934
Steel Roller Chains and Chain Wheels, official copies of which can be obtained
from the British Standards Institution, 2 Park St., London, W.l, price 3s. post
free.
244 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

When wear takes place on the bearing surfaces of the chain,

the pitch increases and the effective pitch circle diameter of the
sprocket also increases, as shown in Fig. 166 (b), the rollers no
longer resting on the bottom of the tooth spaces but riding up the
working part of the tooth profiles.
(b) The Inverted Tooth or Silent Chain. The construction of
this type of chain is shown in Fig. 168 (a). It is built up from a
series of flat plates, each of which has two projections or teeth.
The outer faces of the teeth are ground to give an included angle of
60° or, in some cases, 75°, and they bear against the working faces
of the sprocket teeth. The inner faces of the link teeth take no
part in the drive and are so shaped as to clear the sprocket teeth.
The required width of chain is built up from a number of these
plates, arranged alternately and connected together by hardened
steel pins which pass through hardened steel bushes inserted in
the ends of the links. The pins are riveted over the outside plates.

OF
(a)
FIG. 168

The chain may be prevented from sliding axially across the face
of the sprocket teeth by outside guide plates without teeth, or by
a centre guide plate without teeth which fits into a recess turned
in the sprocket.
Fig. 168 (b) shows the type of lunge used in the Morse silent
chain. This reduces friction by substituting a hardened steel
rocker on a hardened steel flat pivot for the pin and bush.
When the chain is new, the position which it takes up on the
sprocket is shown in the upper part of Fig. 169. Each link as it
enters the sprocket pivots about the pin on the adjacent link which
is in contact with the sprocket. The working faces of the link
are thus brought gradually into contact with the corresponding
faces of the sprocket teeth. A similar action takes place as each
link leaves the sprocket. Hence there is no relative sliding
between the faces of the links and the faces of the sprocket
teeth.
vn] BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVE 245
As wear takes place on the pins and hushes, the smooth action
of the chain is not impaired, but the chain rides higher up the
sprocket teeth and the effective pitch circle diameter of the
sprocket is increased, as shown in the lower part of Fig. 169.

It should be noticed that with this type of chain the pitch

circle diameter of the sprocket may be greater than its outside
diameter.
The number of teeth on the smaller sprocket of a chain drive
should preferably be not less than 17 and the speed ratio should
not exceed 6 or 7 to 1.

EXAMPLES VII

N.B.—Q7-Q13 are intended to be solved by applying the usual theory of the

effect of centrifugal stress as given at the beginning of Article 104.

1. Deduce the equation for the limiting ratio of the tensions at the two ends
of a belt or rope which is in contact with a pulley rim when (a) the pulley rim is
flat, (b) the pulley rim is grooved and the belt or rope wedges between the sides
of the groove.

2. Determine the limiting ratio of the tensions and express the difference of
tension as a fraction of the maximum tension for the following cases:
(a) A flat belt in contact with a flat pulley rim. 6 = 180°, n = 0-4.
(b) A circular section rope wedged in a grooved pulley rim. d = 160°, /J. = 0’3,
groove angle = 50°.

3. A rope is given three complete turns round a plain cylindrical post and a
force of 50 lb is applied to one end. If the coefficient of friction between rope
and post is 0-25, what force must be applied to the other end of the rope in order
to cause it to slip round the post ?
246 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

4. A hemp rope weighing 1\ lb per fathom is wound 3£ times round a fixed

horizontal wooden beam of circular section. One end is hanging free and is
8 ft from the beam. Develop the theory to show whether it would be safe to
attach to the other end an otherwise unsupported weight of 10 000 lb. The
coefficient of friction between the rope and the beam is 0-4. W.S.

5. A capstan and rope are used in a railway goods yard for moving trucks.
The capstan runs at 50 r.p.m. The rope from a line of trucks makes 2-75 turns
round the capstan at a radius of 8 in. and the free end of the rope is pulled with a
force of 30 lb. Determine the pull on the trucks, the h.p. taken by the trucks and
the h.p. supplied by the capstan. Take p = 0-25. L.U.

6. The motion of a vessel drifting away from a dockside is retarded by a rope

secured to the vessel and given 3 complete turns round a bollard on the dockside.
A pull of 80 lb is applied to the free end of the rope at an instant when the speed
of the vessel, which weighs 4000 tons, is gfft/s. After 10 sec, the rope begins
to slip; assuming the rope stretches elastically, calculate the stretch in the rope
between the bollard and the vessel and the speed of the vessel when the rope
slips, (p between rope and bollard = 0-25.)

7. A rough rule for leather belting is that the effective tension should not exceed
40 lb/in. of width for a belt -£g in. thick. If this rule is applied under the
following conditions, what is the maximum stress on the tight side of the belt ?
Angle of lap, 160°; coefficient of friction, 0-3; belt speed, 3000 ft/m; density of
leather, 0-035 lb/in3.

8. A leather belt | in. thick transmits 50 h.p. from a pulley 4 ft dia. running
at 240 r.p.m. The angle of lap is 165°, the coefficient of friction is 0-28 and the
weight of 1 in3 of leather is 0-035 lb. What width of belt will be required if
the stress is limited to 350 lb/in2?

9. Calculate the centrifugal tension in a belt which runs over two pulleys at a
speed of 5500 ft/min. The belt is 8 in. wide and in. thick, and weighs
0-035 lb/in3.
If the belt embraces an angle of 165°, p is 0-25 and the maximum permissible
stress in the belt material is 350 lb/in2, calculate the maximum h.p. transmitted
at the above speed.

10. A belt is required to transmit 30 h.p. from a pulley 5 ft dia. running at

200 r.p.m. The angle embraced is 165° and the coefficient of friction 0-3. If the
safe working stress for the leather is 350 lb/in2, the weight of 1 in3 of leather
0-035 lb and the thickness of the belt § in., what width of belt will be required,
taking into account the centrifugal force ?

11. Deduce an expression for the centrifugal tension in a rope or belt passing
round a pulley rim.
A rope pulley with 10 ropes and a peripheral speed of 4000 ft/min transmits
140 h.p. The angle embraced by each rope is 180°, the angle of the groove
40°, and the coefficient of friction between rope and groove 0-2. Assuming
the ropes to be just on the point of slipping, calculate the tensions on the tight
and slack sides of each rope, allowing for the centrifugal tension. The weight of
each rope is 0-3 lb/ft.

12. A rope pulley with 15 ropes and a peripheral speed of 3500 ft/min transmits
400 h.p. The angle of the grooves is 60°, the angle embraced by the ropes 165°,
the coefficient of friction 0-27, and the weight of the rope per foot of length
0-85 lb. Calculate the maximum tension in the rope, taking into account the
effect of the centrifugal force.

13. A rope drive is required to transmit 1500 h.p. from a pulley 3-5 ft dia.
running at 360 r.p.m. The safe pull in each rope is 490 lb and the weight of the
rope per foot of length is 0-9 lb. The angle of lap is 150°, the groove angle 45°,
and the coefficient of friction between rope and groove is 0-3. How many ropes
will be required if allowance is made for the centrifugal stress ?
yii] BELT, ROPE AND CHAIN DRIVE 247
14. A vertical belt drive is installed with an initial stress of 125 lb/in2. The
angle embraced on the smaller pulley is 165° and the coefficient of friction is 0-3.
The density of the leather is 0-035 lb/in2. Assuming the belt to be inextensible,
plot a curve to show how the maximum h.p. which can be transmitted varies
with the speed of the belt. Under these conditions what is the maximum stress
in the belt and at what speed does it occur ?

15. Explain briefly what factors influence the change in the sum of the tensions
on the tight and slack sides of a belt as the power transmitted is increased. Why
is a horizontal drive capable of transmitting more power than a similar vertical
drive ?

16. It is usually stated that the best speed at which to rim a belt or rope is
that at which the centrifugal tension is one-third of the maximum permissible
tension. Explain the theoretical basis for this statement and criticise the
assumptions made.

17. A horizontal belt drive is installed with an initial tension of 50 lb per in.
of width. The angle embraced on the smaller pulley is 160° and /JL is 0-3. The
weight of a strip of belt 1 in. wide by 1 ft long is 0-1 lb. Assinning the belt to
be inextensible, plot curves to show how (a) the maximum h.p. which can be
transmitted per in. of width, (b) the maximum tension per in. of width, vary with
the speed up to 120 ft/s.

18. If in the transmission of power between two shafts by means of a belt, the
belt as a whole does not slip round either pulley, explain the nature of the “ creep ”
of the belt on both pulleys.
Power is transmitted from a pulley 3 ft dia. running at 200 r.p.m. to a pulley
7 ft dia. by means of a belt 20 in. wide and 0-375 in. thick. Find the speed in
r.p.m. lost by the driven pulley as a result of creep, if the tensions in the tight and
slack sides of the belt are 62-5 lb. per in. width and 25 lb per in. width respectively,
and Young’s modulus for the material is 15 000 lb/ in2. L.U.

19. What is the purpose of a gravity idler in a short-centre belt drive ? Explain
why a greater h.p. can be transmitted before slip begins when a gravity idler is
used.

20. What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of (a) flat belts,
(b) V-belts, (c) ropes and (d) chains for the transmission of power ?

21. Describe the construction of (a) the roller chain, (b) the silent chain.
How does wear affect the contact between the chain and sprocket in each case ?

22. A chain connects two sprockets, the number of teeth being t on the smaller
sprocket and T on the larger sprocket. Show that the instantaneous velocity
an< a
ratio has a maximum possible value of ^ minimum possible
sin (1801T)
sin (180/<)
value of If t = 12 and T = 60, what is the maximum possible
tan (180/T)’
variation of velocity ratio ?
 CHAPTER VIII

BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS

109. The primary function of a brake is either to bring to rest a

body which is in motion or to hold a body in a state of rest or of
uniform motion against the action of external forces or couples.
The primary function of a dynamometer is to measure the forces
or couples which tend to change the state of rest or of uniform
motion of a body. It will be seen, therefore, that the difference
between a brake and a dynamometer is often one of purpose rather
than of principle; an arrangement which is used as a brake may
frequently be made to serve as a dynamometer with but the
addition of a force-measuring device, such as a deadweight or
spring balance. In the present chapter the principles of operation
of representative types of brakes and dynamometers are discussed.
110. The Simple Block or Shoe Brake. A simple arrangement
for applying a retarding or braking force to the rim of a drum or
wheel is shown in Fig. 170. A block or shoe S of wood or metal,
sometimes faced with a special friction material in order to give
a high coefficient of friction, is forced into contact with the rim of
the drum. The friction between the shoe and the drum causes a
tangential force to act on the drum, which tends to prevent its
rotation. The shoe is pressed against the drum by a force P
applied to one end of a lever, generally called the brake hanger,
to which the shoe is attached. The other end of the hanger is
pivoted on a fixed fulcrum 0. The shoe may be pivoted to the
brake hanger as shown at (a) or rigidly attached to the hanger
as shown at (b). The former arrangement is mechanically more
complicated, but it enables the relation between the applied force
P and the tangential braking force on the drum to be more
accurately determined. Referring to Fig. 170 (a), the brake shoe
is in equilibrium under two forces, the reaction of the drum and
the reaction of the brake hanger. These two forces must there-
fore be in line. The reaction of the brake hanger on the shoe
may be assumed to pass through the pin centre C, since the initial
vibration of the shoe when the brake is applied will probably be
sufficient to eliminate friction at the shoe pin. The reaction of
the drum on the shoe may be assumed to be tangential to the
248
CHAP. Yin] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 249
friction circle of the drum. This is true for the reaction on each
element of length of the shoe, but is not strictly true for the total
reaction of the drum on the shoe because of the curvature of the
contact surfaces. However, in view of the uncertainty which
always exists as to the value of fi, the error involved in the assump-
tion is negligible. From these three conditions the line of action
of the resultant thrust may be completely determined. Assum-
ing clockwise rotation of the drum, the line of thrust between the
shoe and drum will therefore take up the position shown by the

full line. Similarly, when the drum rotates counter-clockwise, the

line of thrust will take up the position shown by the dotted line.
The friction torque on the drum — Th = Bx, where x is the
perpendicular distance of the line of thrust from the drum centre
Q, i.e. the radius of the friction circle of the drum rd.sin </>. Also,
for equilibrium of the brake hanger, PI = Ba, where l and a are
respectively the perpendicular distances of the lines of action of
the effort P and the thrust B from the fulcrum 0 of the brake
hanger. Substituting for B, the friction torque on the drum is
given by:
Th — Pl/a.x (8.1)
In order that this torque shall be the same for both directions
of rotation of the drum, the perpendicular distance a of the line
of thrust from O must be the same for both directions of rotation,
and this clearly requires that the line joining the centres of the
two pins, O and C, shall be perpendicular to the line joining the
centre of pin C to the drum center Q.
Where the brake shoe is rigidly attached to the hanger, as
shown in Fig. 170 (b), the calculated value of the torque applied to
the drum depends upon the assumptions made in determining the
250 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

position of the line of action of the resultant thrust between the

shoe and the drum. The simplest assumption is that the line of
thrust passes through the mid-point B of the contact surface of the
shoe. This is practically equivalent to the assumption of uniform
intensity of pressure between the shoe and drum. Since the line
of thrust may also be assumed to be tangential to the friction
circle of the drum, it follows that for clockwise rotation, it is
in the position shown by the full line and for counter-clockwise
rotation in the position shown by the dotted line. As before, the
friction torque on the drum is given by (8.1), and it will only have
the same value for both directions of rotation of the drum if a
has the same value for both directions of rotation, i.e. if the line
joining B to the fulcrum 0 is at right angles to BQ, or 0 lies on
the tangent to the drum at the point B. Where 0 lies to the left
of the tangent through B, as shown in the figure, the friction torque
will clearly be greater when the drum rotates counter-clockwise
than when it rotates clockwise.
Since this type of brake is invariably provided with two shoes
on opposite sides of the drum, partly in order to reduce side thrust
on the bearings of the drum shaft when the brake is applied and
partly to increase the brake torque, it follows that equal friction
torques will only be applied by the two shoes if the fulcrum of
each brake hanger lies on the tangent to the brake drum drawn
through the mid-point of the corresponding shoe. It should be
pointed out that this conclusion needs to be modified when other
assumptions are made regarding the position of the line of thrust
between shoe and drum. For instance, if, as is probable, the
line of thrust intersects the contact surface of the shoe at some
point other than the mid-point B, the fulcrum of the brake hanger
should lie on the tangent drawn through that point instead of on
the tangent drawn through B.
A closer approximation to the true point of intersection of the
line of resultant thrust and the shoe surface may be obtained on
the assumption that the material of the shoe obeys Hooke’s law
in compression.
Referring to Fig. 171 (a), a small angular displacement 89 of
the hanger in the clockwise sense would cause the point C on the
shoe to move to D, where CD is perpendicular to OC. Resolve
the displacement CD into components CE and ED, respectively
normal and tangential to the contact surface. Then the normal
intensity of pressure at C will be directly proportional to the normal
component CE. Join Q to C and produce to meet a line through
0 perpendicular to QC at F. From the similar triangles CDE
OCF, CE/CD = OF/OC, and therefore CE = CD.OF/OC. But
CD/OC is the angular displacement 86 of the hanger. Therefore
VIII] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 251
the normal intensity of pressure at C cc CE cc OF.80 and, for a
given value of 80, the normal intensity of pressure at C is directly
proportional to OF.
Hence, for any other point on the contact surface of the shoe,
the normal intensity of pressure is directly proportional to the
length of the perpendicular from 0 to the line joining that point
to the drum centre Q. If the total length of the arc of contact
of the shoe is divided into a number of equal parts, the length of
the perpendicular OF may be found corresponding to the mid-point
of each part and a proportionate length may be marked off from
the contact surface along the corresponding mid-ordinate. The
length of each of the lines thus obtained will be proportional to
the normal thrust on the corresponding part of the shoe and the
line of resultant normal thrust may be found by combining the
lengths vectorially and drawing a line through Q parallel to the

resultant. The vector polygon is shown dotted in Fig. 171 (a).

It will be seen that the line of thrust intersects the contact surface
of the shoe at a point A above the mid-point. If the resultant
friction force is assumed to be tangential to the drum at the point
A, the resultant thrust between the shoe and the drum will pass
through A and will be tangential to the friction circle. Although
this assumption is not strictly correct, the line of action of the
resultant thrust will be obtained with sufficient accuracy for all
practical purposes. Strictly speaking, the resultant thrust ought
to be found as shown in Fig. 171 (b). For each short length of the
arc of contact, the true reaction is tangential to the friction circle
and its magnitude is directly proportional to the normal intensity
of pressure. The vector sum of the true reactions for the indi-
vidual lengths into which the arc of contact is divided will be
equal to the resultant thrust between the shoe and the drum. In
252 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

order to fix the line of action of the resultant thrust, it is necessary

to draw a link or funicular polygon. In Fig. 171 (b), o'ab'c'e'f' is
the link polygon drawn in the usual way for the vector polygon
abcdefg and any arbitrarily fixed pole o. The point o' is a point
on the line of action of the resultant thrust and the direction of
the resultant thrust is parallel to ag. It will be found that the
line of thrust obtained by this construction is at a slightly greater
distance from the axis of the drum than the radius of the friction
circle. But, bearing in mind the uncertainty regarding the value
of the coefficient of friction, it would appear that this refinement
is hardly justified.
Example 1. A brake is arranged as in Fig. 170 (a). The drum
is 12 in. dia., the distances CQ, OC and OH are respectively 7 in.,
6 in. and 15 in. If the coefficient of friction is 0-3 and the effort P
is 100 lb, find the braking torque applied to the drum. Fig.
166 (a) is drawn to scale for these dimensions.
The radius of the friction circle = x — rA sin </>.
But tan (J>= 0-3, so that <£ = 16° 42' and z = 6.0-2874 = 1-724 in.
The distance of the line of action of R from the fulcrum O
= a = 5*82 in.
braking torque on the drum = Tb — Rx= — .x = .1-724
a 5-82
= 445 lb in.
Since OC is perpendicular to CQ, the braking torque is the same
for both directions of rotation of the drum.
Example 2. If the brake block is rigidly attached to the hanger,
but the dimensions are otherwise the same as in the last example,
find the braking torque applied to the drum. The brake block
embraces 60° of arc. Fig. 170 (b) and Fig. 171 are drawn to scale
for these dimensions.
From Fig. 170 (b), for clockwise rotation of the drum, a scales
6-0 in.
.. braking torque on the drum Tb — Rx =— .x = -— . 1 -724
a 6
= 431 lb in.
Similarly, for counter-clockwise rotation of the drum, Gq scales
5-5 in.
.. braking torque on the drum Tb = Ryx—.x=—-r. . 1 -724
Gq 5-5
= 471 lb in.
If the point A on the line of action of the resultant thrust
between the block and the drum is found as already explained in
vrn] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 253
connection with Eig. 171 (a), the distances a and ax scale respec-
tively 6*48 in. and 6*38 in.
For clockwise rotation of the drum,
, „ PI 100.15
braking torque on the drum = Tb = Rx = —- . x = ■■■■■■■■. 1 *724
m
a o-48
= 400 lb in.
and for counter-clockwise rotation,

braking torque Tb — Rxx = — .x = . 1*724 = 406 lb in.

CL\ O'o8

Example 3. Fig. 172 shows diagrammatically the arrangement

of a brake. The two shoes are pivoted to the hangers and the
brake is applied by means of a vertical force P, which acts through

the pin K on the bell-crank lever HGK. If the coefficient of

friction is 0-35 and the braking torque required on the drum is
500 lb ft, find: (a) the magnitude of P; (b) the force transmitted
along DH; and (c) the reactions at each of the pins O, E and G.
The radius of the friction circle = x = rd.sin cf>. But fx
= tan <f> = 0-35, so that 0 = 19° 18' and x = 10.0-3303 = 3-30in.
For clockwise rotation of the drum, the reactions between the
two shoes and the drum are shown by R and i?l5 which pass
through C and F respectively and are tangential to the friction
•circle. The total braking torque Tb on the drum is therefore
equal to (R-\-Ri)x.
Produce the line of action of the effort P to meet DH produced
at L. Join L to G and produce to meet the fine of action of i?! at
M. Join M to E. Then the bell-crank lever HGK is in equilib-
rium under the action of three forces which are applied at the
254 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

pins H, G and K. The lines of action of the forces at H and K

meet at L and therefore the reaction at the pin G must also pass
through L.
Similarly, the right-hand brake hanger is in equilibrium under
the three forces which act through E, F and G. But the lines of
action of the forces through F and G intersect at M and therefore
the reaction at the pin E must pass through M.
In the same way, the line of action of the reaction at pin 0
on the left-hand brake hanger may be found by joining O to
the point of intersection of the line of action of R and HD
produced.
Reverting to the bell-crank lever, it is clear that HGL is similar
to the triangle of forces for this lever. Hence it follows that the
horizontal component of the pull exerted by HD on pin D is
equal in magnitude to the horizontal component of the push
exerted by the bell-crank lever on pin G. Let F be the magnitude
of each of these horizontal components. Then, taking moments
about 0 and E, we have:
For the right-hand hanger,
F.EG = R^a}
and, for the left-hand hanger,
P.OD = Ra
But a is obviously equal to al5 and EG is equal to OD, so that:
P.OD = Ra — R{a and Rx = R
The braking torque on the drum = Th — (R+Rx)x — 2 Rx;
and, substituting for R in the above equation:
R a T
F - h a
—
OD 2a;’OD
But T„ must be 500 lb ft, OD is 24 in., x is 3-30 in. and a
scales 11-5 in.
500.12 11-5
= 435 lb
2.3-30'"2T
For the bell-crank lever we have, taking moments about G:
P.GK = P.HG or P = (4/12)435 = 145 lb
Also, from the triangle of forces HGL, the tension in the link
HD = (HL/tIG)P == 443 lb and the reaction at the pin
G = (GL/HG)P = 488 lb
Similarly, from the triangle of forces, Mab, for the right-hand
VIII] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 255
brake hanger and the triangle of forces, Ned, for the left-hand
brake hanger, we find that the reactions at the pins 0 and E are
respectively 550 lb and 640 lb.

111. The Internal-expanding Shoe Brake. A type of shoe-brake

which is often used on self-propelled vehicles is shown in Eig. 173.
Each shoe pivots at one end about a fixed fulcrum, while at the
other end it rests against the face of a cam. The outer surfaces
of the shoes are lined with Ferodo or other friction material which
has a high coefficient of friction and good wearing properties.
The shoes are normally held in the off position by a light spring S.
To apply the brakes the cam is rotated by means of the braking
force P applied to an arm keyed to the cam spindle. This forces
the shoes into contact with the inside cylindrical surface of the
brake drum, which is rigidly fastened to the road wheel. Friction
between the shoes and the drum
then applies the braking torque
or couple to the drum.
The force analysis of this
brake may be made as follows.
Assume the material of the
brake-shoe linings to obey
Hooke’s law in compression and
find the line of action of the
thrust on each shoe as already
explained. Let B and Bi repre-
sent the two thrusts for counter-
clockwise rotation of the drum
and a, a1 the perpendicular
distances of their fines of action from the respective shoe pivots.
Also, let Q,Q\ be the forces exerted by the cam on the ends of the
respective shoes; l, l\ the perpendicular distances of their fines of
action from the shoe pivots; and d the perpendicular distance
between Q and Q\.
Even if the clearances between the shoes and the drum are
correctly adjusted, so that when the brake is applied each shoe
makes contact with the drum at the same instant, the forces
Q and wifi not be equal. This results from the fact that, for a
given angular displacement of the cam, the angular displacement
of the right-hand shoe is obviously slightly greater than the
angular displacement of the left-hand shoe. The compression of
the right-hand shoe lining is therefore greater than that of the
left-hand shoe fining and Qi is greater than Q. In practice it
is probably sufficiently accurate to assume that Q and Qx are
equal.
256 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Then, for equilibrium of the left-hand shoe, Ql = Ra, and, for

equilibrium of the right-hand shoe, Q\l\ — R^a^.
But the torque on the drum
= Th = {R-\-Ri)x
and, substituting for R and Rx
Pb — Q(l/aJrh/ai)x
For equilibrium of the cam, Qd — Pb or Q — Pb/d,
so that Th = (Pb/d)(lja-\-ll/al)x .... (8.2)
and, since x is the radius of the friction circle of the drum,
x — rd sin $ ~ fird

where rd is the radius of the drum.

Instead of the arrangement shown in Fig. 173, the cam may be
conical with the axis of the cone at right angles to the plane of
rotation of the drum. Rollers are then placed between the cam
and the ends of the brake shoes, so that the latter may be forced
into contact with the drum by displacing the cam parallel to its
axis. A third arrangement consists of a cylinder fitted with
plungers which contact the ends of the brake shoes. Oil is forced
into the cylinder under pressure from a master cylinder connected
to the brake pedal, so that the plungers are forced apart and the
shoes are brought into contact with the brake drum. Both these
arrangements ensure that Q = Qx and also l = Zx.
There are other ways in which a modern braking system differs
from the simple arrangement shown, but for information on these
reference should be made to the appropriate literature.

112. The Band Brake. A flexible band may be used to apply a

braking torque to a rotating drum. The flexible member may
consist of a leather strap, one or more ropes, or a thin strip of
steel lined with friction material. In order to apply the brake the
band is tightened round the drum and the friction between the
band and the drum provides the tangential braking force.
Referring to Fig. 174 (a), let 6 be the angle of lap of the band
on the drum, /x the coefficient of friction between the contact
surfaces, and Ti and T2 the respective tensions on the tight and
slack sides of the band. Then the limiting ratio of the tensions is
given by Tl/T2 = and the tangential braking force on the
drum by Q — Tx—T2.
A modification of the band brake is shown in Fig. 174 (b).
The flexible steel band has a number of wood blocks fixed to the
VIII] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 257
inside surface and the friction of the blocks on the drum provides
the braking action. Each block embraces a short arc on the
drum.
The ratio of the tensions on the tight and slack sides of the band
may be found as follows. Let 29 be the angle subtended at the
drum centre by each brake block, T0 the tension in the slack
side of the band, the tension in the band between the first
and second blocks, T2 that between the second and third blocks,
etc., Tn that in the tight side of the band, n the number of brake
blocks and fx the coefficient of friction.

FIG. 174

Then the first block will be in equilibrium under three forces,

the tensions T0 and Tl on the two ends of the band and the
reaction R of the drum on the block. Since there is limiting
friction between the block and the drum, the line of action of R
will be tangential to the friction circle of the drum and it must also
pass through the point of intersection of T0 and T+ Its inclina-
tion to the radial line drawn through the point of intersection of
T0 and T1 may for all practical purposes be assumed equal to
0. The triangle of forces oac may then be drawn. From this
triangle:
Ti sin aoc sin (90—0+0) cos (0—0)
T0 sin aco sin (90—6—0) cos (0+0)
cos 9 cos 0+sin 6 sin 0 1 +tan 6 tan 0 1 +p. tan 6
cos 6 cos 0—sin 9 sin 0 1 —tan 9 tan 0 1 —fi tan 9
The triangle of forces is obviously similar for each block, and
therefore the ratio of the tensions in the band is the same for each
9—T.M.
258 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

block. Hence the ratio of the tensions in the tight and slack
sides is given by:
Tn_Tn T3 T2 T, /TA" /1+zntan 0\»
T0 - • • • T2'Tl'T0 - \T0) - \1-VL tan 6/
The ends of the plain band or of the band lined with wood blocks
are attached to a brake lever, so that movement of the brake lever
tightens the band round the drum and provides the braking action.
Two possible arrangements are shown in Fig. 175. In the arrange-
ment shown at (a), one end of the band
is attached to the fulcrum of the brake
lever, while in that shown at (b) the two
ends of the band are attached to the
lever on opposite sides of the fulcrum
and at different distances from the ful-
crum.
Considering the first arrangement as
applied to a plain band, the effort ap-
plied to the lever must act downwards
in order to tighten the band round the
drum. The drum may revolve either clockwise or counter-clock-
wise. If it revolves clockwise, the effort P determines the
tension T2 in the slack side of the band; if counter-clock-
wise, P determines the tension rl\ in the tight side. In the
former case the tension in the slack side of the band is given
by T2 = Pl/a. But the ratio of the tensions = TX\T2 = eMfl and
the tangential braking force on the drum Q — Tx — T2, so that:
PI
Q = Tl-T2 = T2(e^-l) = -(e^-l) . (8.4)
CL

In the latter case, the tension in the tight side of the band is
. PI
given by Tx = —, so that:
CL
1 Pl eM° —1
Q = T1—T2 = T i—j- (8.5)
a e^
Hence, when the brake is so arranged that the brake lever applies
the tension to the slack side of the band the braking force Q is
e^ times as great as when it is so arranged that the brake lever
applies the tension to the tight side of the band.
For the arrangement shown in Fig. 175 (b), the effort P must
again act downwards, providing a > b. For clockwise rotation of
the drum, the end of the band attached to A is the slack end,
while that attached to B is the tight end. Hence, for a plain band,
Q = Ti-T2 = T2(e<*-l)
vm] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 259

But, for equilibrium of the brake lever,

T2a = Txb+Pl or T2(a-be^e) = PI
and, substituting for T2,
(8.6)

Similarly, for counter-clockwise rotation of the drum, we get:

(8.7)

Since a > b and eM0 > 1, the denominator of (8.7) is always

positive, but it is possible for the denominator of (8.6) to be
positive, zero or negative. The implication of a zero or negative
value is that the brake is self-supporting. Once the band has
been tightened round the drum the effort P may be reduced to
zero. In practice a should always be greater than 6eM0, otherwise
gradual application of the brake will be impossible.
Example 4. The brake drum of a crane is 21 in. dia. and is
keyed to the same shaft as the crane barrel, which is 15 in. dia.
A band brake acts on the brake drum and is operated by a lever
18 in. long. One end of the band is attached to the fulcrum of
the lever and the other end is attached to a pin on the lever at a
distance of 4 in. from the fulcrum. The angle embraced by the
band is 270° and ^ is 0-3. What is the least force required at the
end of the brake lever in order to support a load of f ton attached
to a rope wound round the barrel? The arrangement of the
brake lever is as shown in Fig. 175 (a).
In order to require the least effort P, the brake must be so
arranged that rotation of the drum by the load tends to tighten
that end of the band which is attached to the fulcrum of the
brake lever.
The required tangential braking force on the drum
= Q = 1120.15/21 = 800 lb

The ratio of the tensions in the two ends of the band

e 3 3W2
= T1/T2 = e^ = e°- - =4-111
Also = 18 in. and a = 4 in., so that, substituting in (8.4):

from which
260 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Example 5. A band-and-block brake is operated by a dif-

ferential lever of the type shown in Fig. 175 (b). The distances
a, b and l are respectively 4*5 in., 1 in. and 21 in. The brake
drum is 30 in. dia. and there are 12 blocks, each of which subtends
an angle of 20° at the drum centre. What is the least effort
applied at the end of the lever which will provide a braking torque
of 4000 lb ft on the drum if the coefficient of friction is 0-28 ?
For maximum braking torque, the brake must be so arranged
that the tight side of the band is attached to the shorter arm b.
The relation between Q and P is then given by (8.6).
From (8.3), the ratio of the tensions is given by:
Tn /1-f-ja tan 6\n /l+0-28.0-1763\ 12
h 3-274
-T0-\T=r -fit tan 6) \1—0-28.0-1763)
The tangential braking force on the drum
= Q = T„-T0 = T0(k-1)
Substituting h for e^0 in (8.6), we get:
„ P-W-1)
a—b.Jc
But l = 21 in., a = 4-5 in., 6 = 1 in. and Jc = 3-274,
P. 21(3-274 — 1)
Q = 4-5-3-274 38-9P

The required braking torque is 4000 lb ft and the radius of the

drum is 15 in., so that Q = 4000.12/15 = 3200 lb.
38-9P = 3200 and P = 82-2 lb
113. The Braking of a Vehicle. It will be appropriate at this
point to consider the retardation of a vehicle produced by the
application of brakes. Fig. 176
shows diagrammatically a car
moving up a plane surface in-
clined at the angle a to the
horizontal. Let W be the
weight of the car, h the height
of the centre of gravity above
the road surface, x its perpen-
dicular distance from the rear
axle, w the wheelbase of the car.
It is required to find the retarda-
tion of the car when brakes are
applied (a) to the rear wheels only, (b) to the front wheels only
and (c) to all four wheels.
In all cases the problem is reduced to the equivalent problem
VIII] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 261

in statics by applying d’Alembert’s principle. The reversed

effective force, or the inertia force, is included with the system of
forces which is actually applied to the car, so as to give a system
of forces in equilibrium.
(a) Brakes applied to the Rear Wheels. Let Fb be the total
bra,king force at the rims of the rear wheels due to the application
of the brakes. Let Aa and Nh be the total normal reactions
between the ground and the front and rear wheels respectively,
/ be the retardation and g, the coefficient of adhesion between the
tyres and the road surface. Then the forces acting on the car
may be reduced to the co-planar system shown and the car is
in equilibrium under this system of forces.
Resolving parallel to the plane:
Fb-\-W sin a = Wfjg .... (8.8)
Resolving perpendicular to the plane:
N&-\-Nb = W cos CL ... . (8.9)
A third equation is obtained by considering the equilibrium of
the couples. For convenience take moments about G, then:
Fbh+Nbx = N&(w—x)
Fbh = N&w-(N&+Nb)x
Substituting for iVa+./Vb from (8.9):
Fhh — N&w—Wx cos a
Wx cos a+Fy&
(8.10)
w
From (8.9):
Nh = W cos a— Na
W(w— x) cos a—Fbh
(8.11)
w
Also, from (8.8):
fid = Fb/W+sin a (8.12)

The braking force Fb will depend upon the effort exerted by

the driver on the brake pedal, but in no circumstances can it
exceed the limiting value gAb, since any attempt by the driver
to increase Fb beyond this point will simply lock the wheels and
cause them to skid. Hence the maximum possible retardation
when the rear wheels only are braked is obtained from equation
(8.12) by substituting fiNb for Fb:
fjg = ixNJW +sin a
262 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

But from (8.11):

W(w—x) cos a —pNbh
Nh =
w
(w—x) cos a
iV7b = -w . (8.13)
w-\-ph
f fi(w—x) cos a
so tliat sm a (8.14)
g w-\-ph '
Also, from (8.10):
(x-\-ph) cos a
Nn W (8.15)
w-\-ph
(b) Brahes applied to the Front Wheels. In this case the braking
force Fa acts through the point A. Apart from this the system of
forces remains unchanged and equations (8.10), (8.11) and (8.12)
apply if Fa is substituted for Fb. The maximum possible value
of Fa is clearly equal to /xAa, and on substituting this value in
(8.12) we get
fig = fiNJW+sin a
But from (8.10):
Wx cos aL-FpNJi
w
x cos a
so that Na .W (8.16)
w—ph
f ixx cos a
and - = +sm a (8.17)
g w—ph
Also, from (8.11):
,T (w—x—ph) cos a TTr
Nh = — j .W (8.18)
w—ph
(c) Brahes applied to the Four Wheels. In this case there is a
braking force F& provided by the front wheels and a braking
force Fh provided by the rear wheels. The only change required in
equations (8.10), 8.11) and (8.12) is the substitution of Fa-\-Fh for
Fb. The maximum possible braking force is pNa-\-pNb or p W cos a.
From (8.12):
f/g = p cos a+sin a . . . (8.19)
From (8.10):
Ya (x+ph) cos <xw . . (8.20)
w
From (8.11):
Yb (w—x—ph) cos a . . (8.21)
U)
vin] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 263
If the car is moving down the plane, the term W sin a must be
moved from the left-hand side to the right-hand side of equation
(8.8). This will not affect the equations for Na and Nh, but it
will alter the sign in front of the term sin a in each of the equations
(8.14), (8.17) and (8.19).
If the car is moving along a horizontal surface, then a = 0 and
the equations are simplified.
The application of the brakes to the car causes a couple to act
which tends to rotate the car as a whole in a vertical plane about
its centre of gravity. This couple increases the pressure between
the front wheels and the road and decreases that between the
rear wheels and the road, as may be seen if the reactions during
braking are compared with those when the car is at rest or is
moving with uniform speed. As the driver of the car gradually
increases the pressure on the brake pedal, the friction force between
the braked wheels and the road surface gradually builds up until
the limiting condition is reached and the wheels are just on the
point of becoming locked. Obviously, this limiting condition
will be reached earlier with rear wheel brakes and later with front
wheel brakes than if there were no transference of load from the
rear to the front axle during braking.
Where four-wheel brakes are fitted, the relative magnitudes of
the braking forces at the front and rear wheels are determined
by the proportions of the mechanism between the brake pedal
and the brake drums on the wheels. For most brake mechanisms
the ratio FJFh is constant. But, for maximum retardation, tins
ratio ought to be the same as NJNh, and from equations (8.20)
and (8.21):
Aa _ x+fih
(8.22)
Nh w—x—fjJi

Hence, to get maximum retardation under different conditions of

road surface, i.e. for different values of \x, the ratio FJFh ought to
increase as the pressure on the brake pedal is increased. It is
beyond the scope of this article to consider the problem in greater
detail. Reference should be made to an article in the Automobile
Engineer, January 1926, where a brake mechanism is described
which is designed to provide for an increase in the ratio FJFh as
the pressure on the brake pedal is increased.
The conditions which govern the maximum acceleration of a
self-propelled vehicle may be examined in the same way. The
maximum possible tractive force is determined by the limiting
friction between the driving wheels and the road surface. This
force acts in the direction of motion and the couple caused by the
combined effect of the tractive force and the inertia force increases
264 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the pressure between the rear wheels and the road and decreases
that between the front wheels and the road.
Example 6. For a car w is 9-5 ft, h is 2 ft and a; is 4 ft. If the
car is moving along a level road at 30 m.p.h., find the minimum
distance in which the car may be stopped when (a) the rear
wheels are braked, (b) the front wheels are braked, (c) all the
wheels are braked and the coefficient of friction between tyre and
road is (i) 0T, (ii) 0-6. What is the required ratio of NJNb in
each case when four-wheel brakes are used ?
(i) Coefficient of friction = 0T. (ii) Coefficient of friction =0-6.

(a) Rear wheels braked

From (8.14):
/ 0-1.5-5 / _ 0-6.5-5
= 0-0567 = 0-308
9 9-5+0-1.2 g 9-5-|-0-6.2
/= 1-823 ft/s2 . / = 9-93 ft/s2
For uniform retardation S v2/2f,
442 442
S = = 531 ft S = = 97-5 ft
2.1-823 2.9-93
(b) Front wheels braked
From (8.17):
f_ 0-1-4
= 0-043 f= 0-6.4
= 0-289
g 9-5—0-1.2 g 9-5—0-6.2
2
.'. /= 1-383 ft/s / = 9-31 ft/s2
442 442
S = = 700 ft S = = 104 ft
2.1-383 2.9-31
(c) All wheels braked
From (8.19):
flg = p = 0-1, fig = p = o-6,
2
/ = 3-22 ft/s / = 19-32 ft/s2
442 442
S = = 300 ft
2.3-22 •' S = 2.19-32 = 50,1 ft

From (8.22):
TV, 4+0-1.2 A a 4+0-6.2
1
—? = = I .91
U
Nh 9-5—4—0-1.2 ~ Nh 9-5-4—0-6.2
VIII] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 265
114. Dynamometers. A dynamometer is essentially a device
for measuring the forces or couples which tend to change the state
of rest or of uniform motion of a body. There are many kinds of
dynamometers, but reference can only be made to a few of the
types used in measuring the power available from a uniformly re-
volving shaft. Broadly, two main types may be distinguished,
namely, absorption dynamometers and transmission dynamometers.
As the names imply, an absorption dynamometer absorbs the
available power in doing work, usually against friction, whereas a
transmission dynamometer transmits the available power un-
changed, except for the small amount absorbed by friction at the
joints of the dynamometer.
115. Absorption Dynamometers. These generally consist of
some form of brake in which provision is made for measuring the
friction torque on the drum.
(a) The Prony Brake. A simple type, known as the Prony
brake, is shown in Fig. 177. It consists of two blocks of wood,
each of which embraces rather less than one-half of the pulley
rim. The two blocks can be drawn together by means of bolts,
cushioned by springs, so as to increase the pressure on the pulley.
One block carries an arm to the end of which a pull can be applied

by means of a deadweight or spring balance. A second arm

projects from the block in the opposite direction and carries a
balance weight B, which balances the brake when unloaded.
The friction torque on the pulley may be increased by screwing
up the bolts, until it balances the torque due to the available power.
For counter-clockwise rotation of the drum, the arm L will float
between the stops S with a weight W suspended from it. The
torque on the drum is given by Wl and, knowing the speed of
rotation of the pulley, the power absorbed may be calculated.
Wear of the blocks and variations in the coefficient of friction
between the blocks and the pulley rim necessitate continual
9*—T.M.
266 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

tightening of the bolts and render this type of brake unsuitable

either for the absorption of large powers or for long-continued
runs. In any case great care must be exercised to see that the
lever L is always floating between the stops.
An alternative arrangement, which is much better for the
absorption of larger powers, is so to arrange the brake that the
end of the lever L rests on the platform of a weighing machine.

(b) The Rope-brake Dynamometer. This type of brake is gener-

ally much steadier in operation than the Prony brake. It is also
suitable for the absorption of a wider range of powers. In general,
two or more ropes rest on the pulley rim. They are spaced evenly
across the width of the rim by means of three or four wooden
blocks at different points round the rim. The total pull 8 on the
slack ends of the ropes is registered on a spring balance, while the
pull W on the right ends is provided by deadweights. The brake

torque is then given by (W —8)r, where r is the effective radius of

the drum to the rope centre.
An alternative arrangement is to have the two ends of the ropes
attached to a rigid frame, with provision for tightening the ropes
round the drum. The frame rests on the platform of a weighing
machine which registers the net downward force W —8 on the
frame. The two arrangements are shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 178.
Where power has to be absorbed continuously, as in engine
testing, the brake drum should be separate from the flywheel. It
may be either bolted to the flywheel rim or separately keyed to
the crankshaft. In any case provision should be made for water
cooling the rim in order to carry away the heat generated by the
friction. The rim should be of channel section on the inside, so
that cold water may be supplied at one point, carried round the
rim and then removed by some form of scoop. Except for large
VHl] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 267
powers it is unnecessary to provide a scoop; the supply of cold
water may be adjusted so that it just makes good the loss of water
by evaporation. Providing the inside surface of the rim is always
covered by a layer of water, undue heating of the rim will not take
place.
In the author’s experience rope brakes seldom give trouble if
the ropes are well greased with tallow, unless the ropes are too
lightly loaded. It is better to use a higher stress than would be
considered good practice in a rope drive, even though it means
that the initial stretch is high.
(c) The Heenan and Froude Dynamometer. This dynamometer
is very widely used for the absorption of a wide range of powers
and is suitable for a wide range of speeds. It was invented by
William Froude in 1877, and a section is shown in Fig. 179. A
rotor A is keyed to the main shaft, to which the power to be

» FIG. 179

measured is supplied. Surrounding the rotor is a stator fixed to

the outer casing. The main shaft is supported on ball bearings
B in the outer casing, and the outer casing is, in turn, supported
on ball bearings C carried by brackets on the bed-plate. Water
is supplied through a flexible pipe to the branch D. In each face
268 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

of the rotor and in the adjacent faces of the stator there are semi-
oval channels. Each channel is divided into a number of cells
by semi-circular diaphragms, which are set obliquely at an angle
of 45° to the plane of rotation so that the straight edge of the dia-
phragm coincides with the major axis of the oval channel. Water
is conveyed to the cells through the passages F. The arrange-
ment will be clear from the end elevation of the rotor and the
developed circumferential section of the rotor and stator which
are shown in Fig. 180.

The action of the dynamometer may be explained in the fol-

lowing way. When the shaft begins to rotate, the water flows
outwards in the cells on the rotor and inwards in the cells on the
stator, as shown by the arrows, Fig. 180. The speed of circulation
in the vortex increases with the speed of rotation of the shaft.
We may imagine the vortex to consist of a large number of fila-
ments or rings of small cross-section, in each of which the speed of
circulation remains constant. Let oab be the triangle of velocities
at the point where one such filament crosses from the rotor to
the stator. Then, if v is the velocity of circulation and tq is the
tangential velocity of the rotor, the absolute velocity of the water
is represented by oa. This must be reduced to v as the water
vrn] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 269

enters the stator and the reaction on the stator tends to revolve
it in the same sense as the rotor. Similarly, from the triangle of
velocities pcd at inlet to the rotor, it will be seen that the absolute
velocity of the water is suddenly changed from v to that repre-
sented by pc. Again, the reaction on the stator tends to revolve
it in the same sense as the rotor. The torque on the casing is
measured by a deadweight attached to an arm fixed to the casing.
Water is circulated continuously through the brake and the inside
of the brake is always filled with water. The reaction torque on
the casing is reduced by blanking off some of the cells. This is
brought about by sliding two shields E from opposite ends of a
diameter towards the main shaft.
This dynamometer enables the torque on the main shaft to be
very accurately determined. The torque required to overcome
the friction of the glands which prevent leakage between the main
shaft and the outer casing, as well as that required to overcome
the friction of the bearings B, is transmitted to the outer casing
and included in the measured torque. The only torque not
measured is the friction torque of the bearings C between the
outer casing and the frame, and this is very small.
Other advantages are that the resisting torque on the main
shaft may be varied at any time while the shaft is revolving, the
heat generated is carried away by the continuous water circulation,
the space occupied is small and there are no delicate parts or fine
clearances to be maintained; moreover, the dynamometer is
practically silent in operation.

(d) The Swinging-field Dynamometer. This dynamometer con-

sists of an electric generator, the field system of which is mounted
on trunnions so as to be able to revolve freely. The arrangement
is similar to that of the outer casing of the hydraulic dynamometer.
The rotor shaft is coupled to the source of power and when the
rotor revolves the electromagnetic reaction on the field frame
tends to cause rotation of the frame. This rotation is prevented
by the application of a deadweight or a spring balance to an arm
fixed to the field frame. From the measured reaction torque and
the known speed of rotation of the shaft the power supplied can be
calculated. The resisting torque is varied by altering the resistance
in the armature circuit, thus altering the current generated.
Although strictly speaking this is an absorption dynamometer,
the electrical energy generated can be fed back to the supply fines
and usefully employed in fighting, etc. This constitutes one of
the advantages of this type over the hydraulic dynamometer, but
the chief advantage lies in the fact that the generator may be run
as a motor. Thus, when testing high-speed internal-combustion
270 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

engines, motoring tests provide the only satisfactory means of

measuring the friction losses in the engine. With the swinging-
field dynamometer it is possible to measure the power output of
the engine at full throttle and full speed and then, with very little
delay, reverse the electrical connections so that the engine is
motored round at the same speed with the petrol supply cut-off.
In this way, the friction torque is measured under the same condi-
tions of engine temperature as those which obtained during the
full-load test.
The disadvantages of the swinging-field dynamometer are that
it is only suitable for comparatively high speeds and small powers,
and it is much less robust than the hydraulic dynamometer.
For use in the routine testing of engines for motor cars, special
automatic electric dynamometers have been developed. In these
the swinging-field is dispensed with. The dynamometer is first
used as a motor to run-in the engine, and the running-in period
is continued until the friction torque is reduced to a predetermined
figure. The petrol supply is then automatically turned on and
the electrical connections to the dynamometer reversed, so that
the engine is put under load. Finally, the load and speed are
gradually built up until the desired output is obtained.
116. Transmission Dynamometers. This class of dynamometer
is designed in order to allow of the measurement of the power
which is usefully employed by a machine. The general principles
which underlie the design of the various types will be briefly
explained.

(a) The Eyicyclic-tram Dynamometer. A simple epicyclic train

of spur or bevel wheels, arranged as shown in Fig. 181, may be
placed between the source ol power and the machine and used to
measure the power transmitted. Referring to Fig. 181 (a), the
spur wheel A is keyed to the driving shaft and revolves in the
counter-clockwise sense; the internal wheel D is keyed to the
VIII] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 271
driven shaft and revolves in the clockwise sense. The power is
transmitted from A to D through the intermediate wheel C. This
wheel revolves freely on a pin fixed to the arm L and the latter
can pivot freely about the common axis of the driving and the
driven shafts. The tangential effort exerted by the wheel A on
the wheel C and the tangential reaction of the internal wheel D
on the wheel C are obviously equal, if the friction of the pin on
which C revolves is neglected. Also these two forces both act in
the upward direction, so that the total upward force on the arm
L through the axis of wheel C is given by 2F and the correspond-
ing torque on the arm by 2Fa. This torque is balanced by sus-
pending a deadweight W from the arm, which causes the arm to
float between the stops S. The weight B balances the arm when
the dynamometer is at rest. Then 2Fa = Wl or F — Wl/2a, and,
given the radius and the speed of rotation of the wheel A, the
power transmitted may be calculated.
The action of the bevel wheel epicyclic dynamometer, Fig.
181 (b), is similar. Wheels A and D are keyed to the driving and
the driven shafts. The intermediate wheels C revolve freely on
journals on the lever L and the latter pivots freely about the
cdmmon axis of the driving and the driven shafts. If the driving
shaft A revolves counter-clockwise and the driven shaft D clock-
wise and the total tangential force on the driving and the driven
wheels is F, the counter-clockwise torque exerted on the lever
is given by 2Fa. This is balanced by the torque exerted by the
deadweight W at the distance l from the axis of the lever.
Therefore 2Fa = Wl and the torque on the driving shaft
— Fa = Wlj2. Given the speed of rotation of the driving shaft,
the power transmitted may be calculated.

(b) The Belt Transmission Dynamometer. Two different types

of belt transmission dynamometer are illustrated in Fig. 182,
In each the design is such that while the belt is transmitting power,
the difference between the tensions on the tight and slack sides
may be measured. In the Tatham dynamometer, Fig. 182 (a),
an endless belt passes from the driving pulley A over the inter-
mediate pulleys C, Cq to the driven pulley D. The driving and
driven pulleys revolve about fixed axes, but the intermediate
pulleys revolve on pins fixed to the lever L, which, in turn, pivots
about the fulcrum E on the fixed frame. If the driving pulley A
revolves counter-clockwise, the tight and slack sides of the belt
are as shown. The total downward forces on the pins of wheels
C and C] are respectively 2Tx and 2T2 and the net counter-
clockwise moment on the lever L is 2(Tl—T2)a. This is balanced
by suspending a known weight W from the lever at a distance l
272 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

from the fulcrum. Then 2(T\ — T2)a = Wl and the effective

tension is given by:
Tl-T2 = Wl/2a
This, multiplied by the belt speed, gives the power transmitted
from pulley A to pulley D. The power may of course be trans-
mitted through the dynamometer in the opposite direction, i.e.
from pulley D to pulley A.
The Von-Hefner Alteneck transmission dynamometer, Fig.
182 (b), is generally used on a horizontal drive. As before, the
power is transmitted from A to D or from D to A. The driving
belt passes over two jockey pulleys, C, and is arranged with the
bottom side as the driving or tight side. The jockey pulleys ride
loosely on pins fixed to a triangular-shaped frame, which is free
to turn about a fixed axis through Q on the line of centres of the
pulleys A and D. The net downward force on the jockey pulleys

caused by the difference between the belt tensions is transmitted

to one end of the lever L, which pivots about the fixed fulcrum F,
and is balanced by a deadweight W. The dynamometer is adjusted
so that the lever floats midway between the stops S when the
jockey pulley centres are equidistant from the line of centres of
the main pulleys A and D. The balance weight B eliminates the
effect of the deadweight of the frame, the jockey pulleys and the
lever. The pulleys A and D are usually of equal size and the four
straight portions of the belt are equally inclined at the angle a to
the line of centres of A and D.
The downward force on the pulley C, due to the tension in
the tight side of the belt = 2TX sin a.
Similarly, the upward force on the pulley C1} due to the tension
T2 in the slack side of the belt = 2 T2 sin a.
Therefore the net downward force transmitted to the lever
VIII] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 273
= P = 2(Tl — T2) sin a, and, taking moments about the fulcrum
of the lever, Pa — Wl, so that
Tl-T2 = Wl/‘2a8ma . . . (8.24)
This enables the effective tension on the belt to be determined and
the power transmitted is then easily calculated.
(c) Torsion Dynamometers. A number of dynamometers make
use of the elastic deformation of a steel shaft or spring in order to
measure the torque transmitted. They have been developed
principally in order to meet the need for measuring large powers,
such as the power transmitted along the propeller shaft of a turbine
or motor vessel.
When power is transmitted along a shaft, the driving end twists
through a small angle relative to the driven end. Tlie angle of
twist in radians is given by:
6 = fJC.l/r (8.25)
where /8 is the shear stress at the surface of the shaft, G is the
modulus of rigidity of the shaft material l is the length of the
shaft and r is the external radius of the shaft
But the shear stress /8 is directly proportional to the torque
transmitted and is given by:
f, = Tr/J (8.26)
where T is the applied torque and J is the polar second moment of
area of the shaft cross-section. For a solid shaft J = nr412 and
for a hollow shaft J = 7r(r4—r,4)/2, where r, is the internal radius.
Substituting for f3 from (8.25) in (8.26), we get
e = TlJCJ or T = 8.CJ /I . . (8.27)
Hence, for a given shaft, the torque transmitted is directly
proportional to the angle of twist and if the angle ot twist can be
measured the corresponding torque may be calculated.
For steel C is 5300 tons/in2 and the mean shear stress at the
surface of the shaft when transmitting full power will not usually
exceed 2-5 to 3 tons/in2. Hence, substituting in (8.25),
6 = 2-5/5300 J/r rad = 0-027 J/r deg.
It will be seen that, in order to get an angle of twist of only one
degree, the length of shaft between the measuring points must be
approximately 40 times the radius or 20 times the diametei of the
shaft. Hence, if the angle of twist is to be measured directly a
long length of shaft must be available. In practice the angle of
twist usually has to be measured over a comparatively short
274 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

length of shaft and some form of amplifying device must be in-

corporated in the dynamometer. The essential features of four
different torsion dynamometers are briefly described below
(i) The Bevis-Oibson Flash-light Dynamometer: Fig. 183. Two
discs A and B are fixed to the shaft at points as far apart as
'possible. Each disc has a narrow radial slot and the two slots
are in line when there is no torque transmitted along the shaft.

Fio. 183

Behind one disc A a powerful electric lamp i3 fixed to a bearing

cap or other support. This lamp is masked so as to throw a narrow
pencil of light parallel to the axis of the shaft and at the same
distance from the axis as the radial slots in the discs A and B.
Behind the disc B an eyepiece is supported on a fixed bracket,
but by means of a vernier adjustment the eyepiece may be moved
along an arc concentric with axis of the shaft.
With the shaft at rest the eyepiece is adjusted so as to receive
the narrow pencil of light which passes from
the lamp through the slots in the two discs.
When the shaft revolves without transmit-
ting torque a flash will be received in the
eyepiece once per revolution; at high speeds,
of course, the observer will not be able to
distinguish the individual flashes. But, when
the shaft is revolving and transmitting
torque, the twist of the shaft between the
discs A and B will cause one slot to lag
behind the other and it will be necessary to
displace the eyepiece along the circular arc, by means of the
vernier, before the pencil of light which passes through the slots
again enters the eyepiece. The vernier is provided with a scale
so that the angular displacement of the eyepiece and therefore the
angle of twist of the shaft may be measured.
Where a uniform torque is transmitted, it is sufficient to measure
the angle of twist at a single angular position of the shaft. But
VIII] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 275
where the torque varies it is necessary to measure the angle of
twist at several different angular positions of the shaft. To do
this, the discs A and B are provided with short radial slots
arranged in spiral form as shown in Fig. 184. The lamp and eye-
piece must then be moved radially so as to bring them in turn
into line with the corresponding pair of slots in A and B. With
twelve slots arranged as shown the angle of twist may be found
for angular intervals of 30°.
(ii) The Fottinger Dynamometer: Fig. 185. This incorporates
a purely mechanical contrivance for amplifying the relative
angular displacement of two sections of the shaft. The disc A
is fixed directly to the shaft, while the disc C is fixed to a stiff tube
coaxial with the shaft and secured to the shaft at a point B distant l
from A. When the shaft is transmitting power, the relative
angular displacement of the discs A and C will be equal to the

angle of twist of the length l of the shaft. This angular displace-

ment is amplified by the system of levers shown and the pencil
P traces out a wavy line on a sheet of paper wrapped round the
drum D which is coaxial with the shaft. The magnitude of the
torque will be proportional to the curved ordinate EF of the wavy
line, where F lies on the line traced by P when no power is trans-
mitted by the shaft.
(iii) The Hopkmson- Tbring Dynamometer: Fig 186. This
dynamometer makes use of an optieaj method ol amplifying the
relative angular displacement of the discs A and C. A small
mirror is supported on the dise A so as to pivot about a -'adial
axis. A short arm fixed to the mirror is held lightly against a
projection on the disc C b\ means of a spring. A beam of light
from a lamp L is reflected from the mirror on to a graduated scale
once per revolution of the shaft When the shaft is at rest, the
276 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

mirror is adjusted so that the hair line on the spot of reflected

light coincides with the zero of the scale. Then, when the shaft
is transmitting power, the relative angular displacement of the

FIG. 186

discs A and C tilts the mirror on its axis and deflects the ray of
light so that it strikes the graduated scale at a distance S from the
zero mark, as shown by the dotted line.

FIG. 187

(iv) The Moullin Dynamometer: Fig. 187. An electrical

method of measuring the angle of twist is used in this dynamo-
meter. This has the advantage that the recording instrument
may be situated at a considerable distance from the dynamometer
vm] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 277
itself. The twist of the shaft varies the self-inductance of a coil
which is supplied with alternating current. The strength of the
current which flows through the coil thus varies with the twist of
the shaft and therefore with the torque.
There are actually two laminated cores which are mounted at
opposite ends of a diameter of the shaft. The cores are split,
one half D being fixed to the disc A while the other E is fixed to
the end of the sleeve S. Between the two halves of each core
there is an air gap of approximately one millimetre when the shaft
is transmitting no torque. Each coil is wound on a former fixed
to the part D of the core and is supplied with current from a small
alternator which is driven either from the shaft or by a small
electric motor. The current is led to and from the coils by means
of brushes which make contact with slip rings R mounted on, but
insulated from, the disc A. When power is transmitted the twist
of the shaft tends either to increase or to decrease the air gaps.
This varies the self-inductance of the coils and the strength of the
current which flows through them. The ammeter scale may be
calibrated so as to indicate directly the torque transmitted.

EXAMPLES VIII

1. Show how the direction of the reaction between the shoe and the drum of a
simple block brake may be found when (a) the shoe is rigidly attached to the
hanger, (b) the shoe is pivoted to the hanger.

2. The dimensions of a block brake of the type shown in Fig. 170 (a) are as follows.
The diameter of the brake drum is 27 in., the distance between the pins O and C
is 15 in., and that between the pins O and H is 40 in.; the perpendicular distance
of the brake hangar OCH from the axis of the drum is 15 in. and the coefficient
of friction between the block and the drum is 0-35. What force P must be applied
through the pin H in order to provide a braking torque of 100 lb ft on the
drum ?

3. If the brake shoe is rigidly attached to the hanger, as in Fig. 170 (b), and
subtends an angle of 80° at the drum centre Q, but otherwise the dimensions are
the same as in Question 2, find the applied force P. What is the value of P if
the shoe material is assumed to obey Hooke’s law ?

4. Fig. 188 shows in outline a brake mechanism. The load W acting at A

through the simple lever operates the upper bell-crank and applies the brake;
an upward movement of A slackens the brake. The lengths in inches of certain
of the links are given. The brake pulley is 16 ft in diameter and experiences a
maximum torque of 408 000 lb ft when the brake is applied. Taking a value
of 0-3 for n, determine (a) a suitable value for the weight W, and (b) each of the
side forces on the brake drum. Neglecting the effect of the tangential forces on
the brake, calculate the force in the link BC. W.S.
278 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

5. The brake for a winding engine is arranged as shown in Fig. 189. The dis-
tance between the fixed pivots O and E of the brake hangers is equal to the
diameter of the brake drum. The shoes are rigidly attached to the brake hangers
and each subtends an angle of 70° at the drum centre. For the given dimensions
and assuming /i = 0-3, find the load W required in order to provide a braking
torque of 25 ton ft.
6. If the shoes of the brake in Question 5 are pivoted to the hangers at the
points marked C and F in Fig. 189, find the value of W for the same braking torque.
Also find the direction and magnitude of the reaction at each of the pin-joints
O, C, D, H, G, F and E.

FIG. 189
vin] BRAKES AND DYNAMOMETERS 279
7. The arrangement of the transmission brake on a certain car is shown diagram-
matically in Fig. 190. The shoes are pivoted at O and C and are brought into
contact with the drum by rotating the shaft AB. The ends of this shaft are
screwed right and left-handed and work in nuts in the ends of the shoes. The
hand lever which rotates the shaft is 15 in. long from the point of application of
the effort to the axis of the shaft. The mean
diameter of the screwed ends of the shaft is § in.
and there are six threads with a lead of 2\ in.
If fx for the brake blocks is 0-30 and for the
screws and nuts is 0-15, find the braking torque
applied to the drum when the effort applied to
the hand lever is 25 lb.
8. The dimensions of an internal expanding
brake, similar to that shown in Fig. 173, are:
diameter of drum, 11 in.; the angle subtended by
each shoe at the drum centre, 90°; the distance
between the fulcrum centres, 3 in.; the distances
of the fulcrum centres and of the cam axis from
the drum centre 4£ in.; the difference between l
and lx 1-25 in. and the distance of the line of
action of P from the axis of the cam 4 in. Neg-
lecting the pull of the releasing spring S, find the
braking torque on the drum when P is 150 lb.
H = 0-3.
9. A simple band brake is operated by a lever
20 in. long. The brake drum is 20 in. dia. and
the brake band embraces five-eighths of its cir-
cumference. One end of the band is attached to
the fulcrum of the lever, while the other is at-
tached to a pin on the lever 4 in. from the fulcrum. If the coefficient of friction
is 0-25 and the effort applied to the end of the brake lever is 100 lb, what is the
maximum braking torque on the drum ?
10. In a crab or winch the rope supports a load IF and is wound round a barrel
18 in. dia. A differential band brake acts on a dram 30 in. dia. which is keyed to
the same shaft as the barrel. The two ends of the bands are attached to pins on
opposite sides of the fulcrum of the brake lever and at distances of 1 in. and 4 in.
from the fulcrum. The angle of lap of the brake band is 240° and /i is 0-25.
What is the maximum load IF which can be supported by the brake when a force
of 100 lb is applied to the lever at a distance of 36 in. from the fulcrum?
11. The drum of a band-and-block brake is 3 ft dia. and there are 14 blocks,
each of which subtends an angle of 15° at the drum centre. One end of the band
is attached to the fulcrum of the brake lever and the other to a pin 5 in. from the
fulcrum. If the torque applied to the drum is to be 2000 lb ft, what effort must
be applied to the brake lever at a point 30 in. from the fulcrum ? Assume n — 0-25.

12. If in Question 11 the end of the band instead of being attached to the
fulcrum is attached to a pin on the brake lever 1-5 in. from the fulcrum, what
effort would be required in order to give the same torque on the drum ?

13. A lorry has a 10-ft 6-in. wheelbase and the c.g. is 4 ft 3 in. in front of the
rear axle and 3 ft above ground level. The coefficient of adhesion between tyre
and road surface is 0-6 and brakes are applied to the rear wheels only. What is
the minimum distance in which the lorry can be pulled up when travelling at
20 m.p.h. ? What proportion of the total weight is carried by the front and the
rear wheels during retardation ?
14. An electric car travelling along a level track at 18 m.p.h. has the power
cut off and brakes applied to bring it to rest. Its centre of gravity is midway
between the wheels and 3 ft above the rail level. The wheelbase is 10 ft and the
coefficient of friction between wheel and rail is 0T5. Find the minimum distance
280 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP, VIII

travelled by the car before coming to rest if the brakes are applied (a) to the
rear wheels only, (b) to all four wheels. M.U.

15. The wheelbase of a motor-cycle is 4 ft 3 in. and the centre of gravity is

2 ft above ground level and 2 ft 3 in. from the front axle. If the coefficient of
friction between tyre and road is 0-6 (and the rear wheel only is braked) find the
maximum retardation. What is the distance travelled before coming to rest
from a speed of 30 m.p.h., when the motor-cycle is travelling (a) along a level
road, (b) up an incline of 1 in 15, (c) down an incline of 1 in 15?

16. The wheelbase of a car is 9 ft and the c.g. is 4 ft from the rear axle and
2 ft 9 in. above the ground level. Find the maximum possible acceleration of
the car when the coefficient of friction between tyre and road is 0-5 and (a) the
drive is through the front wheels, (b) the drive is through the rear wheels.
What are the corresponding values of the acceleration when fi is only 0-2 ?

17. Sketch and describe one form of transmission dynamometer. State

clearly what dimensions and measurements would have to be taken and explain
how the power transmitted may be calculated.

18. An epicyclic gear dynamometer of the type shown in Fig. 181 (a) transmits
power from the wheel A to the wheel D. The wheel A has 30 teeth and the
wheel D has 80 teeth. The diametral pitch of the teeth is 5 and the length l of
the arm is 3 ft. When the wheel A makes 500 r.p.m., it is found that W must
be 160 lb. What is the h.p. transmitted?

19. The pulleys A and D of a belt transmission dynamometer similar to that

shown in Fig. 182 (a) are respectively 40 in. and 15 in. dia. The belt is f in. thick
and the length l of the arm is 42 in. If the h.p. transmitted from D to A is 20
when the pulley D makes 600 r.p.m., what is the value of the load W ?

20. The two pulleys A and D of a dynamometer of the type shown in Fig. 182 (b)
have each a diameter of 3 ft and the distance between the shaft centres is 8 ft.
The jockey pulleys have each a diameter of 1 ft. The distance between their
centres is 18 in., and the thickness of the belt is f in. The arms a and l of the
lever are respectively 12 in. and 72 in. long. The load W required in order to
balance the lever, when the belt transmits power from A to D and the speed of
A is 300 r.p.m., is 77-5 lb. Calculate the h.p. transmitted.

21. Describe with sketches one form of torsion dynamometer and explain in
detail the calculations involved in finding the h.p. transmitted. How would you
proceed to calibrate the dynamometer?
 CHAPTER IX

CAMS

117. Types of Cams. A cam is a reciprocating, oscillating, or

rotating body which imparts reciprocating or oscillating motion to
a second body, called the follower, with which it is in contact. The
shape of the cam depends upon its own motion, the motion which
is to be imparted to the follower, and the shape of the contact sur-
face of the follower. There are many different types of cams, some
of which are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 191. It will be seen
that the follower usually has line contact with the cam, so that

the two bodies cam and follower constitute a higher pair. With
few exceptions the motion of the follower is only determined
positively by the cam during a part of each stroke, while during
the rest of the stroke contact between the cam and the follower
has to be maintained by an external force. The external force
is frequently provided by a spring, although sometimes the weight
of the follower itself is sufficient. In this connection it should be
noticed that the cam does not, as would at first sight appear,
determine positively the motion of the follower during the whole of
281
282 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

its outstroke. Actually, owing to the inertia of the follower, it is

during the first part of the outstroke and the latter part of the
return or instroke that the motion of the follower is positively
controlled by the cam.
Cams may be classified according to the direction of the dis-
placement of the follower with respect to the axis of oscillation or
of rotation of the cam. The two most important types are:
(a) Radial or disc cams, in which the working surface of the
cam is so shaped that the follower reciprocates or oscillates
in a plane at right angles to the axis of the cam. Ex-
amples (c) to (f) in Fig. 191 are radial cams.
(b) Cylindrical cams, in which the follower reciprocates or
oscillates in a plane parallel to the axis of the cam, e.g.
(g) and (h) in Fig. 191.
Since by far the greater number of cams used in practice belong
to class (a), the following discussion will be limited to cams of
this type.
118. Types of Followers. As already pointed out, followers
have either reciprocating or oscillating motion. They may be
further sub-divided according to the shape of that part of the
follower which is in contact with the cam. Three possible shapes
are shown at (a), (b) and (c), Fig. 192. They are the knife-edge
follower, the roller follower and the flat or mushroom follower.
Of these the knife-edge follower is not often used owing to the

FIG. 192

rapid rate at which the knife-edge wears. The roller follower

possesses the advantage that to a large extent a rolling motion
between the contact surfaces is substituted for the sliding motion
between the knife-edge and the cam. Note that sliding is not
entirely eliminated, since the inertia of the roller prevents it from
responding instantaneously to the changes of angular velocity
required by the varying peripheral speed of the cam. Both the
IX] CAMS 283
knife-edge and the roller followers give rise to considerable side
thrust between the follower and the guide. The fiat or mush-
room follower has the advantage that the only side thrust on the
guide is that due to friction between the contact surfaces of the
cam and the follower. The relative motion between these sur-
faces is largely one of sliding, but wear may be diminished by off-
setting the axis of the follower as shown in the figure, so that, as
the cam rotates, the follower is also caused to rotate about its
own axis. Where space is limited, as for instance in the cams
which operate the valves of automobile engines, the flat-faced
follower is generally used in preference to the roller follower
because of the small diameter of the pin that would have to be
used for the latter. In stationary gas and oil engines, however,
where more space is available, the roller follower is preferred.
Occasionally for automobile engines the end of the follower, in-
stead of being flat, is machined to a curved surface as shown in
Fig. 192 (d). It is then equivalent to a roller of diameter d, so
far as the relative displacements of the cam and the follower are
concerned. Theoretically, there is no limit imposed on the shape
of the cam working surface when a knife-edged follower is used,
but with a roller follower any concave portions of the working
surface must have a radius at least equal to the radius of the roller,
while with a flat follower it is clearly necessary for the working
surface of the cam to be everywhere convex.
119. Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration-time Curves. The
cam usually rotates at uniform speed, so that equal angular dis-
placements take place in equal intervals of time. On the other

B, c,
\ .*1 K

/ \ B C D
$
E
Outstroke Dwell Instroke Dwell

One Reu olutio n of the Cam

(a)

hand, the follower is required to start from rest at the beginning of

each stroke and to come to rest again at the end of each stroke, so
that its velocity must be variable. It is also frequently necessary
284 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

for the follower to remain at rest during part of the rotation

of the cam. The periods of cam rotation during which the fol-
lower remains at rest are known as periods of dwell. A diagram
may be drawn, as in Fig. 193 (a), to represent the relationship
between the displacement of the follower and the angular dis-
placement of the cam. In this diagram AE represents one
revolution of the cam; it is divided at B, C and D, so that AB,
BC, CD and DE represent in order the angular displacements of
the cam during the outstroke of the follower, during the period
of dwell at the end of the outstroke, during the instroke and
during the period of dwell at the end of the instroke.
Suppose that a reciprocating knife-edge follower of the type
shown in Fig. 192 (a) is used and that the line of stroke passes
through the axis of the cam. Then the radial lines OA, OB, OC
and OD may be set off as shown in Fig. 193 (b), where angle
AOB is the angular displacement of the cam which corresponds to
AB on the displacement diagram and angles BOC, COD and DOA
are respectively the angular displacements which correspond to
BC, CD and DE on the displacement diagram. The base circle
radius OA of the cam is fixed from practical considerations, the
difference between OB and OBj must clearly be equal to the
follower stroke and the parts BjCq and DA of the cam profile must
be concentric arcs struck from the centre 0. Each of the parts
ABj and CXD of the dam profile may have any one of an infinite
number of different shapes, two of which are shown dotted in Fig.
193. For instance, the shapes may be arbitrarily fixed and the
nature of the corresponding follower motion derived from them,
or, alternatively, the nature of the follower motion may be
decided upon and the corresponding shapes of the parts ABr and
CjD derived. The advantage of fixing arbitrarily the shape
of the cam profile is that the cam may be more accurately manu-
factured, since the profile may consist entirely of circular arcs, or
of circular arcs and straight lines. Before considering the nature
of the follower motion derived from such cams, it will be con-
venient to consider a few of the simpler conditions which may be
laid down to govern the motion of the follower. Thus, for
instance, it may be specified that the displacement of the follower
is to take place with (a) uniform velocity, (b) simple harmonic
motion or (c) uniform acceleration and retardation.

(a) Uniform Velocity. If the velocity of the follower is to be

uniform during the outstroke, the slope of the displacement curve
must be constant, i.e. AB1} Fig. 194 (a), must be a straight line.
Similarly, if the velocity is to be uniform during the return stroke,
the curve CjD on the displacement diagram must be a straight
IX] CAMS 285
line. The velocity diagram will then be as shown. These condi-
tions are, however, impracticable, since the acceleration and
retardation of the follower at the beginning and at the end of each
stroke would require to be infinitely high. It is therefore neces-
sary to modify the conditions which govern the follower motion,
so that the acceleration and retardation are reduced to finite
proportions. This may be done by rounding off the sharp corners
at A, B1} Cx and D on the displacement diagram, so that the
velocity of the follower increases gradually to its maximum value
at the beginning of each stroke and decreases gradually to zero

CO

FIG. 194

at the end of each stroke. The modified displacement, velocity

and acceleration diagrams are shown in Tig. 194 (b). In drawing
these diagrams it has been assumed that the follower is accelerated
or retarded uniformly. The follower motion takes place with
uniform velocity, except for short periods at the beginning and at
the end of each stroke. During these periods the acceleration of
the follower is high, and will clearly be higher the shorter the
period of cam rotation allowed for the increase or decrease of
speed. The rounded corners of the displacement diagram are
parabolic arcs.

(b) Simple Harmonic Motion. The displacement of the fol-

lower is identical with that which would be given by a uniformly
rotating crank to which the follower is connected by an infinitely
long connecting rod. The angles through which the cam rotates
during the two strokes of the follower and during the periods of
dwell are assumed to be the same as in Fig. 194. The displace-
ment diagram, Fig. 195 (a), may be constructed by first drawing
a semicircle on the follower stroke as diameter. This semicircle
286 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

is divided into any convenient number of equal parts—eight in

the present example. The angles through which the cam rotates
during the outward and inward strokes of the follower are divided
into the same number of equal parts. Points on the displace-
ment diagram are then obtained by projecting across as indicated
in the figure. The complete displacement curve is given by
AB^DE. The velocity and acceleration diagrams corresponding
to the displacement diagram of Fig. 195 (a) are shown at (b) and

Bi C,

(c) on the same figure. Since the follower motion is s mple-

harmonic, the velocity curve is a sine curve and the acceleration
curve is a cosine curve. The velocity of the follower is zero at
the beginning and at the end of its stroke and increases gradually
to a maximum at mid-stroke. On the other hand, the accelera-
tion of the follower is a maximum at the ends of the stroke and
diminishes to zero at mid-stroke.
Let S = stroke of the follower,
d0 = the angle through which the cam rotates during the
outstroke of the follower
and to = the angular velocity of the cam.
Then the time required for the outstroke of the follower

to
The point which defines the S.H.M. therefore moves at uniform
ix] CAMS 287
speed round the circumference of a circle of diameter S in time 210
sec.
peripheral speed = 7rS/2t0 — 7TO>/60.S/2 (9.1)
maximum velocity of the follower on the outward stroke
= vQ = 7TOj/eo.S/2 .... (9.2)
Also the centripetal acceleration of the point which defines the
S.H.M. = v2.2 /S = TT2OO2/902.S/2
.*. maximum acceleration of the follower on the outstroke
= f0=7r*<o*/9*.S/2 .... (9.3)
Similarly, on the return stroke the maximum velocity and
acceleration of the follower will be given by:
vT — 7Ta>J6j..Sj2 and /r = TT2OJ2J9i2 .S/2
where 9V is the angle through which the cam turns during the
return stroke of the follower.
a rq p o

(c) Uniform Acceleration. Since the displacement of the fol-

lower has to take place in a definite time, it is clear that the
acceleration of the follower will have a minimum value when the
first half of the displacement takes place with uniform acceleration
and the second half of the displacement takes place with an equal
uniform retardation. In these circumstances the maximum
inertia force of the follower will have its lowest possible value. It
is for this reason that the uniform acceleration curve is frequently
used. Such a displacement curve is shown in Fig. 196 (a). It
288 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

may be constructed as follows. The angle througli which the cam

rotates during the outward stroke of the follower is divided into
an even number of equal parts—eight in the present example.
These correspond to equal time intervals; during the first four
intervals the follower is accelerated and during the second four it
is retarded. For uniformly accelerated motion the displacement
varies directly as the square of the time, so that the total displace-
ments of the follower at the end of the first four intervals of time
are in the proportion l2, 22, 32, 42 or 1, 4, 9, 16. If, therefore, the
half-stroke of the follower is divided into 16 equal parts, the points
1, 4, 9 and 16 may be projected across to the corresponding time
ordinates. The points thus obtained may be joined by a smooth
curve in order to give the displacement-time curve for the follower
during the first half of the outward stroke. An alternative
construction is given for the second half of the displacement
curve on the outstroke. The distances oa and ae are each divided
into four equal parts. The point of intersection of the line ob
with the vertical through p gives one point on the displacement
curve; the point of intersection of oc with the vertical through q
gives a second point on the curve and so on. Similarly, the dis-
placement-time curves may be drawn for the second half of the
outward stroke and for the return stroke. The complete diagram
is shown in Fig. 196 (a). Since the acceleration and retardation
are uniform, the velocity varies directly with the time. The
velocity-time curve is shown at (b) and the acceleration-time curve
at (c). Using the same symbols as for the follower with simple
harmonic motion, the acceleration and the maximum velocity of
the follower on the outward stroke may be found.
Obviously the maximum velocity of the follower is equal to
twice the mean velocity and, since the mean velocity is given by
SJt0, where t0 — OJoo, the maximum velocity is given by:
v0 = 2S/t0 = 2coS/60 .... (9.4)

But this velocity is reached after a time tj2,

the acceleration of the follower

fo = 2^oAo = 2<oSJ9o.2a>l0o = 4a,2£/0o2 . (9.5)

Similar expressions will apply to the maximum velocity and the
acceleration of the follower on the return stroke; the only change
necessary is the substitution of 6T for 60.
One modification of the uniform acceleration displacement
curve may be noted. It is widely used in the design of cams
for operating the valves of internal-combustion engines. Two
desirable conditions for such cams are: (a) that they should open
IX] CAMS 289
and close the valves as quickly as possible so as to provide a free
flow of the gases to and from the cylinder, and (b) that they should
require as small an external force as possible to maintain contact
between the cam and the follower during the later part of the
outward stroke and the early part of the return stroke. It is
clear that, in order to satisfy the first condition, the acceleration
of the follower on the outward stroke should be as high as possible;
while, in order to satisfy the second condition, the retardation of
the follower on the outward stroke should be as low as possible.
On the return stroke the conditions are reversed—the acceleration
should be low and the retardation high. But the acceleration of
the follower on the outward stroke and the retardation on the
return stroke are controlled positively by the cam and an increase

of magnitude simply involves an increase in the pressure between

the contact surfaces of the cam and the follower. On the other
hand, the retardation of the follower on the outward stroke and
the acceleration on the return stroke are only controlled by the
cam, if the external force exerted on the follower by the spring,
or by the deadweight, is greater than the inertia force of the fol-
lower. The cam may, therefore, with advantage be designed so
as to provide an acceleration on the outward stroke that is con-
siderably greater than the retardation on the outward stroke.
The corresponding displacement-time curve may be drawn in a
similar way to that already described for the follower in which the
acceleration and retardation are of equal magnitude, the only
10—T.M.
290 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

difference being that the periods of acceleration and of retardation

are no longer equal. If, for instance, during the outward stroke
the acceleration is k times the retardation, it is easily seen that
the maximum velocity of the follower is twice the mean velocity
whatever may be the value of k. But the duration of the accelera-
tion period is clearly only 1 /k times the duration of the retardation
period and similarly the displacement of the follower during the
acceleration period is only l/k times the displacement of the fol-
lower during the retardation period. In Fig. 197 the displacement,
velocity and acceleration-time curves have been drawn for a
follower in which k is equal to 2.
It should be noted that Figs. 195, 196 and 197 are all drawn to
the same scale and may therefore be directly compared.
It is, of course, possible for the displacement of the follower to
take place under entirely different conditions on the outward
and on the return strokes, but, if the required conditions are given,
the complete displacement-time curve for the follower may be
drawn. This curve may be used, as explained in the following
article, in order to set out the profile of the cam.

120. The Cam Profile. When the displacement-time diagram

has been drawn to correspond with the desired motion of the
follower, the shape of the cam profile may be set out. This is
most conveniently done by reversing the actual conditions and
imagining the cam to remain fixed while the fine of stroke of the
follower revolves round the cam in the opposite sense to that
in which the cam actually turns on its own axis. The profile
of the contact surface of the follower is drawn in the correct
position for each successive angular position of the fine of stroke
and the profile of the working surface of the cam is drawn so as
to touch the successive positions of the follower.
One or two simple examples will make the procedure clear.
Example 1. Cam with Knife-edge Reciprocating Follower. A
cam rotating clockwise at a uniform speed is required to give a
knife-edge follower the motion defined below:
(i) Follower to move outwards through a distance of 1 in.
during 120° of cam rotation.
(ii) Follower to dwell for 60° of cam rotation.
(iii) Follower to return to its initial position during 90° of cam
rotation.
(iv) Follower to dwell for the remaining 90° of cam rotation.
The minimum radius of the cam is 2 in., the line of stroke of the
follower is offset £ in. from the axis of the cam and the displacement
IX] CAMS 291
of the follower is to take place with uniform and equal acceleration
and retardation on both the outward and the return strokes.
The first step is to draw the displacement-time curve as shown
in Fig. 198 (a). In this diagram it is convenient to represent the

displacement of the follower to the same scale as that to which the

profile of the cam is to be drawn. The time scale or the scale for
the angular displacement of the cam may be chosen quite arbi-
trarily. Since the acceleration and retardation are uniform, the
292 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

displacement curves for the outward and return strokes consist

of parabolic arcs. These may be drawn by the usual geometrical
construction. The angles through which the cam rotates during
each stroke are divided into an even number of equal parts—
eight in the present example. The corresponding ordinates are
drawn and the foot of each ordinate is marked a, b, etc.
The next step is to draw a circle with centre O and radius equal
to the minimum radius of the cam. The line of stroke of the
follower is next drawn and cuts this circle at the point A. In
Fig. 198 the line of stroke is shown offset to the right of the cam-
shaft axis 0; the action of the cam would, in fact, be smoother
if the offset were to the left. The radii OK, OL and OT are
then drawn at successive angular intervals of 120°, 60° and 90°
in the counter-clockwise sense starting from OA. The arcs AK
and LT are each divided into eight equal parts and through each
of the points thus obtained a line is drawn tangential to the circle
with centre 0 and radius equal to the offset of the line of stroke.
As the line of stroke of the follower revolves in the counter-
clockwise sense round the stationary cam, it is clear that it must
remain tangential to this circle. Along the successive positions
of the line of stroke are set off the displacements of the follower
as measured from the corresponding ordinates of the displacement-
time diagram, e.g. xf and xq are equal respectively to the ordinates
of the displacement diagram through f and q. A smooth curve
drawn through the points obtained in this way will give the
required profile of the cam. The maximum velocity of the fol-
lower may be calculated from equation (9.4). Thus, if the cam
rotates at a speed of 1000 r.p.m., the maximum velocity of the
follower on the outward stroke is given by:
2a)S 277.100 1 3
v
o~ — = Z~-T2'2^= ’
8 33 ft/s

and the maximum velocity on the return stroke by:

vT = 2a)S/6r = 11-11 ft/s
The uniform acceleration and retardation on the outward stroke
is given by (9.5):
fo = 4aj2£/0o2 = 833 ft/s2

and, on the return stroke, by:

ft = lajZSJd;2 = 1482 ft/s2
Example 2. Cam with Roller Reciprocating Follower. When the
reciprocating follower is fitted with a roller in order to reduce
ix] CAMS 293
friction and wear, the displacement of the follower is determined
by the displacement of the roller centre. The path of the roller
centre relative to the cam may be determined in exactly the same
way as for the knife-edge follower, except that OA must be the
minimum distance of the roller centre from the axis of the cam
and not the minimum radius of the cam. In other words, OA
must be equal to the sum of the radius of the roller and the mini-
mum radius of the cam. The successive positions of the roller
centre having been determined, the corresponding roller profiles
are drawn in and the required shape of the cam profile is obtained
by drawing a smooth curve to touch the successive positions of the
roller profile. If, for instance, the follower in the last example is
fitted with a roller of 2| in. dia. and the minimum radius of the
cam is f in., the minimum distance of the roller centre from the
axis of the cam is 2 in. and the path of the roller centre relative
to the cam is therefore identical with that of the knife-edge
follower. The shape of the cam profile is shown by the dotted
line in Tig. 198.
Example 3. Cam with Roller Oscillating Follower. It is required
to set out the profile of a cam to give the following motion to an
oscillating follower:
(i) Follower to move outwards through an angular displace-
ment of 15° during 90° of cam rotation.
(ii) Follower to dwell for 45° of cam rotation.
(iii) Follower to return to its initial position during 75° of cam
rotation.
(iv) Follower to dwell during the remaining 150° of cam
rotation.
The pivot of the oscillating follower is 4| in. from the axis of
rotation of the cam, the distance between the pivot centre and the
roller centre is 4 in., the roller is 1| in. dia. and the minimum
radius of the cam is 2 in. The outward stroke of the follower is to
take place with simple harmonic motion and the return stroke
with uniform acceleration and retardation, the retardation being
double the acceleration.
With an oscillating follower the displacement of the roller centre
takes place along a circular arc and the length of the circular arc
should strictly be used in setting out the displacement-time curve.
However, where the angular displacement of the follower is small,
the length of the chord may be used instead of the length of the
arc without serious error. In the present example the length of
the arc is 1-047 in. and the length of the chord is 2.4 sin 7|°
= 1 -044 in.
294 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The complete displacement-time curve is shown in Fig. 199 (a).

The angle through which the cam turns on the outward stroke is
divided into eight equal parts and the displacement curve for
simple harmonic motion is drawn in the usual way. During the
return stroke, since the acceleration is to be one-half the retarda-
tion, two-thirds of the stroke must take place in two-thirds of the
total time available with uniform acceleration and one-third of
the stroke in one-third of the time with uniform retardation. In

0° °
90 135° 210° 360°

the figure the angle of cam rotation during which acceleration

of the follower takes place on the return stroke is divided into
four equal parts, while the angle of cam rotation during which
retardation takes place is divided into three equal parts. The
parabolic arcs are drawn in the usual way.
In order to set out the profile of the cam, a circle is first drawn
with centre 0 and radius equal to the minimum radius of the cam.
The initial positions A and Ar of the roller centre and the pivot
centre are then marked off and circles are drawn with 0 as centre
M CAMS 295
and OA and OAj as radii. Assuming that the cam is to rotate
clockwise, the line which joins the follower pivot and the cam
centre must be turned counter-clockwise about the fixed cam
when setting out the profile. From OA! set off in succession
angles of 90°, 45° and 75° to give the positions and Tx of
the follower pivot at the end of the outward stroke, at the begin-
ning of the return stroke and at the end of the return stroke
respectively. The arcs AjK^ and LJTJ are then divided into the
same number of parts and at the same proportionate intervals as
the corresponding parts of the displacement-time curve.
With each of the points thus obtained as centre and with radius
equal to the distance between the pivot centre and the roller centre,
circular arcs are drawn. These arcs cut the circumference of the
circle of radius OA at the points B, C, etc., and each arc represents
one position of the path of the roller centre as the follower is
turned counter-clockwise round the fixed cam. Along each arc
the corresponding displacement of the roller centre may be set off
as measured from the displacement diagram. For example, the
arcs xf, xq are respectively equal to the ordinates of the displace-
ment diagram through f and q. The path of the roller centre
relative to the cam is given by the smooth curve which joins the
successive positions of the roller centre. The required profile of
the cam is obtained by drawing a curve to touch the successive
positions of the roller circumference as shown in Fig. 199.
If the cam rotates at a speed of 1000 r.p.m., the velocity and
acceleration of the follower may be calculated as shown below.
On the outward stroke, when the follower has simple harmonic
motion, the maximum velocity is given by an equation similar
in form to equation (9.2), but with the symbols changed to corre-
spond to angular motion.
Maximum angular velocity of the follower = co0 = 77a>/#0./2/2,
where ft = total angular displacement of the follower.
But d0 — 90° = 7T/2 radians and fi = 15° = 7T/12 radians.
277 77. 100 77
co O = 27-4 rad/s
IT' 3 '24
The maximum acceleration at the beginning of the outward
stroke and the maximum retardation at the end of the outward
stroke are given by an equation similar to (9.3):
Maximum angular acceleration of the follower
772CU2 B 1002 77
a
= 0 = ~Q~2~*2 = 4n '~9~‘24 = 5730 rad/s

On the return stroke, when the follower moves with uniform

296 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

acceleration and retardation, the maximum velocity is twice the

mean velocity.
Mean angular velocity of the follower =
6r 75 3 1
But tr 77,
w ~ Iso' 10077 “ 80

maximum angular velocity of the follower

2B 2
= CO, — = —.TT.80 = 41-9 rad/s
tp J. ^

This velocity is reached in two-thirds of the time required for

the cam to turn through the angle dT, i.e. in 3-80 sec.
acceleration of the follower = 41-9.3.80/2
= 5030 rad/s2
During retardation this velocity is reduced to zero in one-third
of the time required for the cam to turn through the angle dT, i.e.
in • HJSGC.

Retardation of the follower = 41-9.3.80

= 10 060 rad/s2
Example 4. Cam with Reciprocating Flat-faced Follower. It is
required to set out the profile of a cam to give the following
motion to a reciprocating follower with a flat, or mushroom,
contact face.
(i) Follower to move outwards through a distance of 1 in.
during 120° of cam rotation.
(ii) Follower to dwell for 30° of cam rotation.
(iii) Follower to return to its initial position during 80° of cam
rotation.
(iv) Follower to dwell for the remaining 130° of cam rotation.
The minimum radius of the cam is 2 in. and the flat face of the
follower is at right-angles to the line of stroke of the follower.
Both the outward and the return strokes are to take place with
simple harmonic motion.
The displacement-time diagram corresponding to the specified
conditions is shown in Fig. 200 (a) and the times available for the
outward and the return strokes are each divided into eight equal
parts.
The same system of lettering is used as in the previous examples
and the reader should have no difficulty in following the construc-
tion used in setting out the cam profile. As in the earlier ex-
amples, the profile of the contact face of the follower is set out
IX] CAMS 297
in a number of positions, which conform to the desired follower
motion, and then the cam profile is drawn so as to touch the suc-
cessive positions of the contact face of the follower. Thus, when
the line of stroke of the follower has turned through the angle
AOE relative to the cam, the displacement xe of the follower is
given by the ordinate of the displacement diagram at the point e.
The flat face of the follower therefore occupies the position shown
dotted relative to the cam and the profile of the cam must be so

0° °
120 150° 230° 360°

shaped as to touch the dotted profile of the follower. It should

be noted that, except at the beginning and at the end of each
stroke, the point of contact of the cam profile and the follower
profile does not he on the line of stroke of the follower.
It may also be pointed out that with this type of follower it will
sometimes be impossible to draw the cam profile so as to touch
each of the desired positions of the follower. For instance, if
three positions of the face of the follower which correspond to the
10*—T.M.
298 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

desired motion of the follower are as shown by XX, YY and ZZ

in Fig. 200 (b), it is clearly impossible to draw a curve which will
touch YY as well as XX and ZZ, so that the desired follower
motion could not be obtained. For this reason it is not usual to
employ a flat-faced follower when the nature of the follower
motion is arbitrarily specified. Flat-faced followers are, however,
widely used when the cam profile is formed of circular arcs, and
this type of cam and follower will be discussed in the next article.

121. Cams with Specified Contours. The cams so far considered

have been those in which the nature of the follower motion was
specified and the corresponding shape of the cam profile had to be
determined. Such cams are difficult and costly to manufacture,
since a master cam has first to be made, largely by hand, and then
used as a template in the production of other cams of the same

shape. From the point of view of accuracy of profile and cheap-

ness of manufacture it is much better to form the cam profile of
circular arcs and straight lines. The nature of the motion given
to the follower may then be determined. The valves of small
internal-combustion engines are frequently operated by cams
whose profiles consist entirely of circular arcs, and the followers
either have flat faces or are fitted with rollers.
(a) Circular Arc Cam with a Flat-faced Reciprocating Follower.
In Fig. 201 (a) the contour of a circular arc cam is shown. OE
is the minimum radius of the cam and the flank consists of a
circular arc with centre P. Let the cam remain fixed and the
IS] CAMS 299
line of stroke of the follower turn in the opposite sense to that
of the actual rotation of the cam, i.e. counter-clockwise in the
figure. Then, when the line of stroke has turned through the
angle 6 relative to the cam, the flat face of the follower will be
in contact with the cam profile at the point C, where PC is per-
pendicular to the face of the follower. The displacement of the
follower is given by AB, where OB is perpendicular to BC and
therefore parallel to PC. Draw OD perpendicular to PC.
Then, the displacement of the follower
= x = AB = BO-AO = CD-EO
But CD = PC-PD = PE-PO cos 6 = EO+OP(l-cos 6)
x — OP(l— cos 6) .... (9.6)
Velocity of the follower,
v = dxfdt = dxjdd .ddjdt = to.dx/dd
= co. OP sin 6 ....... (9.7)
Acceleration of the follower
= / = dv/dt — a>. dv/dd = a>2. OP cos 6 . (9.8)
The three equations (9.6), 9.7) and (9.8) apply only while the
follower is in contact with that part of the cam profile which has
the centre of curvature P, i.e. for values of 6 from 0 to </>, where
(f> = angle OPQ. When 6 is greater than <f>, the follower is in
contact with the nose of the cam, the centre of curvature of which
is Q.
Referring to Fig. 201 (b), the cam and follower are in contact at
C on the nose of the cam. The displacement of the follower
— x = AB = OB-OA = CD-OA.
But CD = CQ-f-QD = CQ-f-OQ cos (a—6)
.'. x = CQ—OA+OQ cos (a—6) . . (9.9)
In this equation CQ, OA, OQ and a are constant for a given cam
and, differentiating with respect to time, we have:
Velocity of the follower,
v = w.OQ sin (a—Q) .... (9.10)
Acceleration of the follower,
/= -w2.OQ cos (a—0) . . . (9.11)
The negative sign indicates that the follower is retarded while
in contact with the nose of the cam. The three equations (9.9),
(9.10) and (9.11) apply only while the follower is in contact with
300 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

that part of the cam profile which has the centre of curvature Q,
i.e. for values of 6 between </> and a.
The velocity of the follower is a maximum when 6 — <f) and its
maximum value is given by to. OP sin cf>.
The acceleration of the follower is a maximum when 6 = 0 and
its value is given by to2.OP.
The retardation of the follower is a maximum when a—6 = 0,
i.e. at the end of the lift, and its value is given by to2.OQ.
The motion of the follower is positively controlled by the cam
so long as it is in contact with the flank of the cam, but contact
between the follower and the nose of the cam is only maintained
if the external spring force is greater than the inertia force. When
the follower is in the full lift position, the spring must exert a force
at least sufficient to give to the follower the acceleration OJ . OQ.
2

Cams of the above type are usually symmetrical. Occasionally

the follower is given a short period of dwell at the end of the lift.
The complete displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams
are shown in Fig. 202. These diagrams are drawn to scale for the
cam of the following example.
Example 5. Lift | in., minimum radius 1| in., nose radius
J in., no dwell; the angle a is 55° and the camshaft speed is
1200 r.p.m.
From the triangle OPQ, Fig. 201 (a):
PQ2 = 0P2+0Q2+2.0P.0Q cos a
But PQ -- PO + ll-l = PO + 1
.'. substituting and simplifying,
OQ2—1
OP
2(1—OQ cos a)
so
But OQ = 1|+|—J = H hi., ^at OP = 7*477 in.
Also sin <f> = (OQ/PQ) sin a
<f> = 12° 58'
While the follower is in contact with the flank of the cam, i.e. for
values of 6 from 0 to 12° 58', we have:
Displacement of the follower, from (9.6),
x = 4*477 (1—cos 6) in.
Velocity of the follower, from (9.7),
TT.120 4*477 .
v = —— ■ sin 6 = 46*9 sin 6 ft/s
IX] CAMS 301
Acceleration of the follower, from (9.8),
120\2 4-477
/ cos 8 — 5892 cos 8 ft/s2
12

While the follower is in contact with the nose of the cam, i.e.
for values of 8 from 12° 58' to 55°, we have:
Displacement of the follower, from (9.9),
x = 1-5 cos (a—6) —1-0 in.
Velocity of the follower, from (9.10),
v = 15-71 sin (a —8) ft/s
Acceleration of the follower, from (9.11),
/ = —1974 cos (a—8) ft/s2
From these equations the values given in the following table
have been calculated and the curves of Fig. 202 have been plotted.
O
O

O
O

CO

55°
O
O

e. . . 0° 5° 10° 12° 58' 50°

x in. . 0 0-0170 0-0680 0-1140 0-2288 0-3595 0-4489 0-4943 0-5000

v ft/s. 0 4-09 8-14 10-52 9-012 6-639 4-066 1-370 0
/ft/s* 5892 5869 5803 5742
-1467 -1617 -1789 -1906 -1966 -1974

6000
!U 4000
^
c:
2000
0
1 , 00 10 2 P0 3 0 40 5 05
1-2000

FIG. 202
302 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

(b) Tangent Cam with Roller Reciprocating Follower. When the

reciprocating follower is fitted with a roller, the flank of the cam
may be straight and tangential to the base circle. The cam is
then known as a tangent cam and is shown in Fig. 203. The
flanks AB and EF are straight lines tangential to the circular
arc AF and the arcs BU and VE respectively. UV is a circular
arc drawn with centre 0. The path of the roller centre is shown
by the dotted line. Since the whole of the cam profile is formed
of circular arcs and straight lines, the working surface of the cam
can be very accurately machined.
The outward displacement of the follower takes place partly
while the roller is in contact with the straight flank AB and
partly while it is in contact with the rounded corner BU. If 9 is
the angle through which the cam has turned from the beginning
of the lift of the follower, then contact takes place between the
follower and the straight flank AB for values of 9 from 0 to </>,
where tan <f> = GK/GO, and between the follower and the rounded
nose BU for values of 9 from <j> to a, where tan a == CR/RO.
The displacement, velocity and acceleration of the follower
for a given value of 9 may be found either analytically or
graphically.

(a) Analytical Solution, (i) Contact between the Roller and the
Straight Flank AB. Fig. 203 (a).
Let 9 = the angle turned by the cam from the beginning of the
follower displacement,
x — the displacement of the follower
and co = the angular velocity of the cam.

Then
x = OH—OG = OG(sec 9—1) . . (9.12)

Differentiating with respect to time, the velocity of the follower

dr dr sin 9
v W CO .OG (9.13)
dt ~ d9 cos2 9
and, differentiating again, the acceleration of the follower
dv 2 2—cos2 9
/= CO CO .0G (9.14)
’d9 cos3 9
These equations apply only for the part of the follower motion
during which the roller is in contact with the straight flank AB,
i.e. for values of 9 from 0 to (/>.
IX] CAMS 303
(ii) Contact between the Boiler and the Rounded Corner BU.
Fig. 203 (b). For values of 9 from </> to a, the roller is in contact
with the arc BU of the cam profile and the distance of the roller
centre P from the centre C of the arc BU remains constant. The
arrangement is, therefore, kinematically equivalent to a slider-
crank chain with a crank of length OC, turning at uniform speed,
and a connecting rod of length CP.

The displacement, velocity and acceleration of the follower may

be found from the appropriate equations of Article 51, where
n = CP/OC and instead of 6 the angle a—6 is substituted. For a
cam, the value of n is small, so that the approximate expressions
of Article 51 cannot be used without introducing considerable
errors in the calculated values of the velocity and acceleration of
the follower. The exact expressions are, however, rather cumber-
some and a graphical method of determining the velocity and
acceleration will be found more expeditious.

(b) Graphical Solution, (i) Contact between the Roller and the
Straight Flank AB. Referring to Fig. 204, draw through the roller
centre H a line perpendicular to the straight flank AB to meet a
line through 0 perpendicular to OH at N.
Then ON = OH tan 6 But OH = OG/cos 6, so that
tan 6 sin 9
ON = OG OG
cos 9 cos2 9
substituting in (9.13), the velocity of the follower is given by:
v — a). ON (9.15)
304 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Similarly, in order to find the acceleration of the follower,

set off HK = 2HN and draw a line through K perpendicular to
HK to meet HO produced at Z.
HK _ 2HN _ 2HO
Then HZ
cos 9 ~ cos 6 ~~ cos2 d
(2
—^-I
2
cos o
\
)
2
=HO.
cos^ 0
nne2-(r
cos2 o
OG 2—cos2 6
and HO = so that ZO = OG.
cos 6 cos3 6
substituting in equation (9.14), the acceleration of the follower
is given by:
/ = to2. ZO (9.16)

FIG. 204

It is left as an exercise for the student to show that these

results could be obtained directly by imagining the cam to be
extended so that a point H! on the cam coincides with the roller
centre H. The velocity of H is then equal to the vector sum of
the velocity of Hj and the velocity of H relative to H^ Similarly,
the acceleration of H is the vector sum of the acceleration of H^
and the acceleration of H relative to H^
(ii) Contact between the Roller and the Rounded Corner BU.
Referring to Fig. 205, the instantaneous centre of the equivalent
link CP is at I, the point of intersection of OC produced and the
line through P normal to the line of stroke OS of the follower. If
PC is produced to intersect at M a line through 0 perpendicular
to OS, then triangles IPC, OMC are similar,
vv/vc = IP/IC = OM/OC
IX] CAMS 305
But vc = co.OC, where a> is the angular velocity of the cam,
so that
Vp = co. OM (9.17)
The acceleration of the follower may be found by a modification
of Klein’s construction, Article 49. The purpose of Klein’s con-
struction is to find a point Q on CP such that CQ = CM2/CP.
Where CP is shorter than CM, as in Fig. 205, the point Q may be
found as follows.
Draw through P a line perpendicular to CP; with centre C and
radius CM draw an arc to intersect this perpendicular at T;

through T draw TQ perpendicular to CT to intersect CP produced

at Q. From the similar triangles PCT, TCQ it follows that
CQ = CT2/CP, and therefore, since CT = CM, CQ — CM2/CP.
Hence, if QN is drawn perpendicular to CQ to intersect the line
of stroke of the follower at N, it follows that the acceleration of P
is represented by NO to the same scale as the acceleration of C
is represented by CO.
But the acceleration of C = o>2. CO,
the acceleration of P = a>2 .NO . (9.18)
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams for the
outstroke of the follower when driven by a cam of this type are
shown in Fig. 206. They are drawn to scale for the cam in the
following example.
Example 6. Lift y6- in., minimum radius 1 in., nose radius
in., radius of the roller f in., the total angle of cam rotation
from the beginning of the outward stroke to the end of the return
stroke is 120° and the camshaft speed is 800 r.p.m.
306 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

From Fig. 203 (a), OC = 1+^—^ = If in.,

OR OA-AR OA-BC 25
cos a = a = 54° 27'
OC ~ OCT~ ~ OC ~ 43’
and
, KG CR OC sin a 43 .
tan - _ <f> = 33° 56'
^ GO GO “ GA+AO “ 52 sm a’

The angular velocity of the cam = 77.80/3 = 83-8 rad/s

2000
1500
1000
600
o
c 0 1D 2 3/9 3 D 43 63 6
-600
-1000
-1500
-2000
-2600

FIG. 206

While the follower is in contact with the straight flank of the

cam, i.e. for values of 6 from 0 to 33° 56', the values of x, v and/
are calculated from equations (9.12), 9.13) and (9.14).
While the roller is in contact with the nose of the cam, i.e. for
values of 6 from 33° 56' to 54° 27', we have
n = CP/OC = 27/32.32/43 = 27/43

and the values of x, v and / are calculated from equations (3.6),

(3.9) and (3.10). Alternatively, they may be obtained graphically
as explained above.
IX] CAMS 307
The values given in the following table have been calculated
and the curves of Fig. 206 have been plotted from them.

e . . .

O
O
0 10° 20° 30° 33° 56' 50° 54° 27'

a; in. . . 0 0-025 0-104 0-251 0-334 0-451 0-551 0-563

v ft/s 0 2-03 4-39 7-56 9-20 6-28 1-89 0
/ ft/s2 . . 950 1024 1278 1827 2183
-2466 -2190 -2045 -2034

N.B.—Fig. 204 has been drawn to scale for 9 — 20°. On this

figure ON scales 0*63 in. and ZO scales 2T9 in.
velocity of the follower, from (9.15),
= w.ON = 83-8.0-63/12 = 4-4 ft/s
and the acceleration of the follower, from (9.16),
= co2.ZO = 83-82.2-19/12 = 1280 ft/s2
Fig. 205 has been drawn to scale for 9 = 40°. On this figure
OM scales 0-89 in. and NO scales 3-78 in.
velocity of follower, from (9.17),
= co.OM = 83-8.0-89/12 = 6-2 ft/s
and the acceleration of the follower, from (9.18),
= o>2.NO = 83-82.3-78/12 = 2210 ft/s2
The acceleration is towards O and is therefore negative.
(c) Circular Arc Cam with Oscillating Roller Follower. The
contour of a circular arc cam with an oscillating follower is shown
in Fig. 207. The cam turns about an axis through O and the
follower about an axis through C. The roller turns about an axis
through B, and P is the centre of curvature of the flank of the
cam with which the roller makes contact. Since the distances
between O and P, P and B, B and C, and C and O are constant,
the arrangement is kinematically identical with a four-bar chain.
The angular velocity and the angular acceleration of the oscil-
lating follower cannot easily be calculated, but they may be found
graphically by the methods given in Article 50. The link OP
is in effect the driving crank of the four-bar chain and it turns
at the uniform speed of the cam.
To Find the Angular Velocity of the Follower. The instantaneous
centre of the link BP may be found. This lies at the point of
intersection I of PO produced and CB produced. But, if a line
308 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

is drawn through 0 parallel to BC to cut BP at M, then triangle

OPM is similar to triangle IPB. Since the velocity of P = vp
= co. OP, where co is the angular velocity of the cam, it follows that
the velocity of B = vh = co. OM and the velocity of B relative to
P = t'bp = co. PM.
the angular velocity of the follower = vb[BC = co. OM/BC

To Find the Angular Acceleration of the Follower. An accelera-

tion diagram may be drawn for the four-bar chain by applying
Klein’s construction as explained in Article 50.
The acceleration of P is wholly centripetal and is given by
/p=co2.PO.
On BC as diameter draw a circle, and with centre B and radius
OM draw a second circle. Then the chord common to these two
circles will cut BC at Y, such that the centripetal component of
the acceleration, fh, of B is given by to2. BY.
Mark off ZO equal to BY and parallel to BC and draw ZE
perpendicular to BC to represent the direction of the tangential
component of/b.
On BP as diameter draw a circle, and with centre P and radius
PM draw a second circle. Then the chord common to these two
IX] CAMS 309
circles will cut BP at a point X such that the centripetal com-
ponent of the acceleration of B relative to P is given by co2. XP.
Through X draw XF perpendicular to BP to represent the direc-
tion of the tangential component of the acceleration of B relative
to P.
Let ZE and XF intersect at X. Then the tangential component
of/bp will be represented by OJ2 . NX and the tangential component
of/b by co2. NZ. The polygon OPXNZ is the acceleration diagram
for the four-bar chain OPBC.
The angular acceleration of the oscillating follower BC
= a = OJ2 .NZ/BC
A similar construction may be applied in order to find the
angular acceleration of the follower when the roller is in contact
with the nose of the cam. This is shown in Fig. 208. The cam
and follower are kinematically equivalent to the four-bar chain
OQ,BC. If a line is drawn through 0 parallel to BC to meet BQ
produced at M, then vh — OJ . OM and vbq = co. QM.
The angular velocity of the oscillating follower = OJ . OM/BC.
The points Y and X are then found such that BY = OM2/BC
and QX = QM2/OB.
The point Y may be found by Klein’s construction, but, since
QM > QB, the point X may be found by drawing a line through
B perpendicular to QB, marking off the point R such that
QR = QM and drawing RX perpendicular to QR.
Example 7. A symmetrical circular arc cam has a minimum
radius of 1-| in. The flank radius is 4| in., the nose radius is
| in. and the rise of the cam is § in. The distance of the axis of
oscillation of the follower from the axis of the cam is 3 in., the
length of the follower arm is 3 in. and the diameter of the roller
is 2 in. The r.p.m. of the cam are 600.
Find the angular velocity and the angular acceleration of the
follower when the cam has turned through angles of (a) 25°
and (b) 45° from the beginning of the lift.
(a) When the cam has turned through 25° from the beginning
of the lift, the roller is in contact with the flank of the cam, as
shown in Fig. 207, which is drawn to scale for the above particulars.
The distance between the cam axis O and the centre of curva-
ture P of the flank = 4| —lj = 3§ in.
By measurement from the figure, OM = 0-79 in., NZ = 2-66 in.
vb = co.OM = (TT. 600/30)0-79 = 49-6 in/s
angular velocity of the follower BC
= vh /BC = 49-6/3 = 16-5 rad/s
310 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

For counter-clockwise rotation of the cam, the angular velocity

of BC is clockwise.
From the acceleration diagram OPXNZ, the tangential com-
ponent of the acceleration of B
= co2.NZ = (7r.20)2.2-66 = 10 500 in./s2
.*. angular acceleration of BC = 10 500/BC = 3500 rad/s2
Since the tangential acceleration is in the direction NZ, the
angular acceleration of BC is clockwise.

(b) Fig. 208 is drawn to scale for this position of the cam and
follower.
From the figure, OM scales 0-52 in. and NZ scales 3-24 in.
.'. angular velocity of the follower
= co.OM/BC = 2077.0-52/3 = 10-9 rad/s
For counter-clockwise rotation of the cam, the angular velocity
of BC is clockwise.
The angular acceleration of the follower
2
= OJ .NZ/BC = (2077)2.3-24/3 = 4260 rad/s2
Since the tangential acceleration of B is in the direction NZ,
the angular acceleration of BC is counter-clockwise.
IX] CAMS 311

EXAMPLES IX

1. Sketch and describe the different types of followers which are used with
radial or disc cams. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each type.

2. Draw the displacement-time, velocity-time and acceleration-time diagrams

for a follower in order to satisfy the following conditions. The stroke of the
follower is 1 in. The outward stroke takes place with simple harmonic motion
during 90° of cam rotation, and the return stroke, also with simple harmonic
motion, during 75° of cam rotation. The follower is to dwell in the out position
for 45° of cam rotation and the cam turns at a uniform speed of 800 r.p.m.

3. Using the particulars given in the last example, except that the displacement
of the follower is to take place with uniform acceleration and retardation, draw
the displacement-time, velocity-time and acceleration-time diagrams when
(a) the acceleration and retardation are equal, (b) the acceleration on the out-
stroke is twice the retardation on the outstroke and the retardation on the instroke
is three times the acceleration on the instroke.

4. Draw the profile of a cam to give the following motion to a roller follower:
(a) Outward stroke diming 50° of cam rotation.
(b) Dwell for 10° of cam rotation.
(c) Return stroke during 50° of cam rotation.
(d) Dwell for the remaining 250° of cam rotation.
The stroke of the follower is 1 in.; the diameter of the roller is 2\ in.; the
minimum radius of the cam is 2 in.; the line of stroke of the follower is radial
and the outward and return strokes take place with uniform equal acceleration
and retardation.

5. As Question 4, but the line of stroke of the follower is offset £ in. from the
axis of the cam.

6. As Question 4, except that an oscillating roller follower is used. The distance

of the follower pivot from the axis of the cam is 3f in. and the length of the
follower arm from pivot centre to roller centre is 3 in.

7. The mechanism for raising a feed-table is shown in Fig. 209. The table X
is supported on “ lazy-tongs ” levers YY, which are opened and closed by a rod R
connected with the central pivot A by the links CB, BA. O is fixed and E moves
along a horizontal guide. The joint B traverses a cam path which is of such a
form that the horizontal velocity of R bears a constant ratio to the velocity of
the table. Given the point Bx at which the path of B is horizontal, construct
the form of the cam path for a limited rise of the table from the given position.
W.S.S.
8. A cam is to give the following straight-line motion to a bar. The outstroke
is to be made with simple harmonic motion during one-half of a revolution; the
312 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

return-stroke also takes one-half of a revolution, but during this stroke the
acceleration is numerically equal to the deceleration. The stroke of the bar i6
3 in. and the speed of the cam is 240 r.p.m. Find:
(a) the maximum value of the acceleration during the out-stroke;
(b) the numerical value of the acceleration during the return-stroke;
(c) the maximum values of the velocity during each stroke, all in in. sec units.
L. U.
9. A cam turning with uniform angular velocity operates a reciprocating
follower through a roller 2 in. dia. The line of stroke of the follower is 1 in. from
the axis of the cam, the stroke of the follower is 2 in. and the minimum radius of
the cam is 2 in. The follower is required to move outwards and inwards with
simple harmonic motion, each stroke occupying 75° of cam rotation. During
the remainder of the cam rotation the follower is to rest at the bottom of its stroke.
Draw the outline of the working surface of the cam.
10. The exhaust valve of a Diesel engine has a lift of 1J in. It is operated by
a cam designed to give equal uniform acceleration and retardation during the
opening and closing periods, each of which corresponds to 50° of cam rotation,
and also to allow the valve to remain in the fully open position for 15° of cam
rotation. The follower is provided with a roller 3 in. dia. and its line of stroke
passes through the axis of the cam. If the minimum radius of the cam is 4£ in.,
draw the outline of the cam.
11. A cam turning with uniform angular velocity operates an oscillating follower
through a roller f in. dia. The fulcrum of the follower is 2 in. from the axis of
rotation of the cam and the distance from centre of roller to centre of fulcrum is
If in.; the minimum radius of the cam is 1 in. and the angular displacement of
the follower is 30°. The outward and inward displacements of the follower each
occupy 60° of cam rotation and there is no dwell in the lifted position. If the
displacement is simple harmonic, draw the outline of the cam and the velocity
and acceleration diagrams of the follower for a camshaft speed of 200 r.p.m.
M. U.
12. The exhaust valve of a gas engine working on the Otto cyle has a lift of
f in. and is operated by a cam giving constant acceleration and retardation.
The follower is provided with a roller 1 \ in. dia. and moves along a straight line
passing through the axis of the cam. The valve opens 40° before the outer dead
centre and closes 10° after the inner dead centre of the crank, and the minimum
radius of the cam is If in. Draw the outline of the cam and determine the
acceleration and the maximum velocity of the follower, if the engine runs at
250 r.p.m. M.U.
13. A swinging arm 4 in. long is oscillated through
an angle of 32° by a cam which rotates about its
axis with uniform angular velocity. The fulcrum of
the swinging arm is 6 in. from the axis of the cam,
the roller at the free end of the arm is If in. dia. and
the minimum radius of the cam is 2f in. The arm is
to complete each swing during a cam rotation of 90°
and at the end of the outward swing is to dwell for
30° of cam rotation. If the acceleration and re-
tardation on each stroke are uniform and equal,
draw the cam profile. What is the angular accelera-
tion of the follower if the cam rotates at a speed of
300 r.p.m. ?
14. Particulars of a cam with a flat-footed follower
are given in Fig. 210. Calculate the value of the
radius R and plot on a base of 3f in. = 150° a curve of displacement of the
follower. If the speed of the cam is 500 r.p.m., calculate the accelerations of
the follower at the points P, Q and T. If the combined mass of the follower and
valve with which it is in contact is 10 lb, show how to calculate the stiffness of the
spring which is employed to close the valve. Nose radius = in.; minimum
diameter of cam = 2£ in. L.U.A.
IX] CAMS 313
15. A can operating a mushroom-ended follower has the following dimensions:
minimum radius, 0-65 in.; lift of follower, 0-285 in.; radius of nose, 0-0625 in.
If the total period of opening and closing of the valve corresponds to 110° of
camshaft rotation, determine the radius of the flanks and the maximum velocity,
acceleration and retardation of the follower. The camshaft speed is 900 r.p.m.
M.U.

16. The valve timing for a four-stroke petrol engine is as follows: inlet opens
4° L.; inlet closes 50° L.; exhaust opens 50° E.; exhaust closes 10° L. Each
valve has a lift of 0-4 in., the minimum radius of each cam is 0-8 in. and the nose
radius is 0-1 in. The cams are of the circular-arc type with flat-faced followers.
Set out the cam profiles and calculate the maximum velocity, acceleration and
retardation of each follower, if the camshaft speed is 2000 r.p.m. What is the
minimum force which must be exerted by the spring of each valve in order to
overcome the inertia of the moving parts which weigh 0-4 lb for each valve ?

17. A straight-sided cam with a circular tip gives a total lift of 1-25 in. to a
valve, the stem of which carries a roller 1 in. in diameter. The reciprocating
parts controlled by the cam weigh 1 lb. The cam has a base circle 1-75 in. in
radius and acts on the roller through an angle of 120°. Find the pressure which
must be exerted by the valve spring if the roller is to remain in contact with the
cam when this rotates at 350 r.p.m. L.U

18. The following valve timing is used on a petrol engine: inlet opens 18°
before t.d.c., closes 42° after b.d.c.; exhaust opens 62° before b.d.c., closes
13° after t.d.c. The lift of each valve is 7-5 mm, the diameter of the base
circle of the cam is 30 mm and the nose radius of the cam is 3 mm. Flat-faced
followers are to be used. Draw the cam profiles and show them in their correct
relative angular positions on the camshaft. If the crankshaft speed is 5000 r.p.m.
calculate the maximum velocity, the maximum acceleration and the maximum
retardation of each follower on the outstroke.

19. A valve is actuated by a cam having the following dimensions: base

circle 0-75 in., nose circle 0-546 in. diameter; distance between the centres of
these circles 0-339 in.; the flanks are straight. The cam acts on a tappet roller
1 in. in diameter. The valve opens 25° before t.d.c. Determine:
(a) the lift of the valve;
(b) the crank angle at closure;
(c) the maximum velocity; and
(d) the maximum acceleration of the valve.
The camshaft, which runs at half engine speed, rotates at 1500 r.p.m. L.U.

20. The follower of a tangent cam is operated through a roller 2 in. dia. and
its line of stroke intersects the axis of the cam. The minimum radius of the cam
is 1| in., the nose radius is £ in. and the lift is 1 in. If the speed of rotation of
the cam is 900 r.p.m., find the velocity and acceleration of the follower at the
instant when the cam is 20° from the full-lift position. M.U.

21. A tangent cam for a Diesel engine has the following dimensions: minimum
radius, 4f in.; lift, 1| in.; total angle through which the cam turns from the
beginning of the outward stroke to the end of the inward stroke, 115°; nose
radius, 2| in.; diameter of roller, 3 in.; camshaft speed, 115 r.p.m. Draw the
complete displacement, velocity and acceleration-time curves and set out the
cam profile. It may be assumed that the follower moves along a straight line
which passes through the axis of the cam.

22. The tangent cam for a gas engine has a base circle 3£ in. dia. and nose
radius £ in. The lift is f in., the roller 2 in. dia. and the r.p.m. of the cam are 160.
Find the acceleration of the follower at the beginning and at the end of the lift
and also the velocity and the acceleration at the instant the roller changes from
contact with the straight flank to contact with the nose.
314 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP, IX]

23. Use the same particulars as in Example 7, p. 309, and find: (a) the angular
acceleration of the follower at the beginning and the end of both strokes; (b) the
maximum angular velocity of the follower on both strokes; (c) the acceleration
on both strokes at the instant the follower changes from contact with the curved
flank to contact with the nose.

24. The cam and rocker for an o.h.v. high-speed Diesel engine are shown in
Fig. 211. The cam is symmetrical, the radius of curvature of the flanks being
3 in. and of the rounded corners in. The rise of the cam is \ in. and the angle
through which the cam turns from the beginning of the outstroke to the end of
the instroke of the follower is 116°. If the engine speed is 1200 r.p.m., find for
both strokes: (a) the maximum velocity of the valve; (b) the acceleration of
the valve at the beginning and at the end of each stroke; (c) the acceleration at
the instant the follower changes from contact with the flank to contact with the
rounded comer of the cam profile.
 CHAPTER X

TOOTHED GEARING

122. Many different forms of toothed gearing are used for the
transmission of motion or of power. These include spur gearing,
in which the axes of the shafts connected by the gears are parallel;
bevel gearing, in which the axes of the shafts intersect; and skew
or spiral gearing, in which the axes of the shafts are non-parallel
and non-intersecting. Helical gearing is the name given to a
type of spur gearing in which, although the axes of the shafts are
parallel, the teeth are cut on helices instead of straight across the
wheels parallel to the axes. In most forms of toothed gearing
the teeth are not theoretically necessary for the transmission of
the required motion. From a practical point of view, however, the

(a) (b)
FIG. 212

teeth fulfil in all types of gearing the purpose of providing an

invariable velocity ratio between the two shafts and of enabling
a large torque to be transmitted from the driving shaft to the
driven shaft.
Kinematically, a pair of spur gears is equivalent to a pair of
cylindrical discs, keyed to parallel shafts, and having fine contact
as shown in Fig. 212 (a). If the two discs roll together without
slipping, the peripheral speeds of the discs are equal and the ratio
of the angular velocity of the driven shaft B to the angular
velocity of the driving shaft A is equal to the ratio of the diameter
of the disc C to the diameter of the disc D. Similarly, a pair of
315
316 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

bevel wheels is kinematically equivalent to a pair of conical

frusta, keyed to the intersecting shafts, and having line contact
as shown in Fig. 212 (b). The apices of the complete cones, of
which C and D are parts, obviously coincide with the point of
intersection of the axes of the two shafts A and B. If C and D
roll together without slipping, the peripheral speeds are equal at
any particular point on the line of contact and the angular
velocities of the two shafts A and B are inversely as the corre-
sponding diameters of the frusta C and D. The cylindrical sur-
faces of C and D, Fig. 212 (a), and the conical surfaces of C and
D, Fig. 212 (b), are known as pitch surfaces.
In the case of non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts the condi-
tions are different and it is impossible to arrange for motion to
be transmitted from one shaft to the other by surfaces which have
a pure rolling action. The discs through which motion is trans-
mitted are frusta of hyperboloids. A hyperboloid is the solid
formed by revolving a straight line about an axis not in the same
plane, such that every point on the line remains at a constant
distance from the axis. Hence any two hyperboloids may be
arranged to have line contact. This implies that, in order to
connect two non-intersecting, non-parallel shafts by means of
hyperboloids, the latter must be generated by revolving the line
of contact about the axis of each shaft in turn. There is an
infinite number of different pairs of hyperboloids which may be
used to connect a given pair of shafts.
In Fig. 213 two hyperboloids are shown by thin lines. They
turn about the axes A A and BB and the line of contact is CC. The
relative motion between the sur-
faces cannot be a pure rolling
motion, because the two points
which coincide, say at the point P
on the line of contact, are moving
in different directions, one in a
plane normal to the axis AA and
the other in a plane normal to the
axis BB. The coincident points
FIG. 213 will, however, have identical com-
ponent velocities in a direction
normal to the line of contact, if the relative sliding between the
surfaces takes place wholly in a direction parallel to the line of
contact. This is obviously what would happen if straight teeth
were provided on the two hyperboloidal surfaces parallel to the
line of contact so as to give a positive drive between the shafts.
The two hyperboloidal frusta shown by thick lines in the figure
may therefore be regarded as the pitch surfaces of a pair of skew
*] TOOTHED GEARING 317
gears, which would enable motion to be transmitted from shaft
AA to shaft BB with line contact. Owing to the difficulty that
would be experienced in manufacturing gearing with hyperboloidal
pitch surfaces, this type of gearing is not used in practice and
spiral gearing takes its place. Spiral gearing differs from true
skew gearing in one very important respect, the contact between
the pitch surfaces is point contact instead of line contact. Refer-
ring to Fig. 214 the two points which
are in contact are moving in differ-
ent directions and therefore the re-
lative motion between the cylinders
is partly rolling and partly sliding.
In order to transmit uniform motion
from one shaft to the other, it is
necessary to specify that the relative
sliding shall take place in a direction
parallel to a tangential line which
passes through the point of contact
and occupies a fixed position rela-
tive to the axes of the two shafts. In practice the direction of
this line is fixed by the direction of the helical teeth at the point of
contact.
The arrangements which are shown in Figs. 212 and 213 are
obviously unsuitable where a positive drive is required. If the
friction between the surfaces at the line or point of contact were
relied upon in order to transmit power, not only would the trans-
mitted power be small, but the velocity ratio between the shafts
would be affected by slip. To make the drive positive it is
necessary to provide teeth, which extend partly above and partly
below the smooth cylindrical, conical or hyperboloidal pitch sur-
faces. The motion is then transmitted not by the rolling together
of the pitch surfaces, but by the contact between the surfaces
of these teeth. But, if the motion transmitted from the driving
to the driven shaft is to be perfectly uniform and the velocity ratio
is to be constant, the shapes of the contact surfaces of the teeth
much satisfy certain conditions. These conditions are examined
in the following article.

123. Motion Transmitted by two Curved Surfaces in Contact.

Two rigid bodies, X and Y, are shown in Fig. 215. They turn
about fixed axes through 0 and Q and the curved surfaces are in
contact along a line through A. Let X be turning at a given
instant with the angular velocity cox rad/s in the counter-clockwise
sense. It is required to find the angular velocity coy of Y. At the
given instant the point A, considered as a point on X, is moving
318 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

in a direction perpendicular to OA with a velocity v&x = tox. OA.

At the same instant the point A, considered as a point on Y, is
moving in a direction perpendicular to QA with a velocity
vay = ojy. QA. The direction of the common normal to the two
surfaces at the point of contact is given by AB and the component

of vax along AB is vax cos a and the component of vay along AB is

V&y COS p.
It is clear that if the two surfaces are to remain in contact these
two component velocities must be equal, so that:
«?ax cos a = v&y cos p
Substituting for vax and vay,
tox.OA cos a = coy.QA cos p
Draw OC and QD perpendicular to AB. Then:
OC = OA cos a and QD = QA cos p
so that OJX . OC = (joy. QD
or ojJojy = QD/OC
But, if P is the point of intersection of AB with the line of centres
OQ, the triangles OCP, QDP are similar and QD/OC = QP/OP,
cojcoy = QP/OP . . . (10.1)
Hence the ratio of the angular velocities of X and Y is inversely
as the ratio of the distances of P from the centres 0 and Q, or
the common normal to the two surfaces at the point of contact A
intersects the line of centres at a point P which divides the centre
distance inversely as the ratio of the angular velocities. If, then,
the velocity ratio is to be constant, the contact surfaces must be
X] TOOTHED GEARING 319
so shaped that the common normal intersects the line of centres
at a fixed point P. The motion transmitted from X to Y will
then be identical with that transmitted by pure rolling contact
between two cylindrical surfaces with axes through O and Q
and with a line of contact through P.
This is the fundamental condition which must be satisfied by
the profiles adopted for the teeth of gear wheels.
The velocity of sliding. The components of the velocities vax and
vay in the direction of the common tangent at the point of contact
are given respectively by vax sin a and vay sin J3. The velocity of
sliding of the surface of Y relative to the surface of X at the point
of contact is therefore equal to vay sin fi—vax sin a,
velocity of sliding = coy. AQ sin /?—cox. AO sin a
= cuy.AD—wx. AC
= a>y(AP+PD)-a>x(CP-PA)
= (ajx-(-u)y)AP -[-ajy. PD—OJx. CP
But from (10.1) ojyja>x — OP/QP and from the triangles OCP,
QDP, OP/QP = CP/DP, so that cuy.PD = wx.CP,
velocity of sliding = (<wx+coy)AP
This result could be obtained more easily as follows. Since the
point P is the instantaneous centre for the relative motion of X
and Y and the angular velocity of Y relative to X is o>x-j-ojy it
follows at once that the velocity of sliding is equal to (o>x-f-a)y)AP.
124. Definitions. Before considering the theory of wheel teeth
in detail, a few necessary definitions will be given of terms which
are in general use in connection with
toothed gearing. Some of these terms
are illustrated in Fig. 216.
The pitch circle diameter is the dia-
meter of the circle which by a pure rolling
action would transmit the same motion as
the actual gear wheel. It should be noted
that in the case of wheels which connect
non-parallel shafts, the pitch circle dia-
meter is different for each cross-section
of the wheel normal to the axis of rotation.
The pitch point is the point of contact
of two circles.
The pitch line is the line of contact of two pitch surfaces.
The circular pitch p is the distance measured along the pitch
circle circumference from a point on one tooth to the correspond-
ing point on the next tooth. Or, alternatively, the circular pitch
320 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

is equal to the pitch circle circumference divided by the number of

teeth T on the wheel, or if the diameter of the pitch circle is D,
then
p — TTD/T

Hence, if the number of teeth and the circular pitch are known,
D — pT Jn
The use of the circular pitch is open to the very serious practical
objection that D cannot be expressed exactly because of the
presence of 77 in the denominator.
Example 1. A wheel has 48 teeth and the circular pitch is
| in. Find the pitch diameter.
D = 48.3/4TT = 11-459 in.
This is not the exact diameter, but is only correct to five significant
figures. Since the distance between the axes of a pair of mating
wheels is equal to the sum of the pitch circle radii, it follows that
the centre distance cannot be expressed exactly.
There are two different ways of stating the pitch which obviate
this difficulty. They are given below.
The diametral pitch pd is defined as the number of teeth per
inch of pitch diameter:
Pa = T/D
But the definition of circular pitch
P = 77 DjT
so that TjD = 77/p and pd = 77/p
or Pa-P=”
Example 2. A wheel has 48 teeth of diametral pitch 4. Find
the pitch diameter and the circular pitch.
D = T/pd = 48/4 = 12 in.
The circular pitch
p = 77/pd = 77/4 = 0-7854 in.
The module m is defined as the pitch diameter divided by the
number of teeth. It may be expressed in any convenient linear
units, such as inches of pitch diameter per tooth, millimetres of
pitch diameter per tooth, etc.
m — D/T or D — mT
But DjT = p/77, m = p/77 = 1 Jpd
x] TOOTHED GEARING 321
Example 3. A wheel has 48 teeth of module 6 mm. Find the
pitch diameter and the circular pitch.
D = m. T = 6.48 = 288 mm = 28-8 cm
p — rr.m — 18-85 mm = 0-7421 in.
The advantage of stating the pitch of the teeth in terms of the
diametral pitch or the module is shown in the above examples.
The calculation of the pitch diameter of a wheel and of the distance
between the centres of two mating wheels is simplified. Except
in the case of certain diametral pitches, such as 3, 6, etc., which
with certain combinations of teeth involve recurring decimals, the
pitch diameter and centre distance can be expressed exactly.
It will of course be understood that for each of the three ways
of stating the pitch, a series of standard cutters must be provided.
A few of the standard cutters, which cover approximately the
same range of circular pitches, are shown in the table below.1
Circular pitch in. . 1 f £ £ £
Diametral pitch . . 3 4 6 12 24
Module, mm.... 8 6 4 2 1

The figures in the vertical columns of the table are approximate

equivalents only. They give the nearest standard diametral
pitches and modules for the circular pitches shown in the first line.
The addendum is the radial distance from the pitch circle to
the top of the tooth.
The dedendum is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the
bottom of the tooth space.
The working surface above the pitch surface is termed the face
of the tooth and that below the pitch surface the flank of the tooth.
The clearance is the radial distance from the top of the tooth to
the bottom of the tooth space in the mating gear.
A pinion is the smaller of two mating gear wheels.
A rack is a portion of a gear wheel which has an infinitely large
number of teeth. Hence the pitch surface of a rack is a plane
surface and the pitch circle circumference becomes a straight line.
The pressure angle or angle of obliquity ifj is the angle which the
common normal to the two teeth at the point of contact makes
with the common tangent to the two pitch circles at the pitch
point.
The path of contact is the curve traced out by the point of contact
of two teeth from the beginning to the end of engagement.
1
Abstracted by permission from British Standard 436:1940, Machine Cut
Gears. A. Helical and Straight Spur. Official copies can be obtained from
the British Standards Institution, 2 Park St., London, W.l, price 10s. Qd. post
free.
11—T.M.
322 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The arc of contact is the path followed by a point on either pitch

line from the beginning to the end of engagement of a given pair
of teeth. The arc of contact is divided into two parts. The
part from the beginning of engagement until the two teeth are in
contact at the pitch point is termed the arc of approach, and that
from the pitch point to the end of engagement is termed the arc
of recess.
125. Conjugate Teeth. It was shown in Article 123 that, in
order to transmit a uniform velocity ratio, the shape of the profiles
of the teeth must be such that the common normal at the point of
contact passes through the pitch point. Within limits it is pos-
sible to choose an arbitrary shape for one of the profiles and then
to determine the shape of the other profile to satisfy this condition.
Teeth with profiles obtained in this way are spoken of as con-
jugate teeth.

FIG. 217

In Fig. 217 part of a wheel A is shown and for simplicity the

profile is assumed to be a circular arc PXPP2 of radius OP. It is
required to find the profile of the tooth of a pinion B that will gear
correctly with this wheel.
Let us suppose the wheel A turns on its axis until the given tooth
profile occupies the position QxQQ2, the centre of curvature of the
profile moving at the same time to Oj. Then, in order to satisfy
the fundamental condition, the point of contact of the pinion
tooth and the wheel tooth must lie on the normal C^Nx which
passes through the pitch point P. In other words the two teeth
must be in contact at the point Nx. Hence the point on the
profile of the pinion tooth may be found by setting off arc Pq
along the pitch circle of B equal to arc PQ on the pitch circle of A,
x] TOOTHED GEARING 323
drawing the arc concentric with B and marking off qDx
equal to PNX. Similarly, if A turns in the opposite sense until the
given tooth profile occupies the position R!RR2, the corresponding
position of the centre of curvature being 02, then 02N2P is the
normal to the profile which passes through P and N2 is the point
of contact of the two profiles. The point D2 on the profile of the
pinion tooth is found by a similar construction to that used for
finding Dx. Thus arc Pr = arc PR, arc N2D2 is concentric with
B and rD2 = PN2. It follows that the pinion tooth profile must
pass through the points D1? P and D2. Obviously, the shape of
the profile could only be determined accurately if the construction
were repeated for a large number of positions of the tooth profile
on A.
The above construction has been given in order to emphasise the
fact that the choice of tooth profiles is theoretically a very wide
one. Practical considerations, however, impose severe limitations
on the choice of a suitable profile. In the past the cycloidal curve
has been very widely used, but at the present time, for reasons
that will appear later on, the involute curve is almost universally
employed.
It will be seen later that gear cutting machines which generate
the tooth profiles carry out mechanically the process which has
just been described, i.e. the teeth of the cutter and the teeth of
the wheel are conjugate teeth. The profiles of the cutter teeth
are not, however, arbitrarily chosen but conform to the involute
shape.

A cycloid is the locus of a point on the

126. Cycloidal Teeth.
circumference of a circle which rolls, without slipping, along a
straight line.

If the circle rolls, without slipping, inside or outside a circular

arc, the locus of a point on its circumference is termed respectively
a hypocycloid or an epicycloid.
The three cycloidal curves are illustrated in Fig. 218. The
important property of the cycloid which makes it suitable for
324 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

use as a tooth profile is that the line joining the tracing point A
to the point of contact P of the rolling circle and the fine, straight
or curved, along which it rolls is normal to the cycloid. This
follows from the fact that the point of contact P is the instan-
taneous centre of the rolling circle and therefore the tracing point
A is, at that instant, moving in a direction perpendicular to AP.
In Fig. 219 two circles X and Y with centres 0 and Q are in
contact at point P. A smaller circle Z with centre R is also in
contact with the other circles at point P. If the three circles
now turn about their respective centres and roll together without
slipping, a point A on the small circle will trace out a hypocycloid
on X and an epicycloid on Y. Thus, if X turns in the clockwise
sense through angle a, then Y and Z will turn respectively through
angles /3 and y. The three arcs PA, Pa and Pax are equal in
length, since there is pure rolling, and when motion began the
three points A, a and ax all coincided at the pitch point P. Dur-
ing this rotation of the three circles the tracing point A on Z
describes the portion aA of a hypocycloid on X and the portion
a! A of an epicycloid on Y. Point A is the point of contact of the
two cycloids and AP is their common normal. This is always
true whatever the length of the arc Pa so long as contact between
the two cycloids is maintained. It follows therefore that Y could
be driven positively by X if the portions axA and aA of the
cycloids were used as the profiles of contact surfaces. Further,
the velocity ratio would be constant and equivalent to that of
pure rolling between the circumferences of X and Y. To transmit
continuous motion from X to Y, it would be necessary to arrange
for a number of similar pairs of cycloids to be so spaced round the
circumferences of X and Y that contact between a second pair
began before contact between the preceding pair ended. If con-
tact is required beyond the pitch point P, a second generating
circle must be used, circle Zl5 centre Rl5 Fig. 219. This circle
need not necessarily be of the same size as circle Z. During rota-
tion the tracing point B describes the epicycloid Bb on X and the
hypocycloid Bbx on Y.
Complete tooth profiles for X and Y, which are formed of por-
tions of the cycloids determined as outlined above, are shown in
Fig. 219. It will be clear that, once the cycloidal tooth profiles
have been determined, the transmission of uniform rotary motion
from X to Y requires that these two circles shall be in contact
at point P. If the distance between the centres 0 and Q is either
increased or decreased, the common normal to the two profiles at
the point of contact will no longer intersect the line of centres
OQ at a fixed point and therefore the motion transmitted will no
longer be uniform.
x] TOOTHED GEARING 325
In Fig. 220 two wheels with cycloidal teeth are shown in mesh.
The point of contact of the profiles lies on the circumference of
one or other of the rolling circles Z and Zls which are used to
generate the profiles.
If X drives Y, the flank of the profile on X makes contact with
the face of the profile on Y and the point of contact follows the
arc AP until the pitch point P is reached. Beyond this point the
face of the profile on X makes contact with the flank of the profile
on Y and the point of contact follows the arc PB. The point A
at which contact begins is given by the point of intersection of the

addendum circle of Y with the rolling circle Z and the point B at

which contact ends by the point of intersection of the addendum
circle of X with the rolling circle Zx. The curved line APB is
the path of contact.
It will be seen that the pressure angle varies with cycloidal
teeth. It is a maximum at the beginning of engagement, when
the point of contact between the teeth coincides with A, and
diminishes in value as the point of contact moves along the arc
AP. It is zero at the pitch point and then begins to increase
again, reaching a maximum value at the end of engagement, when
the point of contact coincides with B.
326 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

127. The Involute. An involute may be defined as the locus of

a point on a straight line which rolls, without slipping, on the
circumference of a circle, or, alternatively, it may be defined as
the locus of a point on a cord which is held taut and unwound
from a cylinder. The circle on which the straight line rolls or
from which the cord is unwound is known as the base circle. The
normal to the involute at a given point is obviously the tangent
drawn from that point to the base circle and the radius of curva-
ture of the involute at that point is equal to the length of the
tangent. A geometrical construction for the involute is shown in
Fig. 227. Through the point A on the base circle draw the tan-

gent AX. Along AX and along the circumference of the base

circle mark off a number of points b, c, d, e, f, etc., and b1? cl5 d1?
e1? f1; etc., at equal distances apart. Let F be the position of the
point on the tangent which originally coincided with A when the
tangent has rolled on the base circle so that f coincides with f1#
Then F may be found as follows:
Through f draw a circular arc with 0 as centre; with centre fx and
radius Af draw a second circular arc. The point of intersection of
these two arcs will be the required point F on the involute curve.
Proof: By construction, fjF = Af, Of = OF and Ofx = OA,
so that the triangles OfiF, OAf are equal in all respects.
x] TOOTHED GEARING 327
Hence, angle OfjF = angle OAf = 90° and the line f\F is tan-
gential to the base circle.
But fxF = Af and by construction Af = arc Af1} so that the
length of the tangent Ffx = length of arc Afx. The point F is
therefore a point on the involute curve which passes through A.
Other points, such as B, C, D, etc., may be found in the same
way and joined by a smooth curve to give the involute AF.
Let 0 and Q be the fixed centres of two base circles and let the
corresponding involutes be in contact at the point R, Fig. 222.
Since the normal of an involute at a given point is the tangent
drawn from that point to the base circle, it follows that the
common normal to the two involutes is also the common tangent
to the two base circles. Hence the common normal at the point of
contact intersects the line of centres at the fixed point P, and this
is the necessary condition for the transmission of uniform motion
from 0 to Q. The ratio of the angular velocities of the base
circles, when motion is transmitted from one to the other by
contact between the two involutes, is identical with that given by
pure rolling between two circles of radii OP and QP.
The following alternative explanation may be given. Let A
move to Ax so that B moves to B! and R to Rj. Then, since
arc NA = tangent NR and arc NAj = tangent NRi, it follows
that:
arc AAX = arc NAj—arc NA = NRj—NR = RRj
Similarly,
arc BBX = arc MB—arc MBj = MR—MRx = RRi
arc AAl = arc BBX = RRj

The motion transmitted from O to Q is therefore identical with

that which would be transmitted from a pulley of radius ON to a
pulley of radius QM by means of a crossed belt.
It should be particularly noted that the shape of an involute
curve is solely determined by the diameter of the base circle and
that the distance between the centres of the base circles may be
increased or decreased without affecting the motion transmitted.
This constitutes one of the most valuable properties of the involute
as a shape for the profiles of wheel teeth.
The common tangent NM to the base circles is inclined at the
angle if/ to the common tangent to the pitch circles at the point P.
For given base circles the angle if/ will clearly vary if the centre
distance is varied. Since the point of contact of two involutes
lies on the common tangent to the base circles, the angle ifj is the
pressure angle.
328 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

128. Involute Teeth. In practice the involute profile extends

from the base circle to the addendum circle and one pair of
involutes is in contact for a small fraction only of a revolution of
either wheel. If motion is to be transmitted continuously, it is
necessary for a second pair of profiles to come into contact before
engagement of the first pair ends. Actually there is always some
overlapping during which two pairs of profiles are in contact at
the same instant. In Fig. 222 the two positions for the profiles
might in fact represent the profiles of two adjacent teeth. As we
have already seen, arc AAX = arc BBl5 so that the distance be-
tween the profiles of two adjacent teeth on one wheel, measured
along the base circle, must be the same as the distance between
the profiles of the corresponding adjacent teeth on the other wheel.
But for different base circle diameters a given profile on one
wheel will not always make contact with the same profile on the
other wheel, so that the necessary condition is that the profiles
of all teeth on both wheels must be equally spaced round the
circumference of the base circle. The distance between corre-
sponding profiles of adjacent teeth, measured along the base
circle, is known as the base pitch.

129. Standard Proportions for Interchangeable Gears. Where a

set of gears is required any two of which will gear together
correctly, it is necessary that the pitch, the addendum and the
dedendum shall be the same for each wheel in the set. If the
tooth profiles are cycloidal, it is also necessary that the rolling
circle shall be of the same diameter for the faces and flanks of all
wheels. In practice the diameter of this circle is made equal to
one-half the pitch diameter of the smallest pinion in the set. The
flanks of this pinion are then radial, since the hypocycloid becomes
a diameter of the pitch circle.
If the tooth profiles are involute, the pressure angle ip must be
the same for all wheels in the set.
Standard proportions for the teeth originated with the Brown
and Sharpe Manufacturing Co., and are as follows:
Addendum = pfrr — 0-3183p = 1 fpd = m
Dedendum = P/TT+P/20 — 0-3683p — lT571/pd = l-1571m
For involute teeth xp = 14|°
There are serious objections to the use of a pressure angle of
14|°, as the flanks of pinions with a small number of teeth are
undercut so that correct tooth action is prevented and the teeth
are weakened (see Article 130). These objections can be over-
come to some extent by increasing the pressure angle and reducing
the addendum of the tooth. The teeth are then known as stub
*] TOOTHED GEARING 329
teeth. Although there is a lack of uniformity in the proportions
of stub teeth as adopted by different manufacturers, the pressure
angle is generally 20° and the addendum is 0-8 of the B. and S.
standard addendum, while the dedendum is equal to the B. and S.
standard addendum.
In the Fellows stub-tooth system the tooth is shortened by using
the addendum corresponding to a smaller pitch than that on which
the pitch diameter is based. The proportions are then expressed
in fractional form. Thus f indicates that the diametral pitch
is 5, but that the addendum corresponds to a diametral pitch of
7 and is therefore 0T429 in. Other proportions are f, f, f, f, etc.
In this system the clearance is larger than in the B. and S. system,
as the dedendum is always 25% greater than the addendum.
The proportions recommended by the British Standards Institu-
tion in B.S.S. 436—19401 are:
Addendum = 0-3183^ = l/pd — m
Dedendum = 1 -25 X addendum = 0-3979p
Pressure angle = 20°
Working depth = 0-6366^ = 2/pd = 2m
But, where one or both wheels have a small number of teeth,
these proportions are modified in order to obtain full involute
action and teeth which are both stronger and more resistant to
wear. The full recommendations of B.S.436:1940 are too lengthy
to reproduce here, but the principles involved, in so far as they
affect correct tooth action are
covered in Articles 130-133.
For Class Al, precision-
ground gears, a larger deden-
dum of 1-44 X addendum is
specified, but the working
depth remains equal to the sum
of the addenda of the mating
teeth, i.e. 2m as given above.
130. The Involute Rack and
Pinion. Interference. Since the
path of contact for a pair of
involute teeth is the tangent
to the base circle which passes
through the pitch point, it follows that the teeth of an involute
rack are straight-sided, as shown in Fig. 223. The straight
sides of the teeth are obviously at right angles to the path of
contact. This simple shape is a great advantage and it has
1
See footnote on page 321.
11*—T.M.
330 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

enabled very accurate methods of generating the teeth of in-

volute gear wheels to be developed. These methods are described
in a later section of the chapter. At present it will suffice to
say that in modern methods of cutting gear wheels the accuracy
with which the profiles of the gear teeth can be machined depends
ultimately on the accuracy with which the profile of the rack
tooth can be reproduced. Hence the simpler the shape of the
rack tooth the greater the accuracy with which it can be re-
produced and the greater the accuracy with which the profiles of
the gear teeth can be machined.
In any involute system the shape of the rack tooth for unit
pitch is taken as the standard and it is known as the basic rack
tooth shape.
The involute profile of the tooth of the pinion extends from
the base circle to the addendum circle. If the pinion has a small
number of teeth, the dedendum circle is smaller in diameter than
the base circle. At the point where the involute curve springs
from the base circle, the curve is tangential to a radius of the base
circle and theoretically the part of the tooth profile wrhich lies
between the base circle and the dedendum circle could be made
radial, as showm in Eig. 223. This shape of profile would, how-
ever, give rise to interference between the tips of the rack teeth
and the flanks of the pinion teeth.
Eig. 224 is drawn to scale for an 8-tooth pinion gearing with a
rack and shows the locus of the corner A of the rack tooth, when
the pitch surfaces of the rack and pinion roll together and the rack
is the driver. As the rack tooth moves into engagement with the
pinion tooth, the straight profile of the rack tooth makes contact
with the involute profile of the pinion tooth. The point of contact
gradually moves down the face of the pinion tooth until it coincides
with the point D on the base circle. The relative positions of
the rack and pinion teeth are then as shown at X and the rack
tooth profile coincides with a radial line on the pinion. Further
movement of the rack causes interference between the corner A
and the radial flank of the pinion, the amount of the interference
being shown by cross-hatching. In order to avoid interference it
would therefore be necessary for this part of the pinion flank to be
removed, i.e. the flank would have to be undercut. Note that
during this part of the engagement between the two teeth only
the extreme point A of the rack tooth makes contact with the
undercut flank of the pinion tooth.
To illustrate the method of drawing the locus of the tip A of the
rack tooth as the pitch line of the rack rolls on the pitch circle
of the pinion, the construction for the two points c and cx is given
below.
X] TOOTHED GEARING 331
To find c mark off PT, PS and arc PR all equal and of any con-
venient length and draw TC parallel to the rack tooth profile PA.
Along RO mark off Rb = PB = addendum of rack tooth. With
centre 0 and radius OC draw arc Cc and mark point c such that
be = BC. Point c will then be the position of the tip of the rack
tooth, when the pitch line of the rack is rolled on the pitch circle
of the pinion until S coincides with R. Similarly, point cx is
found by marking off PT: = PS: = arc PRj, drawing T^ parallel

to PA, describing arc C1c1 with centre 0 and radius OC! and
marking c: such that b1c1 = BC^ The tip of the rack tooth will
be at point c: when the pitch line of the rack is rolled on the pitch
circle of the pinion until Sx coincides with Rx. If this construction
is repeated for several values of PR and PR^, a sufficient number
of points will be obtained to enable the complete curve to be
drawn.
It is clear that, if the flanks of the pinion are undercut as in
Eig. 224, the path of contact will be discontinuous. As the rack
332 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

tooth moves into engagement with the pinion tooth, contact begins
at point M and moves along the path MPN. For that part of
the period of engagement beyond N, the corner A of the rack
tooth makes contact with the undercut flank of the pinion tooth
and the path of contact lies along the addendum line of the rack.
Actually, owing to the removal of a small part of the involute
profile of the pinion tooth, it would not be possible to transmit
uniform motion from the rack to the pinion.
When a pinion gears with a wheel, interference between the
tips of the wheel teeth and the flanks of the pinion teeth may
occur in just the same way. The amount of interference decreases
as the number of teeth on the wheel decreases. Interference can
only be prevented if the point of contact between the two teeth
is always on the involute profiles of both teeth. Since the path
of contact for two involute curves is the common tangent to the
two base circles, it follows that interference can only be prevented
if the addendum circles of the two mating gears cut the common tan-
gent between the points of tangency.

131. The Minimum Number of Teeth required on the Pinion in

order to avoid Interference. Before continuing with the present
article the reader is advised to study the section on the methods of
manufacture of gear wheels, Article 140. As pointed out in the
preceding article, if interference is to be avoided the addendum
circles for the two mating wheels must cut the common tangent
to the base circles between the points of tangency. The limiting
condition will be reached when the addendum circles of the wheel
and pinion pass through the points N and M respectively in
Fig. 225. Obviously the limiting addendum for the pinion is
larger than that for the wheel and, where the addenda are equal,
it is interference between the tips of the wheel teeth and the flanks
of the pinion teeth which has to be guarded against.
From the triangle NPQ,
NQ2 = PQ2+NP2-2PQ.NP cos NPQ
= PQ2-f-NP2-|-2PQ.NP sin f
But NP = OP sin f
.'. NQ2 =PQ2+OP2 sin2^+2PQ.OP sin2 f

=^i1+n(m+2)sin^}
• NQ = PQy{l+gg+2)Sin^}
x] TOOTHED GEARING 333
and the addendum of the wheel = NQ—PQ

(10.2)

Let t = number of teeth on the pinion

T number of teeth on the wheel
and aw.m = the addendum of the wheel, where aw is a fraction
and m is the module of the teeth.
Then OP/PQ = tJT and PQ = Tmj 2
Substituting in (10.2):
Tm
awm = / 1
{ +|(^+2) sin2 </» — 1

• •
(P/2){V(1+A sin2 I/J) — 1} (10.3)
where A = (tJT)(tJT-\-2), and its value depends only on the gear
ratio.
From (10.3): 2aw
. . (10.4)
~ V( 1 + A sin2 i/f) — 1
and therefore
2aw.t/T
. . (10.5)
y ( 1 + A sin2 I/J) — 1
/

This equation gives the minimum number of teeth required on

the pinion in order to avoid interference between the flanks of
the pinion teeth and the tips of the wheel teeth.
334 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

For equal wheels t = T and (10.5) reduces to:

2
«w
t = . (10.6)
\/(l+3 sin2 tp) — 1
While for a pinion gearing with a rack it is not difficult to show
that (10.5) reduces to:
t — 2ar/sin2 ip .... (10.7)
where aT is the addendum of the rack expressed as a fraction of
the module.
Equation (10.7) could, of course, be obtained more easily from
first principles. Thus, in Fig. 226, PN is the tangent drawn from
the pitch point to the base circle and in order to avoid under-
cutting of the flanks of the pinion the addendum of the rack must
not exceed NV.
But NY = PN sin ip and PN = OP sin ip
NV — OP sin2 ip
Also NV = aTm and OP = tm/2, so that aT = (tj2) sin2 ip which
gives equation (10.7).
Example 4. What is the smallest number of teeth theoretically
required in order to avoid interference on a pinion which is to gear
with (a) a rack, (b) an equal pinion, (c) a wheel to give a ratio of
3 to 1?
The pressure angle is 20° and a standard addendum of one
module is to be assumed.
(a) From (10.7), with ar = 1,

17-1, say 18
sin2 20° 0-1170
(b) From (10.6), with aw = 1,
_ 2
t
-\/(l+3 sin2 ip) — 1

= = = 12 4, Say 13
Vl-351— 1 0-162 '
(c) A = (*/T)((/y+2) = (l/3)(l/3+2) = 7/9
and from (10.5) with aw = 1,
I 11 2

1 ~ V^+f-O- ™) —1 ~ 3(1-044-1)
= 2/0-132 = 15-1, say 16
X] TOOTHED GEARING 335
Although the values of t calculated in the above example
represent the theoretical minimum numbers of teeth for the three
cases, there are reasons why in practice larger numbers are used.
One reason is that the tooth profiles are often generated with a
rack cutter, or a hob. The limitation imposed by engagement
with a rack must therefore necessarily apply during the generating
process, independent of whether the finished pinion is to mate
with a rack or a wheel.
There is another more important reason for using a larger
number of teeth than the theoretical minimum. This is con-
nected with the shape of the involute curve close to the base
circle, which makes it unsuitable for inclusion in the working
profile. The small and rapidly changing radius of curvature of
this part of the involute would inevitably lead to high contact
stresses and more rapid wear. In addition small inaccuracies in
the finished profile close to the base circle would have a relatively
much greater adverse effect on the smoothness of the motion
transmitted than small inaccuracies in the profile further from
the base circle.
It follows that the part of the involute which constitutes the
working profile should never include that part of the involute
which lies close to the base circle. Referring to Eig. 227, the
involute profile CAG for the tooth of the wheel is shown in the
extreme position when it makes contact with the extreme tip of
the pinion tooth. As the wheel rotates clockwise and drives the
pinion, the point of contact between the teeth moves along the
profile CAG and ultimately reaches the extreme tip of the tooth
when CAG has moved to DHB. The part CA of the profile,
between the base circle and the point of intersection A of the
addendum circle of the pinion and the common tangent to the
base circles MN, does not form part of the working profile.
Similarly, the part of the pinion tooth profile between its base
circle and the point of intersection B of the addendum circle of
the wheel and the common tangent MN does not form part of the
working profile.
It is clear that the working profiles start further from the base
circles the greater the distances MA and NB. From a practical
point of view these distances should be as large as possible relative
to the distance MN. Ideally, since all involute curves are geo-
metrically similar, it would appear to be desirable that PA/PM
= PB/PN. This necessarily means that for mating gears of un-
equal size the addendum of the wheel is smaller than the addendum
of the pinion. So-called “ corrected ” gears are obtained by
modifying the addenda in this way. (See Article 133.)
It is of interest to calculate the minimum total number of teeth
336 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

in a gear pair with modified addenda, when the working depth is

to be standard.
Equation (10.7) gives the relation between the maximum
addendum of the rack cutter, the number of teeth on the pinion
or wheel and the pressure angle. The addendum of the rack
cutter when cutting the teeth of one wheel is also the addendum
of the teeth on the mating gear.
In terms of the module, the maximum addendum of the rack
cutter, when generating the tooth profiles, is given by
aTm — (t/2) m sin2 </<
maximum addendum of wheel = maximum addendum of
rack cutter when cutting the pinion
= (t/2)m sin2 </r
maximum addendum of pinion = maximum addendum of rack
cutter, when cutting the wheel
= (T/2)m sin2 IJJ
and the maximum working depth = sum of maximum addenda
t-\-T . ,
= — - m sm29 ip

But the standard working depth = 2m.

t-\-T 4
m sin2 T
dj — 2m or t-\-T =
2 sm92 ifj
If if, = 14|°,
t+T = 4/0-0627 = 63-8, say 64
If tfj = 20°,
t+T = 4/0-1170 = 34-2, say 35
Hence, if undercutting of the flanks is to be avoided and the
standard working depth of 2 modules is required, the sum of the
numbers of teeth on the mating wheels must not be less than 64
when ip is 14|°, nor less than 35 when I(J is 20°.
When stub-teeth are used, the standard addendum is less than
the module and the sum of the numbers of teeth may be less than
for teeth with an addendum of 1 module without giving rise to
undercutting of the flanks. For instance, if the addendum is 0*8
module and the pressure angle is 20°, the working depth is 1-6
module and t-\-T must be greater than 0-8.34*2 = 27-4 or, say, 28.
B.S. 436:1940 recommends that, for a pair of gear wheels which
are to be mounted at standard centre distance with standard
working depth, the total number of teeth shall be not less than 60.
*1 TOOTHED GEARING 337
This is considerably greater than the theoretical minimum of 35
calculated above. The purpose is to displace the working profiles
along the involute curves so that the part of the involute close to
the base circle is not included and thus contact conditions for the
tooth profiles are improved.

132. The Length of the Arc of Contact. The length of the arc
of contact must be at least equal to the circular pitch of the teeth,
so that a second pair of teeth will begin to engage before engage-

ment between the preceding pair ends. Referring to Fig. 227, the
addendum circles cut the common tangent MN at the points A
and B. The length of the path of contact is therefore equal to
AB.
AB =AP+PB
but AP = AN-PN = V(OA2—ON2)—OP sin if,
= -\/(OA2—OP2 cos2 ifj)—OP sin iJJ
also PB = BM-PM = v'(QB2-QM2)-QP sin if,
= -v/(QB2—QP2 cos2 ip)—QP sini/r
Since OA = ra, OP = r, QB = R& and QP = R, we have:
AB == ^(ra2—r2cos2ip)Jr-\/(Ra2—R2cos2ifj)—(rJrR)sm if, (10.8)
338 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The arc of contact = arc GH = arc KL. But arc GH

= arc CD/cos *p and arc CD = path of contact AB,
„ path of contact- AB
arc of contact = (10.9)
COS iff COS Ijj

Example 5. Two gear wheels, each with 25 teeth of involute

form and a pressure angle of 20°, are required to give an arc of
contact equal to l-6p, where p is the circular pitch. What is
the addendum required ?
From equation (10.8) the length of the path of contact is given
by:
AB == 2{y/(7?a2—J22 cos2 *p)—R sin ip)
But R — 25p/27T and ip = 20°,
AB = 2{y'(I?a2 —13-97p2) —l*361p}
But from (10.9) the arc of contact — AB/cos ip,
.*. AB = l-60p cos ip = 1-504p
and l-504p = 2{^(R2 — 13-97p2) — l-361p}
V(^a2-13-97^2) = 2-113p
R2 —13-97^2 = 4-47^2
R2 = 18-44p2
/. I2a = 4-295j)
The addendum required
= R&—R = 4-295^—3-978^ = 0-317p
Example 6. Two gear wheels have respectively 28 and 45 teeth
and a standard addendum of one module. Find the length of the
path of contact and the length of the arc of contact when the
pressure angle is (a) 14J°, (b) 20°.
The pitch radius of the smaller wheel,
r = 28m/2 = 14m
The addendum radius of the smaller wheel,
ra = r-\-m — 15 m
The pitch radius of the larger wheel,
R — 45m/2 = 22-5 m
The addendum radius of the larger wheel,
Jf?a = R-\-m — 23-5m
x] TOOTHED GEARING 339
(a) ifj = 14|°. Substituting in (10.8) the length of the path of
contact:
AB = mV(152-142.cos2 14£°) +
mV(23-52—22-52 0
2 14| )—m36-5 sin 14|°
cos

= m{-\/(225 — 183’7)-b\/(552*3—474-4) — 9T39}

= m(6-426 + 8-826 —9-139)
= 6-113m
Or, since p = TTm, AB = 1 -945p, the length of the arc of contact
= AB/cos ip — 6-314m — 2-010p
(b) ip = 20°. Substituting in (10.8), the length of the path of
contact:
AB = m{v/(225~173-l)+V(552-3-447-l)-12-48}
= m(7-204 + 10-25 —12-48)
= 4-97m = l-582p
The length of the arc of contact
= AB/cos ip = 5-29m = l-683p
133. Methods of Reducing or Eliminating Interference. There
are three ways by which undercutting of the flanks of pinions with
small numbers of teeth may be avoided. They are as follows:
(a) The part of the flank of the pinion tooth which lies within
the base circle and the part of the face of the gear tooth which
engages with it may be made cycloidal instead of involute in
shape.
(b) The addenda of the teeth on the wheel and pinion may be
modified, the addendum of the wheel being reduced by the amount
necessary to avoid interference and that of the pinion being
correspondingly increased.
(c) The centre distance for two mating gears may be made
larger than the standard centre distance, which has the effect of
increasing the pressure angle and so avoiding interference.
(a) Modified Involute or Composite System. If a standard
addendum and a pressure angle of 14§° are used, the smallest
pinion that will gear with a rack without interference has 32 teeth.
As it is desirable in practice to be able to use a pinion with only
12 teeth, the shape of the basic rack tooth has to be modified.
Eig. 228 shows a rack gearing with a 12-tooth pinion. The
profiles of the teeth consist partly of involute curves and partly
of cycloidal curves. The cycloidal parts of the profiles are shown
shaded. The rolling circles used each have a diameter equal to the
340 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

pitch radius of the pinion. The involute parts of the profiles are
shown unshaded. They are in contact while the point of contact
travels along the common tangent MN to the base circles of two
12-tooth pinions. The shaded part of the flank of the pinion tooth
makes contact with the shaded part of
o
the face of the rack tooth, while the
point of contact moves from A to M
along the circumference of the rolling
circle. Similarly, the shaded part of the
face of the pinion tooth makes contact
with the shaded part of the flank of the
rack tooth while the point of contact
moves from N to B along the circum-
ference of the rolling circle.
Since the path of contact includes
parts of the rolling circles, any two gears
which are based on this system will only
gear together correctly if the centre dis-
tance is exact, and one of the advan-
tages of the pure involute profile is lost.
A more serious disadvantage of the
FIG. 228 composite system is that the profile of the
rack tooth cannot be reproduced with
the same degree of accuracy as the straight-sided profile of the
involute rack.

(b) Modified Addenda of the Wheel and Pinion. The addendum

of the wheel and the addendum of the pinion are generally made
of equal lengths, but, as we have seen in Article 131, both addenda
are limited by the condition that there shall be no undercutting
of the flanks of the teeth. The permissible addendum of the
pinion is, however, longer than the permissible addendum of the
wheel. It is therefore possible, where wheels with small numbers
of teeth are involved, to avoid undercutting of the flanks of the
pinion by reducing the addendum of the wheel and yet to retain
sufficient working depth for the teeth by increasing the addendum
of the pinion. As far as possible the addendum of the pinion
should be increased by exactly the same amount as the addendum
of the wheel is reduced, so that the full standard working depth is
retained.
The shape of the tooth profiles, when undercutting of the flanks
is avoided by modifying the addenda in this way, is shown in
Fig. 229, which is drawn to scale for a 10-tooth pinion meshing
with a 30-tooth wheel, the pressure angle being 20°. For compari-
son the shapes of the teeth with standard addenda are also shown
X] TOOTHED GEARING 341
at X and Y. Note that with standard addenda the teeth of the
pinion are undercut, but that with the modified addenda there is
no undercutting of the flanks. The pitch-line thicknesses of the
teeth are, however, different with the modified addenda, the
thickness of the pinion tooth being greater and that of the wheel
tooth being less than one-half the circular pitch. The reason for
this difference of thickness is that when cutting the pinion teeth
the pitch-line of the rack cutter is displaced towards the tops of
the cutter teeth by an amount equal to the required modification
of the addendum of the pinion teeth. Similarly, when cutting
the wheel teeth the pitch line of the rack cutter is displaced
towards the roots of the cutter teeth by an amount equal to the

required modification of the addendum of the wheel teeth. The

sum of the pitch-line thicknesses of the wheel and pinion teeth is,
of course, still equal to the circular pitch. The actual thicknesses
of the teeth are equal to the widths of the tooth space on the rack
cutter at the corresponding pitch fine positions, and they are
given by:
(TT/2^Z2C tan ifj)m

where c is the amount by which the addendum of the pinion is

increased and the addendum of the wheel is reduced as compared
with the standard addendum of one module.
For the 10-tooth pinion the addendum of the rack cutter to
avoid interference is 0-585 module (from 10.7), and therefore
c = 1—0-585 = 0-415.
342 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The pitch-line thickness of the pinion tooth

= (TT/2+0-830 tan 20°)m
= l-873w
and the pitch-line thickness of the wheel tooth
= (77/2—0-830 tan 30°)m
= 1 -269m
It will be seen from Eig. 229 that the general effect of modifying
the addenda of the teeth so as to avoid interference is to strengthen
the pinion teeth, but to weaken the wheel teeth.
(c) Increased Centre Distance. In Article 127 it was shown that
the shape of the involute depends solely upon the diameter of the
base circle and that as a consequence the same pair of involutes
will transmit uniform motion quite independently of the distance
between the centres of the base circles. The effect of changing
the centre distance is simply to increase the pressure angle.
This means that, if two wheels are provided with involute teeth,
the centre distance may be increased within limits without
destroying the correctness of the tooth action. Nevertheless
the increased centre distance will have two undesirable effects,
viz. (a) the acting pitch circle diameters of the wheels will be
larger than the nominal pitch circle diameters, so that the effective
addenda, the working depth, and the arc of contact will all be
reduced; (b) considerable backlash will be introduced between
the teeth.
From the purely theoretical standpoint, however, there is no
reason why the radius of the addendum circle of the pinion should
not be increased so as to increase the working depth of the teeth
and at the same time lengthen the arc of contact; nor is there any
objection to shifting one of the profiles of the pinion tooth so as
to eliminate backlash. It would, of course, be possible to make
the above changes on the wheel instead of on the pinion, or part
of the change might be made on the pinion and part on the wheel.
Fig. 230 shows part of a 10-tooth pinion and a 30-tooth wheel
which have been separated so that the centre distance corresponds
to 41 teeth, i.e. one more than the sum of the actual numbers of
teeth on the wheel and pinion. The shapes of the teeth, as shown
shaded, correspond to standard proportions and a pressure
angle of 14|°. The pinion tooth shape shown by the unshaded line
has been obtained (a) by increasing the addendum and dedendum
radii so as to give normal clearances, and (b) by shifting the right-
hand profile, without altering its shape, until it touches the next
wheel tooth profile and so eliminates backlash.
X] TOOTHED GEARING 343
It will be seen that the pinion tooth is very much improved in
shape by the above changes. The profile is for the most part
above the base circle, so that undercutting is reduced, if not
entirely eliminated, and the tooth is also stronger.
The above example is given in order to show that undercutting
of the flanks of wheels with small numbers of teeth may be
avoided by using a centre distance which is greater than the stan-
dard centre distance. It is not suggested that it would be prac-
ticable to make the necessary changes to the shape and dimensions
of the pinion tooth, because, of course, a standard cutter would
have to be used on the score of expense. But it would be quite
practicable for the modifications to be made partly on the pinion
and partly on the wheel and
yet to use a standard cutter
when forming the teeth. For
instance, assume that a wheel
blank for a 10-tooth pinion is
of standard diameter, i.e. pitch
diameter plus 2 modules, and
has the teeth cut with a stand-
ard 14|° cutter, the distance of
the nominal pitch line of the
cutter from the axis of the blank
being so adjusted that there is
no undercutting of the flanks.
Then the teeth obtained will be
much shorter than the stand-
ard length and the shape will
be as shown at X in Fig. 231.
The outline of the rack cutter
teeth is shown in its correct
position relative to the axis of
the blank and e is the distance of the actual pitch line PP of the
cutter from the nominal pitch line QQ, when generating the teeth.
For simplicity the additional length of cutter tooth required in
order to give the clearance at the root of the pinion teeth is not
shown, since it does not in any way affect the tooth action.
Assume that a blank for a 30-tooth wheel of standard diameter
also has the teeth cut in the same way with a standard 14f°
cutter so as to avoid undercutting. The displacement ex of the
generating pitch line PiPi from the nominal pitch line QiQi of
the cutter will be much smaller than for the 10-tooth pinion, and
the teeth will be only slightly shorter than the standard length.
Their shape and the outline of the cutter teeth are shown at Y,
Fig. 231.
344 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The two wheels cut in the above way may be geared together,
without backlash, if the centre distance is suitably chosen. Two
of the teeth are shown in mesh at Z. The required centre distance
will be greater than the standard centre distance and, since the
diameters of the base circles are fixed by the numbers of teeth and
the pressure angle and pitch of the cutter teeth, the working
pressure angle will be larger than that of the cutter. The actual
pitch diameters of the two wheels will also be larger than the
nominal pitch diameters.

It should be noted that in the particular combination shown the

addendum radius of the wheel is slightly larger than the root
radius of the pinion will allow, if clearance is neglected. This
would not matter in practice, because the cutter teeth are actually
extended so as to provide for clearance. A much more important
point to notice is the very large clearance between the tops of the
pinion teeth and the roots of the wheel teeth. This means that
the working depth is small and the arc of contact short. But
there is clearly no reason why the addendum diameter of the
 X] TOOTHED GEARING 345
pinion should not be increased, so as to make the length of the
pinion tooth equal to that of the wheel tooth. This would have
the effect of lengthening the arc of contact.
The complete calculations involved in examining a combination
similar to that of Fig. 231 are too lengthy to reproduce here.
The reader is referred to Spur Gears, by Earle Buckingham, for
the necessary details. . It may perhaps be stated that the centre
distance is increased in the above example from 20 to 20-62
modules, the working pressure angle is 20° 7' and, if the outside
diameter of the pinion is increased to 12-12 modules so as to make
the length of the pinion tooth equal to that of the wheel tooth,
the working depth is 1-874 modules and the arc of contact is 1-314
times the nominal circular pitch.
It must be emphasised that Fig. 231 is to be taken only as an
indication of what can be done to obtain correct tooth action,
when both wheels have a small number of teeth. In practice it
would be undesirable to work so close to the theoretical limits.
For instance B.S. 436:1940, standard pressure angle 20°, recom-
mends that, if the total number of teeth in any gear pair is less
than 60, both wheels shall, in general, be cut with modified
addenda and an increased centre distance shall be used. A curve
is given from which the appropriate increase of centre distance
may be read in terms of the sum of the corrections applied to
the addenda of the mating wheels. For the combination of a
10-tooth pinion and a 30-tooth wheel, it is specified that the
addendum of the pinion shall be increased to 1-40 times the
standard addendum of one module, but that the addendum of the
wheel shall be standard. The sum of the corrections to the
addenda is therefore 0-40 and the appropriate increase of centre
distance as read from the curve is 0-375 module.
134. Helical Gears. In order to diminish noise and increase the
smoothness of operation, the teeth of spur wheels may be cut so
that each one forms part of a helix. A pair of helical gears is
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 232 (a). It will be seen that the
teeth of the two wheels are of opposite hand, those on the lower
wheel being cut right-handed while those on the upper wheel are
cut left-handed.
The pitch measured at right-angles to the teeth is termed the
normal pitch, and differs from the circular pitch which determines
the pitch circle diameters of the wheels.
Let p = the normal pitch,
pc = the circular pitch
and a = the spiral angle of the teeth.
Then pc — pjcos a
346 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The pitch circle diameter of a helical wheel with a given normal

pitch is 1 /cos a times the pitch circle diameter of a spur wheel with
the same number of teeth and pitch.
Since the normal thrust between
the teeth is inclined to the axis of
I =3 rotation, there is an axial thrust on
-"J each shaft. To obviate this axial
thrust the teeth are more often cut
in the form of a double helix, as
shown in Fig. 232 (b), when equal
and opposite thrusts are produced
on each wheel and no axial thrust
is transmitted to the shafts.
The involute shape is invariably
used for the profiles of single and
double-helical gears and the action
of the teeth is essentially the same
as for normal spur gears. The chief
FIG. 232 advantage of helical gears lies in the
gradual engagement of each pair of
teeth, which contributes greatly to the smoothness and quietness
of operation and at the same time increases the load-carrying
capacity.

135. Bevel Gearing. When two shafts, the axes of which inter-
sect, are to be connected by gearing, the wheels are known as
bevel wheels. The pitch surfaces which by a pure rolling action
will transmit the same motion as the bevel wheels are then frusta
of cones, the apices of which coincide with the point of intersection
of the axes of the two shafts: Fig. 212 (b). In order to provide
a positive drive between the two shafts it is
necessary to have interlocking projections or teeth
on each conical frustum. The profiles of the teeth
must be shaped, as in the case of spur gears, so
as to satisfy the fundamental condition for the
transmission of uniform motion. It is therefore
clear that cycloidal or involute profiles may be
adopted. The cycloidal tooth profile will be that
generated by an element of a cone rolling on the
pitch cone. If the generating cone rolls on the
outside of the pitch cone it will sweep out the FIG. 233
profile of the face of the tooth, and if it rolls on the
inside of the pitch cone it will sweep out the profile of the flank
of the tooth: Fig. 233. It is obvious that the apex of the
generating cone must coincide with the apex of the pitch cone.
x] TOOTHED GEARING 347
It should also be noted that a point on the generating cone moves
on a spherical surface, since the distance from the apex is constant.
The cycloids are therefore spherical cycloids and the true shape
of the path followed by a point on the generating cone cannot be
represented by a curve on a plane surface. In practice a method
known as Tredgold’s approximation is employed. This approxi-
mation consists in substituting for the actual spherical surface
the conical surface which is tangential to it. Thus in Eig. 234
the cycloidal profile of the outer edge of the tooth actually lies
on the surface of a sphere of radius OA with centre 0. The length

of the side of the tangent cone is PA and the shape of the tooth
profile is set out as for a spur gear of pitch radius PA, the diameter
of the generating cone at A being used as the rolling circle.
In a similar way the approximate shape of the profile for in-
volute teeth may be set out on the tangent cone, bearing in mind,
of course, that the length of the side of the tangent cone is
measured in this case from P to the base cone on which the in-
volute is actually generated. As with spur gears, the teeth of
bevel wheels are generally machined and the involute profile is
almost universally employed.
136. Spiral Gears. As pointed out in Article 122 spiral gearing
is used to comiect non-parallel, non-intersecting shafts. The pitch
surfaces are cylindrical and the teeth have point contact. Spiral
gears are, therefore, only suitable for transmitting small powers.
The shortest distance between the two shafts gives the centre
distance for a pair of spiral gears. When the gears are viewed in
the direction of this centre distance, the shaft angle is defined as
348 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the angle through which the axis of one shaft must be rotated in
order to bring it parallel to the axis of the other shaft and with
the two shafts revolving in opposite directions.
This definition of the shaft angle implies that a pair of helical
spur gears may be regarded as the special case of a pair of spiral
gears in which the shaft angle is zero.
Fig. 235 shows two pairs of spiral gears in which the relative
positions of the shafts are identical, but for the same direction
of rotation of the lower shaft the direction of rotation of the
upper shaft is reversed. The shaft angle is less than 90° for
the left-hand pair and greater than 90° for the right-hand pair.

In the plan views developments of the two pitch surfaces are shown
in which P is the pitch point. To satisfy the assumed direction
of rotation of the wheels, the line of the teeth must obviously
lie between EP and PG for the left-hand pair and between EXP
and PHj for the right-hand pair. The small arrows indicate the
directions of motion of the teeth at the pitch point.
It should be noticed that in both pairs of gears the shaft angle
is equal to the sum of the spiral angles of the teeth of the mating
wheels. Further, both the wheels A and B have left-hand helices,
while both the wheels Ax and Bx have right-hand helices. If for
each pair the positions of the shafts were interchanged, i.e. B above
x] TOOTHED GEARING 349
A and Bx above Ax and all other conditions remained unchanged,
all the wheels would have the directions of their helices reversed.
The normal pitch of the teeth must be the same for both wheels,
but the circular pitches will be different unless the spiral angles for
the teeth of both wheels are the same. Obviously the teeth
should be designed with a standard normal pitch, so as to enable
standard cutters to be used when cutting the wheels.
Let p = normal pitch,
p&= circular pitch of wheel A,
ph= circular pitch of wheel B,
T&, Th = number of teeth on wheels A and B,
a, fS
= the spiral angles of the teeth, i.e. the complements of
the lead angles,
6 = the shaft angle,
G = centre distance, i.e. the shortest distance between the
shafts,
Da, Dh = pitch circle diameters of A and B
and G = gear ratio = Th/T&.
Then p& = pjCOS a and ph = pj COS 0
b

.p
P

»
b

Also
II

ll

77 77 cos a
D Th.Pb Th.p
and b
77 77 cos /3

The centre distance C =

Ai+A)
o
T^.Pi( 1 , G
1 (10.10)
277 1icosoc cos 8
But (T&.p)fir is the pitch circle diameter of a spur gear with the
same number of teeth and normal pitch as the spiral gear A.
Let T^p/v = D'&,
D' ’ 1
then C i G \ (10.11)
cos a cos BJ

137. The Efficiency of Spiral Gearing. It will be found on

examination that the example on the inclined plane, which was
dealt with in Article 86 and which is shown in Fig. 132, represents
approximately the conditions that exist between the teeth of two
spiral gears when transmitting power. Actually the normal reac-
tion between the two teeth at the pitch point is inclined at the
350 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

pressure angle ip to the plane which is tangential to the pitch

surfaces, whereas, of course, in Fig. 132 the normal reaction
between the two surfaces lies in the plane of motion. The effect
on the efficiency is, however, only small. It may be approximately
allowed for by using a virtual coefficient of friction [x/cos ip instead
of the actual coefficient of friction [x for the tooth surfaces. P is
the pitch point, 6 is the shaft angle, a and are the spiral angles
of the teeth on the two wheels, and the elements A and B are
developments of the pitch surfaces. The axial thrust on the
wheels is, of course, taken by thrust bearings fitted to the shafts.
A tangential effort will be required on each wheel in order to
overcome the friction of the thrust and journal bearings, but,
since the pitch radius will generally be large in comparison with
the radius at which the friction force acts, the equivalent value
of /X! will be small and to a first approximation (pl may be neg-
lected. Hence the tangential effort F'& exerted on the driver
in order to overcome the tangential resistance Fh on the driven
wheel may be found by substituting (pY = 0 in equation (6.19),
cos (a—(f>)
F'a = F,1
- b
-1-
cos (P+<f>)
and the efficiency from equation (6.20) is given by:
cos a cos (0—a+</>)
(10.12)
^ cos (6—a)’ cos (a —<p)
The efficiency is a maximum, from (6.22), when
0+cP
a = (10.13)

The corresponding maximum efficiency, from (6.23), is

cos (0+<£) + l
w = (10j4)
cos (£-<£) +1 • • •
It will be found that the maximum efficiency falls off rapidly as
the shaft angle 6 is increased. In practice this angle seldom
exceeds 90°.

138. Design of Spiral Gears. The design of a pair of spiral gears

is facilitated if the following facts are borne in mind:
(a) As in all other types of gearing, the velocity ratio depends
solely on the numbers of teeth on the mating wheels.
(b) The efficiency is a maximum when the spiral angle of the
teeth on the driver satisfies equation (10.13), i.e. the spiral angle
should exceed the semi-angle of the shafts by some 2° to 4°.
X] TOOTHED GEARING 351
(c) If the spiral angle of the driver is arbitrarily fixed, it will
not usually be possible to specify arbitrarily an exact centre
distance.
(d) If the exact centre distance is specified, there will in general
be two values of a that will satisfy equation (10.11).
(e) If it is desired that one of the wheels should be as small
as possible, that wheel should have a small spiral angle.
(f) A change in the value of the normal pitch will sometimes
enable more efficient spiral angles to be used while still satisfying
the specified conditions.
Example 7. A pair of spiral gears is required to connect two
shafts with a shaft angle of 70°. The gear ratio is to be 2-5 to 1,
the diametral pitch 8 and the centre distance approximately 5 in.
Find the numbers of teeth on the two wheels and the spiral angles.
To find the number of teeth assume a = /?, then (10.11) reduces to
n, __ 2G
G = D
2 \cos a/
or
* ~ i+G cos a
But D'a = TJpd, and, on substituting,
2pd.G
a cos a
“ 1+G
Substituting the given data:
2.8.5
-■ , CT , cos 35° = 18-7
I +2-5

But the gear ratio is 2*5 to 1, so that T& must obviously be an

even number, say 18. Then Th = 2*5. TA = 45.
If the drive is to have maximum efficiency, a = (#+</>)/2 and,
assuming 0 = 6°, a = 38° and j3 = 32°, therefore substituting in
(10.11):
2-5 9
C = -(1-269+2-948) = 4-744 in.
2.8Vcos 38 cos 32 •- O
If tliis is not sufficiently close to the desired centre distance of
5 in. and strength considerations will allow, a diametral pitch of
6 or 10 may be tried.
If pd = 6, then Ta = 14, Tb = 35 and C = 4-920 in.
If pd — 10, then Ta = 24, Th = 60 and G — 5-060 in.
Where the centre distance has to be exactly 5 in., the spiral
angles a and ft must be altered so as to satisfy equation (10.11).
This will, of course, mean some sacrifice of efficiency. As already
pointed out, there are generally two values of a that will satisfy
(10.11). These two values may be found approximately by means
352 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

of the construction shown in Fig. 236. It is then a simple matter

to find the exact values by a process of trial and error.
D' D'
In Fig. 236, oa = —a, ob = angle aob = 180°—9. The
A A
lines ap and bq are respectively perpendicular to oa and ob and the
centre distance C is fitted in by trial, as shown by the two lines

c^d! amd c2od2. The corresponding spiral angles are al5 a2 and
@2,.
In order to enable a comparison to be made of the different
arrangements which have been suggested for the spiral gear pair,
the particulars are set down in the following table. The efficiency
has been calculated for each case from the appropriate equation
(10.12) or (10.14).

Pa Ta A, D. Db a P C V%

2-961 6-878 38° 32° 4-920 86-36

6 14 35 2-828 7-172 34° 26' 35° 34' 5-000 . 86-26
3-913 6-087 53° 23' 16° 37' 5-000 84-84
2-855 6-632 38° 32° 4-744 86-36
8 18 45 2-581 7-419 29° 18' 40° 42' 5-000 85-90
4-250 5-750 58° 2' 11° 58' 5-000 83-68
24 60 3-046 7-074 38° 32° 5-060 86-36
10 2-792 6-485 38° 32° 4-639 86-36
22 55 2-466 7-535 26° 54' 43° 6' 5-000 85-63
4-418 5-582 60° 8' 9° 52' 5-000 83-03

For each of the three diametral pitches, the first line gives the
spiral angles and the centre distance which correspond to maximum
efficiency. The next two lines give the spiral angles required and
 TOOTHED GEARING 353
the efficiency of the drive when the centre distance is exactly 5 in.
It should be noticed in this connection that it is impossible to
obtain a centre distance of exactly 5 in. with wheels of 10 diametral
pitch, unless Ta is reduced from 24 to 22. This accounts for the
change in the numbers of teeth in the last three lines of the table.
It will be seen that, if the centre distance has to be exactly 5 in.,
the most efficient arrangement is that represented by the second
line in the table. However, the difference in the efficiency of the
arrangements represented by the second, fifth and ninth lines in
the table is very small. Eor a given diametral pitch, a higher
efficiency is obtained when the smaller of the two possible values
of the spiral angle a of the teeth on the driving wheel is used.
139. Worm Gearing. Worm gearing is essentially a form of
spiral gearing in which the axes of the driving and the driven shafts
are usually, though not invariably, at right angles and the velocity
ratio is high, the driving wheel being of small diameter. It differs
from spiral gearing in one very important respect, namely, the
teeth have line contact instead of point contact, so that the load-
carrying capacity is much higher. The parallel type of worm, Fig.

FIG. 237

237 (a), is most often used, but the enveloping worm, Fig. 237 (b),
is claimed to have a greater load-carrying capacity. In appearance
the parallel worm resembles a multiple-threaded screw and the
wheel rim may be likened to a section, cut from a long nut by a
plane parallel to the axis, and then bent so as to form an annular
ring in a diametral plane of the screw or worm. As the worm
rotates, the intersections of the worm threads with the plane of
rotation of the wheel move parallel to the axis of the worm and
12—T.M.
354 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

thus cause the wheel to rotate on its axis. The relative motion
in the plane of the wheel is analogous to that of a rack and pinion
and interference between the tips of the worm threads and the
flanks of the wheel teeth may occur if the number of teeth on the
wheel is small. It will be obvious, however, that, since the worm
actually revolves, there is inevitably a considerable amount of
sliding between the worm threads and the wheel teeth in a direc-
tion tangential to the thread surface and approximately normal to
the plane of rotation of the wheel. In order to reduce this sliding
to a minimum, the diameter of the worm should be as small as
possible consistent with the provision of sufficient strength and
stiffness.
It is not possible here to enter into a detailed discussion of either
the different designs of worm or the nature of worm gear contacts.
Reference should be made to articles and correspondence in the
technical press and to papers read before the technical institutions.
The threads on the earliest type of worm were straight-sided on
an axial section, the profiles being identical with those of a 14|° or
15° involute rack. For large speed reductions and consequently
for large spiral angles of the worm thread, this profile gave satis-
factory contact between the thread and teeth. But for smaller
speed reductions and smaller spiral angles of the thread, the
straight profile leads to interference or undercutting on the wheel
teeth and the nature of the contact is not conducive to the main-
tenance between the contact surfaces of the oil film which is
essential for high efficiency. For the above reasons the British
Standards Institution, in their specification for worm gears,
B.S. 721:1937, recommend the involute helicoid form of worm
thread. This is the form of thread universally used for helical
and spiral gears. It is obtained by generating the threads with
a straight-sided involute rack cutter, the plane of the cutter being
normal to the thread helix on the pitch cylinder of the worm.
The wheel teeth are cut by a hob, which is of the same shape as
the worm, but with threads gashed so as to provide cutting edges.
During the process of cutting the wheel teeth, the distance be-
tween the axes of the hob and the wheel blank is equal to the
centre distance between the finished worm and wheel, and the
hob and blank are given the correct relative angular displacements
about their axes of rotation. With this method of cutting the
blank, line contact is obtained between the worm threads and the
wheel teeth.
On an axial section of the worm, the thread profiles are convex
and the wheel tooth profiles are concave. This has the effect of
distributing the load over a greater contact surface and also of
assisting the formation of an oil film between the surfaces.
X] TOOTHED GEARING 355
There has been a tendency in the past to regard a worm and
wheel as a convenient but inefficient means of obtaining a large
speed reduction between the driving and the driven shafts. Too
much emphasis has also been placed on the need for a spiral
angle of the worm thread of approximately 45° in order to obtain
maximum efficiency. It is true that a worm and wheel can be an
inefficient means of transmitting power and it is also true that
maximum efficiency is obtained when the spiral angle of the worm
threads is somewhat greater than 45°. But a correctly designed
worm and wheel with proper lubrication has a maximum efficiency
which may exceed 97 per cent and the falling off of efficiency is
small over a wide variation in the spiral angle of the worm threads.
So far as efficiency is concerned, the conditions are similar to those
for a pair of spiral gears, but with this important difference: the
line contact which exists between the threads and wheel teeth in
a worm drive is much more favourable to efficient lubrication than
the point contact which exists between the teeth of a spiral gear
drive. Consequently the coefficient of friction between the con-
tact surfaces in a worm drive will be low.

FIG. 238

In B.S. 721:1937 a curve is given showing the variation of

coefficient of friction p with rubbing speed vs. A few figures
taken from this curve are given in the table below:
v .0 100 500 1200 3000
. . . 0-150 0-054 0-030 0-020 0-014

N.B.—The rubbing speed vs is equal to the pitch-line speed of

the worm multiplied by sec A where A is the lead angle of the worm
threads, i.e. the complement of the spiral angle a.
“ The values of n are based on the use of phosphor bronze
wheels, case-hardened, ground and polished steel worms, and
356 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

lubricated by a mineral oil having a viscosity of between 250 sec

and 400 sec Redwood at 140°F and a specific gravity not exceed-
ing 0-895 at 68°F.”i
In order to show the way in which the efficiency varies with p,
and a, values of the efficiency have been calculated from equation
(10.12) and the curves of Fig. 238 plotted. It will be seen that,
when the coefficient of friction is low, the efficiency curve is very
flat in the region of maximum efficiency and also that, in order
to get a high efficiency, a low coefficient of friction is much more
important than a spiral angle of 45°.
140. Methods of Manufacturing Gear Wheels. The teeth on gear
wheels may be either cast or machine cut. At the present time
most teeth are machine cut, particularly where the pitch-line
speed is high. Methods of cutting gear teeth generally involve
either a milling or a planing process. Moreover, the teeth may
be formed by using a suitably shaped tool or, where greater
accuracy is required for the profile, they may be generated.
(a) Formed Cutter Methods. These are illustrated diagram-
matically in Fig. 239. At (a) the spaces between adjacent teeth

are cut in the gear blank on a shaping machine. The tool is

ground so that its cutting edge corresponds to the shape of the
tooth space and it reciprocates parallel to the axis of the blank.
When one space has been cut, the gear blank must be turned about
its own axis through an angle corresponding to the pitch of the
teeth in order to cut the second space. This process must be
continued until all the tooth spaces have been cut.
1
Abstracted by permission from British Standard 721:1937, Machine Cut
Gears. C. Worm Gearing. Official copies can be obtained from the British
Standards Institution, 2 Park St., London, W.l, price 5s. 4d. post free.
x] TOOTHED GEARING 357
The second method, shown at (b), makes use of an end cutter
or miller. The cutter rotates about an axis which is set radially
with respect to the blank and at the same time the cutter is
traversed parallel to the axis of the blank. The cutting edges lie
on a surface of revolution, so that any axial cross-section of the
cutter corresponds to the shape required for the space between two
adjacent teeth on the finished wheel. There is less waste time
with this method than with the first method. In practice it is
only used for cutting wheels of very large pitch and wheels with
double-helical teeth.
The most usual method of milling the teeth is that shown at (c).
A flat circular cutter is used on the periphery of which the cutting
teeth are formed. On a radial cross-section the shape of the
cutting edge corresponds to the space between two adjacent teeth
on the finished gear. The plane of rotation of the cutter is radial
with respect to the blank. As the cutter rotates it is traversed
parallel to the axis of the blank.
In each of the above methods most of the metal may be removed
from the gear blank by means of straight-sided cutters. This will
reduce the amount of wear on the finishing cutters. Even so, the
accuracy of the tooth profiles depends upon the exactness with
which the curved cutting edges on the tool are formed. It is
evident too that the cutting edges will have to be differently
shaped, not merely for each pitch but also for each change in the
number of teeth on the wheel which is to be cut. In practice a
compromise is effected by using one cutter to cover a range of
wheel sizes. For example, in the case of flat circular cutters, as
illustrated in Fig. 239 (c), a set is provided as indicated in the
table below.

No. of cutter . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

No. of teeth f min. 135 55 35 26 21 17 14 12

on the wheel \max. 00 134 54 34 25 20 16 13

Each cutter has a cutting edge which is correct for the tooth
space on a wheel which has the smallest number of teeth in the
range.
(b) Generating Methods. The demand for greater accuracy in
the shape of the tooth profiles has led to the development of
machines for generating, rather than forming, the teeth on the
gear blanks. Formed cutters such as those illustrated in Fig. 239
are suitable for producing either cycloidal or involute teeth. It is
merely a question of obtaining as exactly as possible a contour for
358 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the cutting edge which corresponds to the shape of the space

required between two adjacent teeth on the finished wheel. But,
in the case of generated teeth, it would be much more difficult,
if not actually impossible, to use the cycloidal system. For this
reason all modern generating methods are based on the involute
system, which has as one of its outstanding advantages the
accuracy with which the profiles may be generated.
There are three methods of generating involute profiles. They
are illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 240. All three involve

the application of the same fundamental principles. Thus the

cutter takes the form of a rack or pinion of the same pitch as that
of the required wheel, and in the process of finishing the blank the
pitch surface of the wheel rolls without slipping on the pitch sur-
face of the cutter. The actual removal of the metal to give the
spaces between adjacent teeth is brought about by moving the
cutting edge either intermittently or continuously in a direction
parallel to the axis of the blank.
The cutter in method (a) is termed a hob. It is essentially
a screw or worm, and the normal cross-section of the thread
X] TOOTHED GEARING 359
corresponds in shape to the tooth of an involute rack such as
would gear correctly with the wheel. A series of gashes runs
axially across the threads, so as to provide a large number of
cutting edges, and the teeth thus formed are relieved, so that there
is clearance between the sides of the teeth and the sides of the
groove cut in the gear blank. In operation the hob is set with its
axis inclined to the axis of the blank at such an angle that the
thread on the cutting side is parallel to the axis of the blank.
The motion of the hob relative to the blank is of two kinds:
(i) The hob spindle and the work mandrel are connected by a
gear train which causes the pitch surface of the wheel to roll
without slipping on the pitch surface of the hob; in this way the
profiles of the teeth on the wheel receive their correct shape.
(ii) The hob is traversed in the axial direction of the blank in
order to remove the metal to form the tooth space across the full
width of the blank.
The great advantage of this method of cutting gear wheels is
that the process is continuous. There is no waste time from the
beginning of the cut until the finished wheel is obtained. The
hobbing process is therefore eminently suited to the mass-
production of gear wheels.
In method (b), which is used on the Sunderland gear-shaper and
machines of the same type, the cutting tool takes the form of a
rack, some half-dozen or so teeth being provided. If the wheel
blank were of plastic material, the teeth could be obtained by
rolling the blank on the rack cutter in such a way that the two
pitch surfaces had no relative sliding. In actual machines the
cutting action is analogous to that of a shaping machine, only one
stroke of the tool being effective, so that the cutting action is
intermittent. Between each cutting stroke of the tool the relative
positions of the blank and the tool are changed to correspond to
a small amount of rolling of the one pitch surface on the other.
To continue the cutting process round the full circumference of
the blank, it is necessary to index the latter through one pitch
relative to the cutter at appropriate intervals.
A slight variation of the above process is found in the Bilgram
spur-gear planer. A single rack-tooth cutter is used and the gear
blank is indexed, between each cutting stroke, through an angle
which exceeds one pitch by the amount corresponding to the
rolling together of the two pitch surfaces. The tool must be
brought back to the starting position when the rolling together of
the two pitch surfaces exceeds the arc of contact. The process is
then repeated.
The chief advantage of the rack cutter lies in the accuracy
with which the straight cutting edges may be produced. As the
360 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

cutting process is intermittent the speed of production is not so

high as with the hobbing machine.
In method (c), as used on the Fellows gear-cutting machine, the
cutter takes the form of a pinion which has a pitch-circle diameter
of from 3 to 4 in. The cutting action is intermittent, as in the
case of the rack cutter, but some idle time is saved owing to the
fact that the pitch surface of the cutter is cylindrical and therefore
the rolling together of the pitch surfaces can take place con-
tinuously in the same direction. To obtain the same quality of
finish on the surface of the teeth, more cuts will be required with
a pinion cutter than with a rack cutter. The profiles of the pinion
cutting teeth may be very accurately produced by means of a
generating process in which a plane-face grinding wheel is used.
141. Methods of cutting Bevel Gears. In principle, the methods
of cutting the teeth of bevel wheels are identical with those already
described for spur gears. The teeth may be either formed or
generated, but the process is, in any case, made more difficult by
the change in the shape of the tooth across the face of the wheel.
Not only does the width of the tooth space diminish from the back
to the front of the wheel, but, in addition, the radius of curvature
of the profile diminishes. Hence it is not possible to make either
an end milling cutter or a circular milling cutter with a cutting
profile which is correct for all normal sections of the tooth space.

A more satisfactory method is to use a template to guide the tool

and at the same time to cause it to reciprocate along a straight
line which passes through the apex of the pitch cone. The
arrangement is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 241. It is clear
that only one side of the tooth space can be machined at a time.
The most usual method of machining bevel-gear teeth is
essentially the same as the generating process for spur gears, in
which a straight-sided rack cutter is used. The chief difference
for bevel gears is that separate cutting tools must be used for the
two sides of a tooth space. If the angle of the pitch cone of a
bevel wheel is increased to 180°, the pitch cone becomes a plane
X] TOOTHED GEARING 361
surface and the teeth are radial with straight rack profiles. Such
a wheel is termed a crown wheel, and, if we imagine the bevel
gear blank to be made of plastic material, the straight-sided
crown wheel teeth will form teeth of the correct shape in the gear
blank when the pitch surfaces roll together without slipping,
Eig. 242.
To cut the teeth of an actual bevel wheel one tooth of the crown
wheel is, in effect, split and used as the cutting tool. The bevel-
wheel spindle and the crown-wheel spindle are geared together so
as to provide the correct rolling motion of the pitch surfaces.
The two halves of the cutting tool are reciprocated along straight
hues which pass through the apex of the pitch cone of the bevel
wheel and thus remove the metal to form the tooth profiles. In

practice the metal from the middle of the tooth space is removed
in a preliminary operation so as to reduce the work of the finishing
cutters.
In addition to bevels with straight teeth it is possible to produce
bevels with so-called spiral and curved spiral teeth which offer
certain practical advantages. Thus spiral teeth will be obtained
if the straight line along which the cutting tool is reciprocated is
tangential to a circle with the apex as centre, Fig. 243 (a).
Similarly, curved spiral teeth may be produced by causing the
cutting tool to move along a circular instead of a straight path,
Fig. 243 (b). This, incidentally, enables the motion of the tool
during cutting to be made one of continuous rotation instead of
one of reciprocation. Curved spiral bevels of this type are very
largely used in the rear-axle drives of automobiles.

12*—T.M.
362 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP

EXAMPLES X

1. Two rigid bodies A and B turn about fixed parallel axes and A drives B by
direct contact. Show that the ratio of the angular velocity of B to that of A
can only be constant if the contact surfaces are so shaped that the common
normal at the point of contact intersects the line of centres at a fixed point.

2. Show that either the cycloidal or the involute shape for the profiles of wheel
teeth satisfies the fundamental condition for the transmission of uniform motion.
What are the principal advantages of the involute shape over the cycloidal shape ?

3. Two points, 4 in. apart, are the centres of rotation of two non-circular
plates A and B which maintain contact without slip through a complete revolution
of A and the corresponding part of a revolution of B. The ratio r of the angular
velocity of B to that of A is given in terms of the angular displacement 6 of A
in the following table:

6 deg. 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

r . 0-390 0-450 0-580 0-765 0-885 0-970 1-000

Construct the form of the plates, measure the angle of rotation of B and check
your result by calculation from the velocity ratio diagram. W.S.S.

4. Two parallel shafts run at equal speeds in opposite directions; their axes
are 5 in. apart. Two discs, mounted one on each shaft, maintain contact through-
out the motion. One disc is a square of 5 in. diagonal mounted centrally on its
shaft. Construct the form of the other disc and determine the velocity of sliding
when the shafts have rotated (i) 22£°, (ii) 45° from the position in which a comer
of the square is in contact with the other disc. W.S.S.
5. Explain the meaning of the following terms: circular pitch, diametral pitch,
module, pressure angle, addendum, dedendum.
6. A wheel has 20 teeth, diametral pitch 3, addendum 1 module and dedendum
1*25 module. The profiles of the teeth are circular arcs of radius 1 -5 in., the centres
of curvature lying on a circle concentric with the pitch circle and of radius 3 in.
Find graphically the required shape of the tooth profile on a 15-tooth pinion which
is to gear correctly with the wheel.
7. Draw full size the profile of a rack tooth and the tooth of a 15-tooth pinion
if the teeth are cycloidal, the diameter of the rolling circle for face and flank is
equal to the pitch circle radius of a 12-tooth pinion and the circular pitch is
3 in. Use B. and S. proportions for the addendum and dedendum.
8. Draw full size the profiles of the teeth of a 15-tooth pinion and a 30-tooth
wheel if the teeth are of involute shape. The diametral pitch is 1, the pressure
angle is 20°, the addendum is 1 module and the dedendum 1-25 module.
9. What is meant by interference ? Set out the profile of the tooth of a 6-tooth
pinion to gear with a rack, if the pressure angle is 20°, the circular pitch is 3 in.,
the addendum is 0-3183p and the dedendum 0-3979p.
10. Deduce an expression for the number of teeth in contact for a pair of gear
wheels in terms of the pressure angle, the number of teeth on each of the wheels
and the addendum.
What is the smallest number of teeth that can be used on each of two equal
wheels in order to avoid interference if the pressure angle is 14^° and a standard
x] TOOTHED GEARING 363
addendum of one module is used? Find also the length of the arc of contact in
terms of the circular pitch.
11. The side thrust on the bearings of a pair of wheels with involute teeth is
limited to one-third of the normal thrust between the teeth and, in addition,
the addendum is 0-8 module. Find the least number of teeth that can be used
on the pinion in order to avoid interference when (a) the pinion gears with an
equal pinion; (b) the pinion gears with a wheel and gives a velocity ratio of
2-5 to 1; (c) the pinion gears with a rack. What is the length of the arc of contact
in each case ?
12. Two spur wheels each have 30 teeth of involute shape. The circular pitch
is 1 in. and the pressure angle is 20°. If the arc of contact is to be equal to
2 X pitch, determine the minimum addendum of the teeth. L.U.
13. Two gear wheels of 4 in. and 6 in. pitch diameters have involute teeth of
8 diametral pitch and an angle of obliquity of 17°. The addenda are each £ in.
Determine:
(a) the length of the path of contact;
(b) the number of pairs of teeth in contact;
(c) the angle turned through by the smaller wheel while any one pair of teeth
are in contact. L.U.
14. If a standard addendum of one module is used, what is the smallest number
of teeth that can be employed on a pinion to gear with a rack, the pressure angle
being (a) 14£°, (b) 20° ? Prove the formula used.
15. A pair of spur wheels with 12 and 20 teeth is required with involute
profiles and a pressure angle of 20°. What are the theoretical maximum addenda
of the wheels if undercutting is to be avoided ? Find also the working depth of
the teeth and the length of the arc of contact, both expressed in terms of the
diametral pitch, and the maximum velocity of sliding between the teeth in terms
of the pitch line speed.
16. Two wheels with 42 and 19 teeth are cut with involute teeth of pressure
angle 20° and diametral pitch 5. The addendum of each wheel is 0-2 in. Find:
(a) the length of the arc of contact, (b) the number of pairs of teeth in contact,
(c) the angle turned through by the smaller wheel, while any one pair of teeth
is in contact.
17. A pair of spur wheels with involute teeth is to give a gear ratio of 3-5 to 1.
If the arc of approach is to be not less than the circular pitch, the smaller wheel
is the driver and the pressure angle is 20°, what is the least number of teeth that
can be used on each wheel ? What is the addendum of the wheel in terms of the
circular pitch ?
18. Deduce an expression for the length of the arc of contact for two involute
wheels of unequal size in terms of the pressure angle 0, the pitch circle radii and
the addendum radii.
If the two wheels have 24 and 30 teeth, and a standard addendum of 1 module,
and ip is 20°, find the length of the arc of contact in terms of the circular pitch.
19. Two wheels with 15 and 24 teeth gear together. The addendum of each
wheel is 0-8 module and ip is 22J°. What is the length of the arc of contact ?
20. Involute pinions with a small number of teeth and B. and S. standard
proportions cannot be cut without undercutting the flanks. Explain this state-
ment. What modifications in the proportions may be introduced in order to
avoid undercutting ?
21. A gear wheel has involute teeth. The radius of the base circle is rb, the
radius of the pitch circle is r and the thickness of the tooth at the pitch circle is b.
Show that at any other radius rx, the thickness of the tooth is given by:
&i = r1{6/r-2(j31-i6)}
where = tan ipx—tpx and /J = tan tp—ip, in [which tpx = cos~trb/r1 and
ip = cos-1rb/r
364 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

22. Two wheels with 15 and 25 teeth of involute shape are to be cut with a
standard 14|° rack cutter, the generating pitch radii being so chosen that under-
cutting of the flanks of the teeth is avoided. Find the centre distance at which
the two wheels will gear together without backlash and the corresponding pressure
angle. What will be the working depth and the length of the arc of contact if
the clearance is 10% of the working depth?
N.B.—The nominal addendum of the rack cutter is 0-3683p and the tips of the
teeth are to be assumed sharp-cornered.

23. In a spiral gear drive, the spiral angle of the teeth on the driving wheel has
been fixed at 50°. The normal pitch of the teeth is £ in. and the driving wheel
A runs at twice the speed of the driven wheel B. The shafts are at right angles
and the shortest distance between their axes is approximately 7 in. Determine
the dimensions of suitable gears for this drive, giving, for each wheel, (a) the
number of teeth, (b) the spiral angle of the teeth, (c) the circular pitch and (d) the
pitch diameter. Find also the exact distance between the axes.
If the friction angle is 5°, what is the efficiency of the wheels ? L.U.

24. Determine the dimensions of a pair of wheels of a spiral gear drive connect-
ing two shafts at right angles in order to satisfy the following particulars: approxi-
mate distance between shafts 8 in.; velocity ratio 2; normal pitch of teeth £ in.;
slope of teeth of driver 50° with axis of shaft. State in your answer:
(a) the number of teeth in each wheel;
(b) the slope of teeth of the driven wheel;
(c) the circular pitch of each wheel; and
(d) the exact distance between the axes of the shafts. L.U.A.

25. A pair of screw wheels connects two shafts the centre lines of which are
inclined at 80°, the velocity ratio is 2 and the driver has 25 teeth of a normal
pitch of J in. and a spiral angle of 30°. What is the least distance between the
shafts ? L. U.

26. A pair of screw wheels is to be designed to fulfil the following conditions:

axes of the shafts at right angles; velocity ratio of driver to follower, 1 to 2;
approximate centre distance, 4 in.; diametral pitch of cutter 8; the pitch line
diameters of the two wheels are to be equal.
Find the spiral angles, the pitch line diameters, the numbers of teeth and the
leads of the tooth helices. L.U.

27. In designing a pair of screw gears it is necessary to find the angles which
the teeth of the wheels make with their respective axes.
If the data of the design permits, state what is the ideal ratio of these angles
for maximum efficiency. Prove your statement. L.U.

28. A right-angled drive on a machine tool is to be made by two spiral gear

wheels A and B. The wheels are to be equal in diameter with a normal pitch of
| in. and the axes are to be approximately 6 in. apart. The speed ratio of wheel
A to wheel B is 5 to 2. Find:
(a) the apparent circular pitches of the teeth;
(b) the spiral angles of the teeth;
(c) the number of teeth on each wheel;
(d) the correct pitch-circle diameter.
If the friction angle is 6°, find the efficiency of the wheels. L.U.

29. For a right-angled spiral gear drive the normal pitch is f in. the speed ratio
is 5 to 2, the friction angle is 6°, the distance between the axes is approximately
6 in. and the efficiency is to be a maximum. Find:
(a) the apparent circular pitches;
(b) the spiral angles of the teeth;
(c) the numbers of teeth;
(d) the exact centre distance and the pitch-circle diameters of the two wheels;
(e) the efficiency of the drive.
X] TOOTHED GEARING 365
30. Solve Question 29 if the distance between the axes is to be exactly 6 in.
This will, of course, mean that maximum efficiency cannot be obtained.

31. A pair of spiral gears is required to connect two non-intersecting shafts

which are inclined at 60°. The velocity ratio is 2 to 1, the diametral pitch of the
teeth is 4 and the least distance between the axes of the shafts is approximately
10 in. Find the number of teeth on the wheels, the spiral angles and the efficiency,
when (a) the least distance must be exactly 10 in., (b) the efficiency of the drive
must be a maximum, (c) the pitch-circle diameters of the two wheels must be
equal. The friction angle <f> is 6° and the high-speed shaft is the driving shaft.

32. Deduce an expression for the efficiency of a worm and wheel on the assump-
tion that the worm threads are square. Show that the efficiency is a maximum
when the spiral angle of the worm threads is 45° + <£/2, where <j> is the friction
angle for the contact surfaces of the thread and wheel teeth.

33. In what respects does a worm-and-wheel drive differ from a spiral-gear

drive ? In what circumstances would the one type of drive be preferred to the
other ?

34. Distinguish between the methods of cutting wheel teeth in which (a) form
cutters are used and (b) a generating process is used. What are the advantages
and disadvantages of each method ?

35. Describe the principles on which bevel-gear generating machines operate.

 CHAPTER XI

GEAR TRAINS

142. Gear Trains. Any combination of gear wheels by means

of which motion is transmitted from one shaft to another shaft
is called a gear train. A single gear train may include any, or
all, of the different kinds of gear wheels—spur, bevel, spiral, etc.
—which were described in the preceding chapter.
The most usual type of gear train is that in which the wheels
revolve about fixed axes. A second type of gear train is sometimes
used, in which the axis of rotation of one or more of the wheels is
carried on an arm which is free to revolve about the axis of rota-
tion of one of the other wheels in the train. This type of gear
train is known as an epicyclic train.

(a)
FIG. 244

A simple train is one in which each shaft carries one wheel only.
With the exception of the first and last wheels in the train, each
wheel acts both as a follower and as a driver.
Pig. 244 shows diagrammatically two examples of simple trains.
It will be seen that in each of these examples the gear wheels are
all of the same kind. The wheel A drives the wheel B, while B
drives C and C drives D.
Let N&, Nh, etc., be the r.p.m. of A, B, etc. Let T&, Th, etc.,
be the numbers of teeth on A, B, etc.

Then
N_*_Tp Np_T* Ae_Td
Nh T: Nc~Th’ Nd~Tc

. ^_!a!b?c_yb^d_fd
Nd Nh’N0'Nd ~ T,'Th'T0 ~ T&
3G6
CHAP. XI] GEAR TRAINS 367
Hence the ratio of the speeds of A and D is inversely as the ratio
of the numbers of teeth on the two wheels A and D. The inter-
mediate wheels B and C have no effect on the velocity ratio given
by the train, except in so far as they affect the sense of rotation of
D for a given sense of rotation of A.
In the spur gear train, Fig. 244 (a), in which there are two
intermediate wheels, the sense of rotation of D is opposite to that
of A. This would be true for any even number of intermediate
wheels. On the other hand, if the number of intermediate wheels
is odd, the sense of rotation of D is the same as that of A.
Where the shafts intersect, as in bevel wheel trains, the above
rule cannot be applied. It may happen that the first and last
shafts of the train are in line, in which case a single intermediate
wheel would cause the final wheel to rotate in the opposite direc-
tion to the first wheel, as in Fig. 245.

One way of indicating the sense of rotation of bevel wheels is

to use small arrows, as shown at (a). These arrows show the
directions in which the various pitch surfaces are moving. A
second way is to represent the plane and sense of rotation of each
wheel by a vector drawn perpendicular to the plane of rotation.
The arrow indicates the sense of rotation according to the right-
handed screw rule. (See Article 17.) The three vectors shown
at (b) are set off from the pole o to correspond to the three bevel
wheels A, B and C of the train.
Intermediate wheels serve to bridge the gap between the first
and last wheels of the train, and thus reduce the size of the
individual wheels which would otherwise be required. They may
also be used for driving auxiliaries incidental to the main drive.
For instance, a train of gears may be used to transmit motion from
the crankshaft to the camshaft of an internal-combustion engine,
and the drive for an oil pump or a governor may be taken from one
of the intermediate wheels.
368 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

A compound train is one in which each shaft, except the first

and the last, carries two wheels, one of which acts as the follower
and receives its motion from a wheel on a second shaft, while the
other acts as a driver and transmits motion to a wheel on a third
shaft. Examples of compound trains are shown in Fig. 246.
The train (a) consists entirely of spur gears, while (b) consists of
bevel gears and (c) includes spur, bevel and spiral gears.
It is clear that the two gears which are keyed to the same shaft
must revolve at the same speed.
N N TA
for (a) and (b) £ and f=^
But Nc = Nh
. N* __ Na N* _ Ya No _ T± n
•* Nd- Nh-Na~ Nh-Nd~ T,’TC
The direction of rotation of each of the wheels is shown by an
arrow.
No_Td N*_T±
For (c) ana
Nd~T~c Nf ~~ Te
But Nc = Nh and Ne = Nd
. Na _ N* Nc _ n Tt Tt
•• Nt -Nh-Nd'Nt-T>T0'T9
The directions of rotation of A, B, C, D and E are shown by the
arrows. The direction of rotation of F cannot be determined
unless the spiral angles of the teeth on E and F are given. If E
has right-hand spiral teeth, the teeth on F must also be right-hand

and the direction of rotation of F is clockwise. On the other

hand, if E has left-hand spiral teeth, the teeth on F must be left-
hand and the direction of rotation of F is counter-clockwise.
The advantages of a compound train are that a large speed ratio
may be obtained with wheels of small diameter and that the drive
XI] GEAR TRAINS 369
may be transmitted round bends or corners, and even, if necessary,
returned upon itself so that the driving and driven shafts are
co-axial.
As regards the arrangement of gear trains, the factors which
have to be taken into account vary with the nature of the problem,
and to bring out the differences of procedure one or two problems
of different types will be considered.
143. Screw Cutting. In order to enable right- and left-hand
screws of different pitches to be cut on a lathe, a set of change
wheels is provided, each of which has a different number of teeth.
The lead screw of the lathe, through which the saddle receives its
traversing motion, has a definite pitch. Suitable change wheels
must be arranged between the spindle and the lead screw so that
the relative speeds of rotation of the work and the lead screw will
result in the cutting of a screw of the desired pitch and of the de-
sired hand. The problem is a straightforward one, and whether a
simple or a compound train is used will depend upon the speed
ratio required.
Example 1. The lead screw of a lathe has a right-hand single
thread, pitch \ in. The smallest change wheel has 20 teeth, the
largest 120 teeth and the numbers of teeth on intermediate sizes
increase in steps of 5. Find a gear train suitable for connecting
the spindle and the lead screw, when (a) a right-hand screw with
26 threads per inch has to be cut, and (b) a left-hand screw with
35 threads per inch has to be cut.
(a) Since the required screw is right-hand and has 26 threads
per inch, it follows that the spindle must make 26 revolutions
while the saddle moves 1 in. towards the headstock. But the
saddle will move 1 in. towards the headstock while the lead screw
makes 4 revolutions. Hence the spindle must make 26 revolu-
tions while the lead screw makes 4 revolutions.
Let N3 = r.p.m. of spindle, = r.p.m. of lead screw.
Ns 26 _ 13
Then Nl ~ 4 “ 2

The only wheel in the set of which 13 is a factor is that with

65 teeth.
Na 13 65 1 65 5 65 75
= = =
A\ ~2 5~"2 25*2 ~ 25*30
The wheels would be arranged as shown in Fig. 247 (a), the spindle
and the lead screw revolving in the same direction.
(b) Since the required screw is left-hand and has 35 threads
per inch, the spindle must make 35 revolutions while the saddle
370 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

traverses 1 in. away from the headstock. The lead screw must
therefore make 4 revolutions while the spindle makes 35 revolu-
tions in the opposite direction.
Ns 35 7 5 105 100
=
•** Aj ~4 ~2'2~~ 30 *"40
The wheels would be arranged as shown in Fig. 247 (b).
The intermediate or idler wheel I is required in order to make
the lead screw rotate in the opposite direction to the spindle.
As we have already seen, the intermediate wheel does not affect
the speed ratio, so that a wheel of any convenient size may be
used.

FIG. 247

144. Compound Trains for Large Speed Reductions. There are

many machines in which the power is supplied through a high-
speed motor. Such motors are both smaller and cheaper than
slow-speed motors. The speed of rotation of the main shaft, at
which the useful work is done by the machine, is often com-
paratively low and a train of gears is provided between the driving
motor and the main shaft. The following factors have to be
taken into account when arranging a gear train of this kind:
(a) The total speed reduction required and the largest speed
reduction that can be allowed in one step.
(b) The space occupied by the gearing. This should be a
minimum and therefore requires that the wheels shall be as small
as possible. Hence the minimum allowable number of teeth on
the pinions is a deciding factor.
(c) The pitch of the teeth. Since, apart from frictional losses,
the power transmitted by each pair of gears in the train is the same,
the pitch of the teeth must increase progressively from the high-
speed to the low-speed shafts.
XI] GEAR TRAINS 371
As an illustration the spur gear drive for the hoisting motion of
an electric crane will be considered.
Example 2. A crane is required to hoist the load at a speed of
15 ft/min. The barrel on which the rope is wound is 2 ft diameter
and the hoisting motor runs at 450 r.p.m. The rope is so arranged
that the speed at which the rope is wound on the barrel is twice
the speed of lift of the load.
Then r.p.m. of the barrel — 2.15/277 = 4-78.
Total reduction of speed required = 450/4-78 = 94-3/1
The speed ratio for a pair of spur gears in a drive of this kind will
not usually exceed about 5 or 6 to 1 and therefore three reductions
will be required.
If each pair of gears gives the same speed ratio, this ratio will be:
(94-3/1) = 4-55/1
The number of teeth on the various wheels in the train might
therefore be chosen so as to give a ratio for each pair of approxi-
mately 4-55 to 1. Thus, if the minimum number of teeth is fixed
at 20, the train might be as follows:
91 91 91 94-2
20*20*20 “ T~
This is sufficiently close to the required ratio.
But, before deciding definitely on the numbers of teeth, it is
desirable to know what pitches are to be used for each pair of
mating wheels. It will be assumed that considerations of strength
require the diametral pitch to be 5 for the first pair of wheels,
3-5 for the second pair of wheels and 2-5 for the third pair of
wheels. When choosing the numbers of teeth for the inter-
mediate pair it is advisable, if possible, to make the total number of
teeth a multiple of 7, so that the exact centre distance can be
specified. If the pinion has 20 teeth and the wheel 92, the total
number of teeth is 112, which is a multiple of 7 and would give a
centre distance of exactly 16 in. Probably it would be better to
increase the number of teeth on the pinion to 21, and retain a
wheel with 91 teeth.
The minimum centre distance for the low-speed pair of mating
wheels is influenced by the necessity for providing clearance
between the tops of the teeth of the wheel of the intermediate
pair and the drum, or barrel, on which the rope is wound. The
addendum radius of a wheel with 91 teeth and a diametral pitch
of 3-5 is:
91+2 _ 93
= — = 13-29 in.
2.3-5 — 7
372 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

and the effective radius of the drum to the rope centre is 12 in.,
so that the minimum centre distance for the low-speed pair can-
not well be less than about 26 in. This means that the total
number of teeth for the low-speed pair must not be less than
26.2.2-5 = 130. The speed ratio required for this pair of wheels
is:
94-3 21 20 4-79
~T ’ 9i ’ 9i= nr
130
number of teeth on the pinion = 22-4 or, say, 23
4-79 + 1
The number of teeth on the wheel = 4-79.23 = 110.
The amended train consists of a high-speed pair with 20 and 91
teeth, an intermediate pair with 21 and 91 teeth, and a low-speed
pair with 23 and 110 teeth.
The overall speed ratio or gear ratio is:
91 91 110 94-3
20'¥V~23 ~ nr

for the high-speed

for the intermediate pair = 16-0 in.

^ . u'O

and for the low-speed pair = 26-6 in.

Zi • A *0

— _l
—
rri —rat
I.® rL F—77 EM
0f)D J
L u. F
1
U *— m ^ [
FIG. 248
XI] GEAR TRAINS 373
So long as these centre distances are adhered to, there is con-
siderable latitude in the actual positioning of the shaft centres.
As a rule the centres would not be arranged in one straight line
because of the large amount of space required. Instead they
might be arranged as shown in Fig. 248. A plan view is given to
show the relative positions of the various pairs of wheels. In this
view G is a bracket which is designed to support one end of the
driving shaft, one end of the shaft which carries the wheels B and
C and one end of the shaft which carries the wheels D and E.
145. Compound Gear Trains with Co-axial Driving and Driven
Shafts. In order to reduce the amount of space occupied, com-
pound gear trains are frequently arranged with the driving and
driven shafts co-axial. A simple example of this class of gear
train is provided by the back gear of a lathe. The three-step
cone pulley of a lathe may be connected ZO- c
directly to the spindle when the diameter of r[=F 1

i PiPP: “1
the work to be turned is small or the cut to
be taken is light. For larger diameter work 1
or for heavier cuts, a back gear is brought
into operation. The drive is then taken from
a pinion, keyed to the cone pulley, to a wheel ~-/?2 -y 2—
on the back shaft, and a return drive con- } ! i
Lr
! A

veys the power from a pinion on the back Pc-

shaft to a wheel on the lathe spindle. By FIG. 249

this means the spindle is made to run at a

much lower speed than the cone pulley. Besides the speed ratio,
the pitch, etc., an additional factor which has to be taken into
account in arranging a gear train of this type is the necessity for
the centre distance to be the same for both pairs of gears.
Referring to Fig. 249, let Gx, G2 be the speed ratios for the two
pairs of mating wheels, rl5 r2 the radii of the two pinions and G
the centre distance.
Is
Then C = rl-\-Glr1 or
G] + l
or
G
also G = r2-\-G2r2 r2 G* +1

The total speed ratio from cone pulley to spindle = G — GX.G2.

As already pointed out, the pinions in any gear train should
always have as large a number of teeth as circumstances allow.
This requires that the two pinions should have as nearly as
possible equal numbers of teeth, since, if one of the two pinions
is increased in size, the other must obviously be correspondingly
diminished in size so as to give the same overall speed ratio G.
374 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Hence it follows that, if the pitch of the teeth is the same for each
pair of mating wheels, Gi should equal G2 and each should be
equal to \/G. If the pitch of the teeth is not the same for each
pair, then rx and r2, and consequently Gx and G2, will not be equal
and the speed ratio for the pair of wheels with the smaller pitch
will be greater than that for the pair with the larger pitch. In
actual practice other factors may intervene. For instance, the
minimum size of the pinion keyed to the cone pulley is largely
determined by the diameter of the spindle on which the cone pulley
rides. It is possible that, if the gears were designed so as to give
equal numbers of teeth on the two pinions, the radius rx would be
too small to allow of the requisite thickness of metal under the
teeth. An example will make the point clear.
Example 3. A back gear is required for a lathe to give a reduc-
tion from cone-pulley speed to spindle speed of 9 to 1. The
diametral pitch of the teeth on the high-speed pair is 7 and of
those on the low-speed pair is 5. The centre distance is 7 in.
Determine the number of teeth on each of the four wheels, (a) if
the pinions are to have as nearly as possible equal numbers of
teeth and (b) if the pitch diameter of the pinion on the cone pulley
is to be not less than 3^ in.
(a) Let Tx, tl be the numbers of teeth on the high-speed wheel
and pinion respectively, let T2, t2 be the corresponding numbers
of teeth for the low-speed pair.
T I t
Then centre distance = - * ■ --1 = 7, so that = 98.

Also T2+t2 = 7.2.5 = 70

_ Ti Tj _ 9 .98—ti 70—12 _ 9
But G G ' t2 v " G ' h l
Let ti — t2, then (98— ^)(70— G) = 9G2
This is a quadratic in tl} the positive root of which is G = 20-61,
the negative root being inadmissible. The nearest whole number
is 21.
If each of the pinions has 21 teeth, then Tl — 77 and T2 — 49,
so that
G = 77/21.49/21 = 8-57/1
If t2 — 20, then T2 — 50 and the over-all speed ratio is:
G = 77/21.50/20 = 9-17/1
The pitch circle diameter of the pinion on the cone pulley
= 21/7 = 3 in.
XI] GEAR TRAINS 375
(b) If the pitch diameter of the pinion on the cone pulley is to
be not less than 3J in., the number of teeth ^ must be not less
than 22-8, say 23.
Then Tx = 98—23 = 75 and G1 = 75/23 = 3-26/1
G2 = G/G1 = 9/3-26 = 2-76/1
But t2(G2+l) = 70
t2 = 70/3-76 = 18-62, say 19
Then T2 = 70—19 = 51
G2 = 51/19 = 2-68/1
and G = 3-26/1.2-68/1 == 8-75/1
If this is not sufficiently close to the desired value, a change in
the number of teeth, tl or t2 or both, may be tried. For instance,
if ti — 24 and t2 = 18, then — 74 and T2 = 52, so that
74 52 8-91
G = 24*18 “ T

146. The Motor-car Gear Box. The arrangement of a four-

speed gear box of the sliding-gear type for a motor-car is shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 250. The wheel A is keyed to the
driving shaft and is in constant mesh with wheel B. The wheels
B, D, F and H are rigidly fastened together and revolve freely
on the lay-shaft. The mainshaft or driven shaft is splined, so
that the wheel C and the compound wheel E-G must revolve
with the shaft, but may also
slide along it. The wheel C may
engage directly with the wheel A
through the dog clutch shown.
The power is then transmitted
directly to the mainshaft, and
the sleeve on which the wheels
B, D, F and H are mounted re-
volves idly. This corresponds
to top gear and the driven shaft
runs at the same speed as the
driving shaft. Third gear is engaged by sliding wheel C along
the mainshaft until it meshes with wheel D. The drive is then
from A to B and back from D to C. First and second gears
are provided by sliding the compound wheel E-G along the
driven shaft, until either G meshes with H, which gives first
gear, or E meshes with F, which gives second gear. The wheel
C and the compound wheel E-G are shown in the neutral posi-
tion in Fig. 250. The problem is to find the numbers of teeth
376 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

on the different wheels that will give the required ratios of speed
of driving shaft to speed of driven shaft. The choice of numbers
of teeth is obviously limited by the fact that the centre distance
must be identical for each pair of mating wheels. There is also
a lower limit to the number of teeth on any one wheel. This
limit may be 14 or 15, but it is desirable to adopt a larger number
when space allows. The pitch of the teeth will be determined
from considerations of strength. It is generally either 6 or 8
diametral pitch for a private car. The gear ratios of a car are
always expressed in the form r.p.m. of engine divided by r.p.m.
of driving wheels. Part of the gear ratio, indeed the whole
of it in the case of top gear, is provided by the bevel or worm
drive in the back axle. This ratio is usually about 5 or 5-5 to
1 except in the larger cars, where a somewhat smaller ratio is
used.
The gear ratio in bottom gear is about four times the top gear
ratio. The intermediate gears should theoretically be arranged
so that the four ratios are in geometrical progression. In practice
better results are obtained in the general performance of the car
if the gap between the ratios decreases progressively from first
to fourth or top. From an examination of the specifications of
a large number of cars the author found that the mean ratios were:
Top Third Second First
5-34 7-85 12-1 20-9

The corresponding gear-box ratios are 1*0, 1*47, 2-27 and 3*91 to 1.
If the gear ratios were in geometrical progression with the same
values for top and first, the gear-box ratios would be 1-0, ^3*91,
\K3-912 and 3-91 to 1, or 1-0, 1*575, 2*48 and 3*91 to 1.

Example 4. A four-speed gear box, arranged as in Fig. 250, is

required to provide ratios of 1*0, 1*47, 2*27 and 3*91 to 1. . The
diametral pitch of all wheels is 8 and the smallest pinion is to have
at least 15 teeth. Find suitable numbers of teeth for the various
wheels.
In the first place it should be noticed that it may be impossible
to provide ratios exactly equal to those given. Since the pitch is
the same for all wheels and the centre distance is the same for all
pairs of mating wheels, the total number of teeth must be identical
for each pair.
^a+^b = Tc + Ta = “hTf = Tg-\-Th
First Gear. To engage first gear the compound wheel is moved
along the mainshaft until G meshes with H. The drive then takes
place from A to B and from H to G. All the other gears revolve
XI] GEAR TRAINS 377
idly. This gives the biggest reduction of speed from the driving
shaft to the mainshaft.
. N*_N3Nh_l\T3
*•Ng~Nh'Ng~TaTh
As already pointed out in connection with the last example, the
two speed ratios Thj Ta and TJTh should be as nearly as possible
equal, so that:
TJT a = TJTh = V(3'91/l) = 1-98/1
Let T& = Th = 15, then Th = Tg = 1-98.15 ~ 30. This would
mean that the actual ratio NJNg = 4-0/1 instead of 3-91/1.
A closer approximation to the value 3-91 to 1 could be obtained,
if desired, by adopting the following numbers of teeth: T& — 16,
Th = 30, Th — 15 and Tg = 31. This would give
Aa 30 31 3-88
-
Ag 16*15“ 1
Note that Ta-{-Tb = Tg-\-Th = 46.
Second Gear. To engage second gear, the compound wheel is
moved along the mainshaft until E meshes with F. The drive
is from A to B and from F to E.
Aa _ Aa N{ _ n Te = 2^7
Ae“Ab*Ae T&' Tf 1
Then, if T& = 15 and Tb = 30, TJTf = 2-27/2 = 1-135.
But Te + Tf = Ta+Th = 45
1-135^4-^=45
T{ = 45/2-135 = 21-1, say 21
and Te — 24
The actual ratio NJNe = 2.24/21 = 2-286/1.
Similarly, if Ta — 16 and Tb = 30, TJTf = 2-27.16/30 = 1-21.
46
.*. T{ = 2^4 = 20-8, say 21
and T e = 25
The actual ratio NJNe = 30/16.25/21 = 2-23/1.
Third Gear. To engage third gear, C is meshed with D and
the drive is from A to B and from D to C,
N& Aa Ad Th Tc 1-47
378 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

If T& = 15 and Tb = 30, Tc/Td = 1-47/2 = 0-735.

l-735Td = 45
Td = 25-9, say 26
and Tc — 19
The actual ratio NJNC = 2.19/26 = 1-46/1.
Similarly, if Ta = 16 and Th = 30, TJTd= 1-47.16/30 = 0-784.

*’• = 25-8, say 26

and Tc = 20
The actual ratio NJNC = 30/16.20/26 = 1-44/1.
The two alternative sets of gears and ratios are:
A B C D E F G H
(a) 15 30 19 26 24 21 30 15
(b) 16 30 20 26 25 21 31 15

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

(a) 4-0 2-29 1-46 1-0
(b) 3-88 2-23 1-44 1-0

The distance between the shaft centres for wheels of 8 diametral

pitch is (a) 45/(2.8) = 2-8125 in., (b) 46/(2.8) = 2-875 in.

147. The Speed Ratio of Epicyclic Trains. Where, as in epicychc

trains, the axes of rotation of the wheels are not all fixed, it is
sometimes difficult to visualise exactly what happens when motion
takes place. The important fact to bear in mind is that the
relative motion between a pair of mating gear wheels is always the
same, whether the axes of rotation are fixed or not. This relative
motion is identical with the rolling together, without slip, of the
pitch surfaces of the two wheels. For example, referring to
Fig. 251 (a), B and C are the pitch circles of two wheels which are
in contact at the pitch point P. The wheel B is fixed and the arm
A, to which the axis of wheel C is attached, is free to revolve about
the axis of B. Let the arm turn clockwise through the angle 6.
Then, since C rolls without slipping on the circumference of B,
the point on C which originally coincided with the pitch point P
will now occupy the position T, such that arc RT = arc RP.
Hence the radial line on C which originally coincided with QP
now occupies the position ST. The angle through which C has
turned relative to the fixed wheel is given by angle UST.
But L UST = USR-f /_ RST = 6+<f>
RT RP OR.0 Th
XI] GEAR TRAINS 379
where Th and T0 are the numbers of teeth on B and C respectively.
/. AVST = 9+cf> = 6(l + Th/Tc)
Wheel C therefore turns in the same direction as the arm and
1 + Tb/Tc times as fast as the arm. The speed ratio for any other
epicyclic train may be found in the way just described.
Two more examples will be considered.
The epicyclic train shown in Fig. 251 (b) is similar to that shown
in Fig. 251 (a), except that the intermediate wheel D is placed
between the fixed wheel B and the wheel C. The pitch points are
P and Q. Let the arm turn clockwise through the angle 6, then
the point on D which originally coincided with the pitch point P

will occupy the position T such that arc RT = arc RP. Similarly,
the points on D and C which originally coincided at the pitch point
Q will occupy respectively the positions X and Z, such that arc
WZ = arc WX = arc RP. This obviously means that the radial
line on C, which originally coincided with VQ, now occupies the
position YZ. The wheel C has therefore turned clockwise relative
to the fixed wheel through an angle EYZ.
Let <f> be the angle through which C turns relative to the arm
and Th, Tc be the numbers of teeth on B and C.
, WZ PR OP.0 -
Th a
Then <j> - WY “ WY ~ WY T,

But L EYZ = Z EYW-Z WYZ = H-j, = 0(1 -TJF.)

Hence wheel C turns 1—Th/Tc times as fast as the arm and in
the same direction as the arm. If Th > T0, 1-TJT, is negative.
The negative sign indicates that C turns in the opposite direction
to the arm. See Fig. 251 (c).
380 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

A slightly more complicated epicyclic train is shown in Fig. 252.

It is a compound train in which the internal wheel B is fixed, the
compound wheel C-D revolves on a pin fixed to the arm A and the
wheel E is co-axial with the fixed wheel B. Wheel B meshes
with C and wheel E with D. Let the arm turn clockwise through
the angle 6. Then wheel C will roh on the fixed wheel B and the
radial line RP will move to the position UV such that arc SV
= arc SP. Since wheel D is integral with wheel C, it must turn
through the same angle as C, so that the radial line RQ moves to

the position UW. Arc TW therefore represents the amount of

rolling of wheel D on wheel E and, if arc TX is set off equal to arc
TW, OX will represent the new position of the radial line on
wheel E which originally coincided with OQ. It follows that
wheel E turns through angle QOX while the arm turns through
the angle 6. Hence, the rotation of E is in the same direction as
that of the arm but the speed of rotation is higher.
The relation between the speeds of rotation of wheel E and the
arm A may be expressed in terms of the numbers of teeth on the
various wheels as follows:
L QOX = Z. QOT+ Z. TOX = 6+ Z. TOX
But Z. TOX = TX/OT,
UW UW UW
and TX = TW = SV = SP OP.0.
UV UV UV
OP UW Tb Td
Z TOX = UV OT* ~ Tc’Te

XQOX = ^l + ^b.^j
XI] GEAR TRAINS 381
This means that wheel E turns in the same direction as the arm
and l+TJTc.TJTe times as fast as the arm.

148. Alternative Ways of finding the Speed Ratio of Epicyclic

Trains. The method of the last Article is too cumbersome to be
used in the solution of any but the simplest epicyclic trains, and
several more convenient methods of solving such problems have
been devised. Some of these will be described as applied to
the train shown in Fig. 252.

1. Algebraic Method. It has already been pointed out that the

relative motion between a pair of mating gear wheels is always the
same whether the axes of rotation of the two wheels are fixed or
not. This relative motion corresponds to rolling of the two pitch
surfaces without slip and is therefore determined by the number
of teeth on the mating wheels. For the gear train shown the
arm A, the spur gear E and the annulus B have a common axis
of rotation, while the wheel C-D rotates about a parallel axis fixed
to A. It is possible for the three members A, B, E of the train to
be rotating about the common axis at different speeds N&, Nh and
Ne, but only two of these speeds can be arbitrarily assigned, since
the relative speeds of rotation must conform to the numbers of
teeth on the mating wheels.
The speed of E relative to the arm = Ne—Na, and the speed
of B relative to the arm = Nh—N&. It follows that
Ne-N, _ Td Th
Nh-Na~ Te'Tc

where the negative sign is required because the relative speeds are
opposite in sense.
It is clear that any one of the speeds may be zero, i.e. the corre-
sponding member may be fixed, and the equation will then give
the speed ratio for the other two members. Alternatively, any
two of the members may have arbitrarily assigned speeds, in
which case the equation will give the resulting speed of the third
member.
With A fixed, Aa = 0,
. _ _T_a n
•' Nh~ Te‘Tc
With B fixed, Nh = 0,

. Ne-N a
NA-L^Te'Tc
• •
o-Aa Te' Tc’
382 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

With E fixed, Ne = 0
0-Aa T\> Yb TQ

Yb-Ya Te'T0> Na- L±

Td'Th

If the speed of rotation Nc of the compound planet C-D is required,

this may be obtained by considering the speeds of C-D and B, or
of C-D and E, relative to the arm A. Thus,
N0-N& Th
(11.2)
Nh-Na - Tc
Nc-Na _ _Te
and (11.3)
Ne~Na ~ ^d

2. Tabular Method. Referring to Fig. 253 (i), let the arm A

be fixed and the annulus B be turned counter-clockwise through
the angle 9 — angle ROJ. Then the planet C-D turns in the
same sense through the angle a — angle RQH and' the wheel E
turns clockwise through the angle 6 = angle POF. With the
wheels locked so that no relative motion is possible, rotate the
train about the axis of B in the clockwise sense through the
angle 9. The net result of these two operations is shown at (ii)
and is clearly the same as if, with the wheel B fixed, the arm were
turned clockwise through the angle 9. The resulting rotation of
E is 9-\-(f) clockwise.
If, after the first operation, the wheels are locked and the train
is rotated counter-clockwise through the angle cf>, the net result
is shown at (iii) and corresponds to a counter-clockwise rotation
of the arm through angle </> with the wheel E fixed. The resulting
rotation of B is $-}-</> counter-clockwise.

Since a = —TJT-9 and </> = ^ .9

c -L c e

we get in the first case, with the annulus B fixed,

Rotation of E Th Tt
Rotation of A —
9 1 + T 'T
0 e

and, in the second case, with E fixed

Rotation of B 9-\- 1_L—
T A?
T
—
Rotation of A </> L
'T^'TA

In applying this method it is usual to assume 9 to be one revolu-

XI] GEAR TRAINS 383
tion. The steps required may then be tabulated as shown below:
In this table line (a) corresponds to the first operation, i.e. with A
fixed, B is turned through one revolution counter-clockwise;
line (b) corresponds to the second operation, i.e. with the wheels
locked the train is turned through one revolution clockwise; line
(c) is obtained by adding together corresponding entries in lines
(a) and (b) and is equivalent to a clockwise rotation of the arm A
through one revolution with the annulus B fixed.

Revolutions Revolutions Revolutions Revolutions

of A of B of C-D of E

Tb Tb Td
(a) 0 —1 +
To Ta'Te
(b) 1 1 I 1
Td Tb Td
(c) 1 0
To
+
Te'Te

If a solution is required for a fixed sun wheel E, line (a) would

be set down for —1 revolutions of E with the arm fixed; line (b)
would remain unchanged and line (c) would be found by adding
together corresponding entries in lines (a) and (b).

3. Graphical Method. The relevant diagrams are shown in

Fig. 253 below the corresponding diagrams used in explaining the
tabular method. The same system of lettering is used in both
sets of diagrams. Consider the two diagrams (iv) and (i), the
points 01? Pl5 Ql5 Ri in the former correspond to O, P, Q, R in
the latter. The straight line PxFl5 perpendicular to OxPl5 is set
off equal to the arc PF (or PG) and the point Jx is obtained by
joining Fx to Qx and producing. It follows from the similar
triangles JxRxQx, FxPxQx that RxJx/PxFx = RxQi/PiQi, so that
R1J1 = arc RJ (or RII). But in Fig. 253 (i),
0 = arc PF/PO, a = arc PG/PQ, 9 = arc RJ/RO

.*. m (iv),
= PxFx/PiOi = tan PxOxFx, a = PiFi/PiQx = tan PxQiFi
9 = RxJx/RxOi = tan RxOiJi
Hence, the angular displacements 6, a and 9 are represented in
(iv) by the tangents of the angles of inclination to the vertical of
the appropriate fines, and a change in sense of the angular dis-
placement is represented by a change in sense of the inclination
to the vertical line OiRi-
384 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

If, now, a line is drawn perpendicular to 0^! through a point a

at any convenient distance h from Ol5 F^j and JiOx may be
produced to intersect this line at e and b and a line may also be
drawn from Oj parallel to J1F1 to intersect it at d. It follows
that:
cf> = tan eOja, a = tan dC^a, 6 — tan bO],a
and, therefore, the angular displacements cf>, a and 6 are repre-
sented to scale and in sense by the intercepts ae, ad and ab.

FIG. 253

The same procedure is followed in deriving the diagrams (v)

and (vi) corresponding to (ii) and (iii). The distances between
the points e, a, b and d will be exactly the same in all three dia-
grams (iv), (v) and (vi), the only difference being that the line ed
is shifted to the left or to the right relative to the vertical line
which passes through C^.
With arm A fixed, diagram (iv), the point a is the pole from
which angular displacements (or velocities) are measured. The
displacements (or velocities) of C-D and B are opposite in sense
to that of E and the relative magnitudes are given by the dis-
tances of the points d, b and e from a.
With the annulus B fixed, diagram (v), the point b is the pole,
the displacements (or velocities) of E and A are of opposite sense
to that of D and the relative magnitudes are given by be, ba
and bd.
XI] GEAR TRAINS 385
Similarly, with the gear E fixed, diagram (vi), the point e is the
pole, and the displacements (or velocities) of A, B and D are all
in the same sense, their relative magnitudes being given by ea,
eb and ed.
Since the points e, a, b and d have the same relative positions
in all three diagrams (iv), (v) and (vi), it is clear that (iv) contains
all the information necessary to solve a problem on the particular
gear train, whatever the fixed member or even if none of the
members is fixed. Once (iv) is drawn it is only necessary to
choose as the pole, from which the angular displacements (or
speeds) are measured, that point which has the same letter as the
fixed member of the train. Due account must be taken of the
different sense of rotation associated with distances measured to
the right or to the left of the pole, i.e. the distances from the pole
must be regarded as vectors.
Where two of the members have arbitrarily assigned velocities,
the position of a pole o must be found which is consistent with
these velocities. For instance, suppose E turns in the same sense
as A but at twice its speed, the pole o must divide ea externally,
such that oe = 2oa; if E turns in the opposite sense to A at twice
its speed, the pole o must divide ea internally such that oe = 2oa.
The position of the pole having been fixed in this way, the veloci-
ties of the other members of the train are given by the vector
distances of b and d from o.
Although the full construction shown in (iv) helps one to
visualise the motions of the individual members of the train, it
is possible to dispense with most of it and to set down directly the
vector diagram of angular displacements eabd. It has been shown
that the vectors ae, ab and ad represent completely the angular
displacements (f>, a and 9 of the members E, C-D and B when the
arm A is fixed.
T Te TC
But cc = -jjr ‘(f) and 9 = ^ <f>

It therefore follows that:

, , Te Te Tc
ae:ad.ab ..1. ^ .
1
m •m i
d -^d b

and the vector diagram eabd can be set off directly to satisfy this
relation.
4. Vector Method. In some respects this is the simplest of all
the methods described. It gives the vector diagram of angular
displacements or velocities directly. Since angular displacement
is a vector quantity, it can be represented according to the usual
convention (Article 17, p. 16) by a line parallel to the axis of
13—T.M.
386 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

rotation with an arrow to indicate the sense of rotation in con-

formity with the right-handed screw rule.
For the gear tram shown in Fig. 254, there are four members
each of which may rotate about parallel axes. If the arm A is
fixed, all the axes of rotation are fixed and only the three members
B, C-D and E can rotate. The relative angular velocities are
determined by the numbers of teeth on the mating gear wheels.

FIG. 254

Thus if B is given one revolution, C-D will make ThjTc revolutions

in the same sense and E will make Th/Tc. Td/Te revolutions in
the opposite sense. These three angular displacements may be
represented by three vectors perpendicular to the planes of rota-
tion of the wheels. All the wheels of this particular train revolve
in parallel planes, so that the three vectors are parallel as shown,
where:
ab is the angular displacement of B with the arrow pointing to
the right to indicate clockwise rotation of wheel B as viewed
from the left,
ad is the corresponding angular displacement of the compound
wheel C-D, also with the arrow pointing to the right, and
ae is the angular displacement of E with the arrow pointing
to the left.
The relative lengths of the vectors are:
T T T
ab : ad: ae:: 1
c c e

For convenience the vectors may be set off from a common pole
as shown. The relative positions of the points e, a, b and d are
then exactly the same in Fig. 254 as in Fig. 253 (iv), and the effect
of changing the fixed member of the train, or, alternatively, of
assigning arbitrary velocities to two members of the train, may be
XI] GEAR TRAINS 387
found by changing the position of the pole from which the dis-
placements (or velocities) are measured as explained earlier in
connection with Fig. 253 (iv).
Which of the four methods described above should be used in
solving a particular problem is largely a matter of personal pre-
ference. Arguments can be advanced in favour of each, but for
a simple train such as that used in explaining the different methods,
there is probably little to choose between them.
Graphical methods are undoubtedly of assistance in visualising
the motions of the individual members of the train, but are not
always suitable except as a rough check. This applies parti-
cularly where, as often happens, a large speed ratio is provided.
It is of course true that, even in such trains, the speed ratio can
be obtained accurately by calculation based on the graphical con-
struction, but there will then be no saving of effort. In a complex
train, the number of lines required in the graphical construction
is also liable to be confusing.
The vector method has two advantages. In the first place,
each vector indicates the plane of rotation as well as the mag-
nitude and sense of rotation. This is particularly valuable when
the epicyclic train includes bevel wheels or other gears with non-
parallel axes. In the second place, it simplifies the consideration
of the relation between the externally applied torques, and thus
enables the tooth loads to be found without difficulty.
In the examples which are given later, the solution will be
found by at least two different methods. The reader is advised
to use methods other than those used by the author, and then
decide for himself which of the various methods he prefers.

149, Tooth Loads and Torques in Epicyclic Gear Trains. If the

parts of an epicyclic gear train are all moving at uniform speeds,
so that no angular accelerations are involved, the algebraic sum
of all the external torques applied to the train must be zero, or
Z(M) = 0
There are at least three external torques for every train, and in
many cases there are only three. These are:
Mi the input torque on the driving member,
Mt the resisting, or load, torque on the driven member,
jf* the holding, or braking, torque on the fixed member.
If there is no acceleration,
M1+MI+Mh=0 . . . . (11.4)
or =0 . . . (11.5)
388 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

where Fi} Fx and Fh are the corresponding externally applied

forces at radii rx, rx and rh.
Further, if there are no internal friction losses at the bearings
and at the contact surfaces of the wheel teeth, the net energy
dissipated by the train must be zero, or
S(Jfo>) - 0
-ZHjco^ -J--Z1Z'rci>r -)~ATjjOjjj = 0 . . (11.6)
where OJy, OJX and coh are the angular velocities of the three
members to which the external torques are applied.
But for the fixed member, o>b = 0, so that
=0 .... (11.7)
From (11.7) the resisting, or load, torque:
Mj. — —Ml.(o1/wz .... (11.8)
and, from (11.4):
Mh = -{M.+M,)
= M^aulcoz — 1) .... (11.9)
These equations may be used to find the values of MT and Mh (or
Ft and Fh) when the input torque Mx applied to the driving
member is known. In addition, for complex trains, they may be
used to find the tooth loads or torques on all the intermediate
members through which power is transmitted.
Example 5. An epicyclic speed-reduction gear is shown in
Fig. 255. The driving shaft carries on the arm A a pin, on which
the compound wheel B-C is free to revolve. Wheel C meshes

with the fixed wheel E and wheel B meshes with a wheel D keyed
to the driven shaft. The numbers of teeth on the wheels are:
Tb = 27, Tc = 30, Td = 24 and Te — 21. Find the ratio of the
speed of the driving shaft to the speed of the driven shaft.
XI] GEAR TRAINS 389
If the input torque to the driving shaft is 20 lb ft, what are the
load torque on D and the holding torque on E ?
(1) Algebraic Method. With the arm fixed:
Ad _ Te n
Ne ~ Tc’Td
and therefore when the arm is not fixed:
Nd-N& Te Th 21 27 _ 63
Ne-N,~ Tc’Td~ 30-24 “80
But wheel E is fixed, so that Ne = 0,
Nd-N, _ 63 17
or =
~
Na
'80
0—Aa 80
NJNd = 80/17 = 4-71/1
(2) Tabular Method. The table is filled in as shown below.
The wheel E is to be the fixed wheel, so that in the first operation,
when the arm is fixed, wheel E is given one revolution counter-
clockwise as viewed from the left, say.

Revolutions Revolutions Revolutions Revolutions

of A of E of B-C of D

Te 21 Te Tb 21 27
(a) . . . 0 -1 _
T0 ~ 30 Tc'Td “ 30*24

(b) . . . 1 1 1 1
21 17 21 27 17
(a) + (b) . 1 0 1+ - 1-
30 10 30'24 “ 80

Nz/Na = 80/17 = 4-71/1

The driving shaft therefore runs at 4-71 times the speed of the
driven shaft and the two shafts revolve in the same direction.
Assuming that there are no friction losses and that the members
are revolving at uniform speeds,
M&-\-Md~\-M e = 0 (1)
and MgO)& ~\~Mdcod -\-Meoje =0 . . . • (2)
But E is fixed, so that we = 0 and
■Hawa ~\~MdOid — 0
Md = —M&.o)Ja>d = —4-71 M&
= —94-2 lb ft
390 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Also from (1):

Me — —(^a+^d)
= -(20-94*2)
= 74*2 lb ft
The torque applied by D to B
= —Md. Th/Td = 94*2.27/24 = 106 lb ft
and that applied by E to C
= —Me. Tc/Te = —74*2.30/21 = -106 lb ft
These must of necessity be equal and opposite. The holding
torque on E is in the same sense as the input torque on A, while
the load torque on D is opposite in sense to the input torque.
The corresponding tooth loads on D and E may be found when
the pitch of the teeth is given.
(3) Vector Method. With the arm fixed, give I) one revolution.
Then the compound wheel B-C will make —TJTh revolutions
and the wheel E will make -\-TJTh.Tc/Te revolutions. Set off
from pole a vectors to represent these angular displacements.
Thus,
Td^ T,
ad: ac: ae:: 1
'Th-Th'T.
With the wheel E fixed, the point e becomes the pole from which
the angular displacements are measured, and
NJNd = ea/ed = 4*71
The three external torques are applied to A, D and E, and equa-
tion (1) implies that the angular velocity diagram edac can be
treated as a lever to which the external torques are applied. For
equilibrium the torques Me and Ma must have the same sense and
the torque Md must have the opposite sense, as shown.
Then:
Ma. ad — Me. ed
Me = Jfa.ad/ed = 3*71ifa = 74*2 lb ft
and Md. de = M&. ae
Md = Afa.ae/de = 4*71ifa = 94*2 lb ft
In an epicyclic train of this type the speed reduction is greater
if the wheels D and E are made more nearly equal in size. When
D and E are equal in size, the speed reduction is infinitely large,
the wheel D remaining at rest while the arm A revolves. If the
XI] GEAR TRAINS 391

fixed wheel E is larger than D, the sense of rotation of the

latter is reversed for the same sense of rotation of the arm.
Thus, if Te is 26 and Tc is 25, Th and Td remaining unchanged,
we have:
Aa Te Tb _ 26 27 17
Aa ~T0'Th~ 25'24 100

. Aa 100 5-89
=
•• Ad ~17 ~ ”T“

The driving shaft therefore turns at 5*89 times the speed of the
driven shaft and the two shafts revolve in opposite directions.
The Trojan epicyclic gear box, Fig. 261, makes use of epicyclic
trains of the same type as that in the above example.

Example 6. An epicyclic bevel gear train is shown in Fig. 256.

The fixed wheel B meshes with the pinion C. The wheel E on
the driven shaft meshes with the pinion D. The pinions C and D
are keyed to a shaft, which revolves in bearings on the arm A.

The arm A is keyed to the driving shaft. The numbers of teeth

are: Th = 75, Tc = 18, Td = 17 and Te = 71. Find the speed
of the driven shaft if (a) the driving shaft makes 500 r.p.m.,
(b) the wheel B turns in the same sense as the driving shaft at
100 r.p.m., the driving shaft still making 500 r.p.m.
(1) Algebraic Method. When the arm is fixed
A6_ n
Nb~Tc'Te

Ne —Aa _ n Td_7517=425
N^Na~Tc’Te- 18'71 426
392 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

(a) Wheel B is fixed, so that ATb — 0, and

Ae-Aa 425
0—Aa ~ 426
NJNa = 1-425/426 = 1/426
and Ne = 500/426 = 1*174 r.p.m.
(b) N& = 500, Nb = 100,
Ne—500 425
* * 100—500 “ 426
495
= 400+500

= 100*9 r.p.m.
(2) Vector Method. If A is fixed and B is given one revolution
clockwise as seen in plan, C-D will make Th/Tc = 75/18 revolu-
tions clockwise as viewed in the direction C-D, and E will make
Th/Tc. Td/Te = 425/426 of a revolution clockwise as seen in plan.
The vectors ab, ac and ae are set off, Fig. 256, perpendicular to the
respective planes of rotation to represent these three angular
displacements.
(a) Here wheel B is fixed, so that b is the pole from which the
angular displacements or velocities are measured.
Ne be ba—ae i 425 1
= = = 1 =
* * N~& ba ba “426 426
and Ne = 500/426 = 1*174 r.p.m.
Note that the absolute angular velocity of C-D is represented by be.
(b) Aa = 500 and ATb = 100, so that the pole o must divide ab
externally, such that
ao/bo = NJNh = 5 or ao/ab — 1*25
Then
Ne eo ao—ae
Aa ao oa
1*25—425/426
=
D25
= 1—0*7982 = 0*2018
.'. Ne — 100*9 r.p.m.
The angular velocity of C-D is now represented by oc. It is im-
practicable in this problem to draw the vectors so that eb is shown
to scale.
XI] GEAR TRAINS 393
Example 7. Referring to Fig. 257, the two wheels Sx and S2
are integral with the driving shaft. The wheel Pi revolves on a
pin attached to the arm A, which is integral with the driven shaft,
and PT gears with the internal wheel Il5 which is co-axial with the
driving shaft. The wheel P2 meshes with S2 and the fixed internal
wheel I2 and revolves on a pin fixed to the internal wheel I1. The
numbers of teeth are TSI = 31, TS2 — 26, Th — 83 and Th = 88.
If the input to the driving shaft is 30 h.p. at 3000 r.p.m., find:
(a) the output speed and torque,
(b) the holding torque on I2,
(c) the tooth loads on all the wheels, which have a diametral
pitch of 8.
N.B.—There are usually three planet wheels P: spaced round
the sun wheel Sj at equal angular intervals of 120°, and similarly
three planet wheels P2 spaced round S2. The three planets serve
both to distribute the load on the teeth of the sun and of the
internal wheel and to balance the centrifugal forces. Kine-
matically one planet is sufficient for each sun.
This train corresponds to second gear in the Wilson gear box,
Fig. 262
(1) Tabular Method. Since the internal wheel I2 is fixed, and
the pin on which P2 revolves is fixed to the internal wheel I1; the
first step in solving the problem is to find the speed ratio of S2 to
Ix. Then, knowing the speeds of Ix and S1} the next step is to
find the speed of A.
In filling up the table (page 439), line (a) gives the revolu-
tions of S2 for one revolution of I2, when the arm, i.e. I1} is
fixed. Line (b) corresponds to the rotation of the locked train
through one revolution in a direction opposite to that of I2 in
line (a). Line (c) is the sum of lines (a) and (b) and gives the
revolutions of S2 for revolution of the arm Ilf when I2 is fixed.
Line (d) gives the revolutions of Ix for one revolution of S2,
when I2 is fixed.
The remaining fines are for the train Sb Il5 A. Line (e) is put
in by inspection. It is obtained from line (d) by substituting the
numbers of teeth on S1} Ii for those on S2, I2. It is at this point
that the student may find difficulty in deciding on the next step
to take. The simplest plan to follow is to work backwards from
fine (h). Since the two suns Sx and S2 are integral with the
driving shaft, they must revolve at the same speed. But it has
already been found in fine (d) that for one revolution of S2 the
annulus I] makes 13/57 of a revolution. These two figures are
therefore entered in the appropriate columns of fine (h).
13*—T.M.
394 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The annulus Ij is fixed for line (f), so that we may enter 0 in

column three of this line. Since (h) is the sum of lines (f) and (g),
it follows that the figure to be entered in column three of line (g)
is 13/57 and the same figure must be entered in each of the other
two columns in this line. In order to get the required figure of
unity in the second column of line (h), we must have 1 — 13/57, i.e.
44/57, in the corresponding column of line (f). The revolutions
of the arm in column one of line (f) automatically follow and, by
adding (f) and (g), we get the required revolutions of the arm A
and therefore of the driven shaft.
The driven shaft revolves in the same direction as the driving
shaft and at a speed of 3000x0-438 — 1314 r.p.m.

Revolutions Revolutions Revolutions of

of arm of sun internal gear or
annulus
For Train S2, I2, Ix.
88
(a) 0 —1
26
(b) 1 1 1
(c) = (a) + (b) . . 1 1+ — = — 0
13 ^26 13
(d) 1 0
57
For Train S1( I1( A .
31
(e) 1 0
m
44 31 44 0
(L 57 114 57
13 13 13
(g) 57 57 57
44 31 , 13 13
(h) = (f)+(g) . . 57'Il4+57 ~ 1
57

(2) Graphical Method. Since the pitch-circle radii of the wheels

are directly proportional to the number of teeth, a scale of tooth
numbers may be set off and used as a scale of pitch-circle radii,
as shown in Fig. 257. For the train S2, P2, I2, the tooth numbers
are S2 = 26 and I2 = 88, marked B and D on the scale. The
axis of the planet P2 is fixed to the annulus Ii and the radius of
rotation of this axis is marked C, equivalent to 57 teeth. Pitch
line velocities are represented by horizontal vectors set off from
the vertical axis OY. Since the annulus I2 is fixed, its pitch line
velocity is nil and is represented by point D.
Let BS2' represent the pitch line velocity of S2. Then the
tangential velocity of the axis of planet P2 will be given by Cl/',
where I/' lies on the straight line DS2'. But the planet axis is
XI] GEAR TRAINS 395
fixed to the annulus Il5 so that the pitch fine velocity of Ix must
be given by 83/57. Cl!" = FI/, where 1/ is found by joining 0 to
I/' and producing to intersect the horizontal line through F (at
83 the number of teeth on annulus I/.
The angular velocities of Sx and S2 are equal so that the pitch
line speed of Sx is found by drawing a horizontal line through E
(31 teeth) to intersect at S/ the line OS2' produced.

The top point of the planet Px has the same tangential velocity
as the annulus Ix and the bottom point of the planet has the same
tangential velocity as the sun Sx. Hence the axis of must have
the°tangential velocity CA' where A' lies on the straight line
I 'S '. The point C is the same as for the first train because the
sum of the teeth on sun and planet is the same for both trains.
The angular velocity of the driving shaft
= Na = BS2'/BO or ES//EO
and the angular velocity of the driven shaft
= Aa = CA'/CO
Na CO ES/ 57 ES/
K “ EO’ CA' ~ 31' CA'
cl
396 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

and, if ES/ and CA' are scaled from the velocity diagram and
substituted it will be found that
NJNa = 2-28
The two shafts turn in the same sense and the velocity of the
driven shaft
= Aa = 3000/2-28 = 1310 r.p.m.
The ratio of the angular velocities may also be found by pro-
ducing Si'O and A'O to intersect at Si and a the horizontal line
drawn through a point i2 on the line YO. Then
A a/N a = i2Si/i2a = 2-28
Torques and Tooth Loads
30.33,000
Input torque = Mx = 630 lb in.
277.3000

Load torque on A from (11.8)

= M& = — M1.(o1/a)3i = —630/0-438 = —1437 lb in.
Holding torque on I2 from (11.9)
= Mh = -(ifi+ifj = 1437—630 = 807 lb in.
Each planet is in effect a lever to which three forces are applied
by the sun wheel, the annulus and the pin on which the planet
revolves. Since the planet is in equilibrium under this system of
forces, it follows that the forces applied by the sun wheel and the
annulus must be equal in magnitude and act in the same sense,
while the force applied by the pin must have twice the magnitude
and act in the opposite sense.
Let JF], F2 be the tangential forces applied by the sun wheels
S1} S2 to their respective planets Pl5 P2.
Then, Ml = Flrl+F2r2
Ma = -2FVra
and Mi2=F2.ri2
Since the wheels are all 8 diametral pitch,
31 31 . 26 13 . 83 .
= 2~8 =
ri
“ Xb m
‘’ r2
“ 16 8”m-
’ T
'n = 16 m
‘

88 11 . 57 .
r.12 = — = — m J Ta = — in
16 2 16
/. FY = —Mj2r& = 1437.8/57 = 201-6 lb
XI] GEAR TRAINS 397
and
F2 = Mi2/ri2 = 807.2/11 = 146-7 lb

As a check,
Mi = = 201-6.31/16 + 146-7.13/8
= 391+239 = 630 lb in.
The suns ST and S2 therefore transmit 62-1% and 37-9% of the
input torque.
The annulus Ij has two forces applied to it, one by the planet
P2 through its pin and the other by the planet Since these
are the only forces which tend to rotate Ij about its axis and Ix
is in equilibrium, it follows that the algebraic sum of their moments
must be zero.
2F2.r&-Fl.rh = 0
This equation is satisfied by the values of Fx and F2 as deter-
mined above, the torque transmitted from one train to the other
through Ix
= F1rh = 201-6.83/16 = 1047 lb in.
If there are three planets in each train, the tooth loads are
theoretically reduced to one-third of the above values.

150. Some Applications of Epicyclic Trains. Epicyclic gear

trains are frequently used where it is necessary to obtain a large
speed reduction and the available space is limited. They have
also come into prominence in connection with the gear boxes of
motor-cars and other self-propelled vehicles. A few typical
examples will be described.
(a) The Cyclometer Mechanism. This is shown diagrammatically
in Fig. 258. There are two co-axial internal wheels C and D, of
c D

FIG. 258

which C is fixed. The compound wheel A-B is free to revolve

on a pin, which is attached to the arm on the driving shaft E.
The wheel B meshes with D and the wheel A with C. The driving
398 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

shaft carries the star wheel S which is operated by a striker fixed

to the bicycle wheel and makes one-fifth of a revolution for each
revolution of the wheel. The wheel D makes one revolution while
the bicycle travels a distance of one mile.
Example 8. The numbers of teeth are: A, 19; B, 20; C, 22; and
D, 23. What must be the diameter of the bicycle wheel if D
makes one revolution per mile ?
(1) Tabular Method. The table may be filled in as follows:

Revolutions Revolution Revolutions

of E of C of D
22 20 440
(a) E fixed . 0 —1
19 23 437
(b) . . . . 1 1 1
440 3
(c) = (a)-f-(b) . 1 0
437 ~ 437

Therefore the shaft E and the star wheel S make 437/3 revolutions
while D makes one revolution in the opposite direction.
(2) Algebraic Method.
Nc—Ne _ Td Ta 23 19 _ 437
Nd-Ne Th'Tc 20'22 440
When C is fixed, Nc — 0,
0— Ne 437 Nd 3
and
**' Nd—Ne ~ 440 Ne ~ ”437
As before, the shaft E makes 437/3 revolutions while the wheel
D makes one revolution in the opposite direction.
Hence the bicycle wheel must make 5.437/3 revolutions per
mile, and its diameter must be
5280.12.3
= 27-7 in.
TT.5.437

The numbers of teeth are therefore suitable for a cyclometer for

a bicycle with 28-in. wheels.
(b) Humpage’s Gear. This is a bevel-wheel epicyclic and is
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 259. The driving and driven
shafts A and B are co-axial and each carries a bevel wheel C, D.
Wheel C gears with E and E with the fixed wheel G; wheel D gears
with F, which is compound with E. The compound wheel E-F
XI] GEAR TRAINS 399
revolves freely on the arm attached to H, and H revolves about
the same axis as the shafts A and B. In the actual gear there are
either two or three arms on H, each of which carries a compound
wheel identical with E-F.

FIG. 259

]Example 9. Let the number of teeth on C, D, E, F and G be

respectively 15, 20, 39, 16 and 32. Then by the tabular method,
we have:

Revolutions Revolutions Revolutions Revolutions

of H of G of A of B

3 2
32 16
(a) H fixed . 0 -1 + -
^15 39'20
I 1 1 1
(b) . . . .
32 47 32 16 67
(c) = (a) + (b) . ' 1 0 1+ 1_
39'20 ~ 195
15 15
15 67 15 1
0 1
Multiply by ^ w 195'47 ~ 9-118

The shaft A turns in the same direction as the shaft B and 9-118
times as fast.
Vector Method. With H fixed, give G one revolution clockwise
as viewed from the right. Then the compound wheel E-F will
make T IT 32/39 revolutions counter-clockwise as seen in
=

g
•plan A will make TJT& 32/15 revolutions in the opposite
—

sense to G, and D will make TJTe. Tt/Td = 32/39.16/20

__ 128/195 revolutions in the same sense as G.
Set off the vectors hg, he, ha and hd, as shown to represent the
angular displacements relative to H. The directions of the vec-
tors are perpendicular to the respective planes of rotation and
conform to the right-handed screw convention.
In the actual gear, G is the fixed wheel, so that g becomes the
pole from which the angular displacements are measured, and
NJNh = NJNd = ga/gd = 9-12/1
400 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The displacements of A and B are in the same sense.

The angular displacement of H is represented by gh and is in
the same sense as that of A and D.
The angular displacement of E-F is represented by ge, the
vector sum of gh and he.
This gear is sometimes used on a lathe instead of the normal
type of back gear, Fig. 249. The mechanism is compact and may
be accommodated inside the cone-pulley.
By a suitable choice of the numbers of teeth, it is possible to
get a very large speed reduction from A to B and also to have the
shafts A and B turning either in the same direction or in opposite
directions.
(c) Differential Mechanism. Two types of epicyclic gear which
are used in the back axle of a motor-car are shown in Fig. 260.
The purpose of the differential mechanism is to enable the back
wheels to revolve at different speeds when the car is rounding a
corner. In the arrangement shown at (a) the wheels in the
epicyclic train are bevel wheels, while in that shown at (b) they
are spur wheels. The two equal wheels A and B are keyed to the
two halves of the rear axle, and the bevel wheels C, Fig. 260 (a),

(b)
FIG. 260

or the spur wheels C and D, Fig. 260 (b), revolve on pins which
are carried by the casing G. The drive is transmitted from the
propeller shaft to the casing through the bevel wheels E and F.
The bevel pinions C gear with the wheels A and B, so that if the
casing G is stationary the wheels A and B revolve in opposite
directions. Similarly, the spur pinions C and D gear respectively
with the wheels A and B and also with each other, as shown in
the plan view, so that when the casing is stationary A and B
XI] GEAR TRAINS 401
revolve in opposite directions. It is easily seen that if the car is
moving along a straight path the wheels A and B and also the
casing will revolve at the same speed, and the bevel pinions C, or
the spur pinions C and D, will remain stationary relative to t-lie
casing. If, however, the car follows a curved path, the wheels A
and B will revolve at different speeds and the casing will revolve
at a speed which is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of A and B.
At the same time the bevel pinions C, or the spur pinions C and ,
will revolve on their pins.
(d) Three-speed and Reverse Gear Box. The essential features
of the Trojan epicyclic gear box are shown in Fig. 261. The
casing Q rotates at engine speed and carries three studs, one of
which is shown at P. The three studs are arranged symmetrically
about the axis of rotation of the casing and on each stud a cluster
of four wheels, D, E, F and G, is free to revolve. Wheel G on
the cluster gears with wheel H which is keyed to the propener
shaft. D, E and F gear with K, L and M, which are respectively
keyed to sleeves integral with the drums A, B and C. Each of the
three sleeves is free to revolve about the axis of the propeller shaft,
but rotation of any one of them may be prevented by tightening
the brake band on the corresponding
drum. In the figure, wheels M and
L are smaller and wheel K. larger than
wheel H. If M or L is prevented
from rotating by tightening the
brake band on C or B, the propeller
shaft turns in the same direction as
the casing Q, but at a lower speed
(see Example 5); whereas, if K is held
stationary, the propeller shaft turns
in the opposite direction to the
casing Q. First gear is engaged by preventing rotation of drum
B since this gives the biggest reduction in speed from Q to the
propeller shaft. Tightening the brake band on drum C gives
second gear. Top gear is engaged by lockmg the tram, so that
the propeller shaft rotates at the same speed as the casing, this
is brought about by means of two semi-circular bands which are
anchored to the drum C and which can be contracted round the
drum B. The arrangement is such that, while B and C are locked
together, both of them can revolve. The gear ratios may be
calculated, as explained in Example 5, when the number of teeth
on each wheel is known.
tel The Wilson Gear Box. The arrangement of this epicyclic
gear box is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 262. It provides
402 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

four forward ratios and a reverse ratio. It will be seen that there
are four sun wheels, Sr, Sl3 S2 and S3, and four internal gear wheels
or annuli, Ir, I1} I2 and I3. Each sun is geared to the corresponding
annulus by means of three planet wheels, only one of which is
shown. The planets are denoted by P with the appropriate
suffix. There are four brake drums, which may be brought to rest
by means of the contracting brake bands Br, Bb B2 and B3.
The suns Sj and S2 are integral with the engine shaft E. The sun

S3 is free to revolve on the engine shaft, but is integral with the

left-hand brake drum, and the sun Sr is free to revolve on the
propeller shaft F but is integral with the annulus Ix. The planets
Pr and Px revolve on studs which are carried by the propeller
shaft F. The planets P3 revolve on studs which are integral
with the annulus I2 and, finally, the annulus I3, the studs for the
planets P2, the annulus Ix and the sun Sr are all rigidly fastened
together. The action is as follows:
(a) To engage first gear the brake band BL is contracted and
the annulus I] is thus brought to rest, so that motion is trans-
mitted from E to F through the simple epicyclic train Sl3 Px
and Ij.
(b) To engage second gear the brake band B2 is contracted so
that the annulus I2 is brought to rest. The motion is then
transmitted through the compound epicyclic train S2, P2, I2 and
Sl5 Pl5 In
(c) To engage third gear the brake band B3 is contracted so that
the sun S3 is brought to rest. The motion is then transmitted
from E to F through the three epicyclic trains.
(d) To engage reverse gear the brake band Br is contracted so
that the annulus Ir is brought to rest. The two trains Sl3 Pl3
Ix and Sr3 Pr3 Ir then determine the motion transmitted from
E to F.
XI] GEAR TRAINS 403

(e) To engage top gear a small cone clutch shown on the extreme
left of the figure is used. This clutch prevents all relative motion
between the sun S3 and the engine shaft E. Hence the epicyclic
gears are locked together and the shaft F runs at the same speed
as the shaft E.
It should be noted that only one of the brake bands is conti acted
for each gear ratio, all the others remaining free.
For details of the band-contracting mechanism and of the pre-
selecting mechanism the reader should consult the paper by
W. G. Wilson, on “ Epicyclic Gearing ” in the Proceedings of the
Institution of Automobile Engineers, 1931-2.
Example 10. The numbers of teeth on the wheels of a gear box
of the above type are: Sx = 26, S2 = 24, S3 = 23, Sr = 31,
= 70j I2 = 72, I3 = 61 and Ir = 71. The wheels are all 6
diametral pitch and the input torque is 1500 lb in. Find the
ratio of engine speed to propeller-shaft speed and the tooth loads
for third gear. , .
It is not proposed to give the solutions for first, second and
reverse gear, which follow similar lines to that of Example 7,
p. 393.
Third Gear. Brake band B3 is contracted so that S3 is at rest.
(1) Algebraic Method. For the train S3, P3, I3 the axes of the
planets are fixed to I2.
NaS3—N,12
61
N,—N h '23
But S3 is fixed,
0-N I2 61 N,13 84
= — —- and 61
^i3-^i2
'23 N,12

For the train S2, P2, h the axes of the planets P2 are fixed to I3,
Ns-Nh 72
Nh-Nh 24

Substituting for Nh in terms of N

N*, 51
N -A i3
82
T
= _7-? and
(61/84)Ai3-Ai3 24 N i3 28

But N• = Nu and NB = Ns, so that NSJNh — 51/28.

For the train Sl5 Plt Il5 the axes of rotation of the planets are
fixed to and revolve with the propeller shaft F.
NBl-Nf Tu 70 35
N u—N[ T SI '20 l3
404 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

and, substituting for Nh in terms of NS1,

Ns-N{ 35
(28/51)VSi Nf 13
35 28 T „ 35

£
— N
•

1
= +

GO
•
•

*—
13' 52 *XT si
13
48 1 1-49
•• Nf _
13’2'■479 —
1
(2) Vector Method. For each of the simple trains consisting of
sun wheel, planet, planet carrier and annulus, a vector diagram
of angular displacements or velocities of each member relative to
the planet carrier may be drawn as explained on p. 385. The
relevant information for drawing the diagrams is given in the
following table

Planet carrier
Train Revs of sun Revs, of planet Revs, of annulus
fixed

26 13 26 13
1 0 1
22 ~ 11 70 — 35
24 24 1
2 0 1 1
~24 " 72 3
23 23
3 0 1
19 6l

The planet carrier for the first train is fixed to the driven shaft
F, and the three vectors fsl5 fpx and fix are set off from pole f as
shown in Fig. 263 (i).
The planet carrier for the second train is the annulus Il5 and
the corresponding vectors are set off from the pole il5 Fig. 263 (ii).
The planet carrier for the third train is the annulus I2, and the
vectors are set off from the pole i2, Fig. 263 (iii).
The speeds of Sx and S2 are necessarily equal, since both wheels
are integral with the driving shaft. The speeds of the annulus Ix
and the annulus I3 are also equal since they are rigidly fastened
together by the pins on which the planets P2 rotate. The three
vector diagrams (i), (ii) and (iii) may therefore be combined to
give the single diagram (iv), in which sx and s2 coincide and also ix
and i3 coincide. This involves changing the scale of (ii) so that
s2q is equal in length to spj in (i), and changing the scale of (iii)
so that i2i3 is equal in length to i2ix in (ii).
The simplest way of obtaining the combined diagram (iv) is
to use the graphical construction shown. Draw vertical lines
through the points ix in (i) and (ii) and the point i3 in (iii).
XI] GEAR TRAINS 405
Through sx and s2 draw lines of equal inclination 9, say 45°, to
give the points qx and q2, and through i2 diagram (iii), draw a line
parallel to q2i2, diagram (ii), to give the point q3.
Start diagram (iv) by drawing the triangle s1i1q4 similar to the
triangle sxixqx in (i). From q4 draw lines parallel to qxf and qiPi,
also lines parallel to q2i2 and q2p2 and finally lines parallel to q3s3
and q3p3. Mark the points of intersection of these lines with
sxix in (iv) with the appropriate letter f, px, i2, p2, s3, p3. The
vector diagram sxs3 will then give the relative angular velocities
of all the members of the train, as may readily be proved

q2i.* i ^'2 /•**\

(i) (ii) i (m)
/
/
/ /W
>2 S
3 4 -

it P, ¥=—-B
h j Pz \ *2\ I
I x \>
TM, \ \I
M
b Xb
f M, YM ■2 Nq3

by similar triangles. Note that to prevent confusion the lines

from q4 which fix the positions of px, p2 and p3 are not actually
shown. .
Since the sun wheel S3 is the fixed wheel in the actual tram,
this is the pole from which the angular velocities are to be mea-
sured. The driving shaft speed is that of the sun wheels Sx and
S2 and the driven shaft speed is that of F.
NJN{ = s3sx/s3f = 1-49/1

The external torques are the input torque Mx applied to the

shaft which carries the two wheels Sx and S2, the load torque J\1 ^
406 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

applied to the driven shaft F, and the holding, or brake torque

Mb applied to S3. The vector diagram s^ may therefore be
treated as a lever with the three “ forces ” Ms, Mf and Mb apphed
at sx, f and s3. It follows that for equilibrium Ms and Mh will
act in the same sense and Mf in the opposite sense.
Mf/MB = s3sjs3f = L49/1
M{ = l-49ilfs
= 2235 lb in.
and Mb — M{—Ms — 0*49il/s = 735 lb in.
Just as the complete train is in equilibrium under the three
externally applied torques Ma, M{ and Mb, so each of the
simple trains is in equilibrium under three externally applied
torques.
For the first train, the torques are: Mx apphed to Sl5 M{
applied to the shaft F and Mh applied to Iv The load torque Mf
is known in magnitude and sense and acts through f diagram (i).
The other torques must act through sx and il in the directions
shown by the dotted lines in order to give equilibrium, and their
magnitudes are found by taking moments.
ilf^spi = Jlf.fii, Mf = 2235.26/96 = 606 lb in.
Mh = Mf-Mf = 2235—606 = 1629 lb in.
For the third train, the torques are Mb applied to S3, Mh
applied to I3 and Mi2 applied to I2. The braking torque Mb is
known in magnitude and sense and acts through s3, diagram (iii).
The other torques must then act through i2 and i3 as shown by
dotted fines in order to give equilibrium, and their magnitudes
are:
Mu = Mb.i2s3/i2i3 = 735.61/23 = 1950 lb in.
and Mh = Mb+Mh = 735 + 1950 = 2685 lb in.
For the second train, torques are applied to S2, and I2 and the
planet carrier which is integral with + and I3. The torque
applied through i2 in (ii) is equal and opposite to the torque
applied through i2 in (iii), since I2 is in equilibrium under the
torques applied by the reaction of the planet P3 on its pin and the
reaction of the teeth of planet P2 on the teeth of I2. Similarly,
the compound member I3Tx is in equilibrium under the three
torques applied to it by the reaction on the teeth of I1? the reaction
on the teeth of I3 and the reaction of the planet P2 on its pin.
Hence the torque M'{l which is shown acting through i1rin"(ii) must
XI] GEAR TRAINS 407
be equal and opposite to the algebraic sum of the torques Mix and
Mi3 in (i) and (iii).
Taking moments about i1}
M2 = Al^i2.i1i2/i1s2 = 2685.24/72 = 895 lb in.
and M'h = M2+Mh = 895+2685 = 3580 lb in.
As a check,
M1JrM2 =■= total input torque
= 606+895 = 1501 lb in.
and M'h = Mh+Mh = 1629 + 1950 = 3579 lb in.
The magnitudes of the torques applied to the individual mem-
bers having been found as above, the corresponding tooth loads
may be calculated. The results are given in the following table:

Member Torque Teeth Radius F (total) F (3 planets)

lb in. in. lb lb

26 2£ 280 93-3
s, 606
149-2
s. 895 24 2 447-5
s. 23 381 127
735 iff
I. 70 6 279 93
1629 f 149-2
I, 2685 72 6 447-5
I, 1950 61 383 127-7
F 2235 48 4 658-9 186-3

A check on the accuracy of the working is provided by the

entries in the last column, since the tangential force applied to
each sun wheel S should be equal to that applied to its annulus I.

EXAMPLES XI

1. Two parallel shafts are connected by spur gearing. The diametral pitch of
the teeth is 4, the distance between the shaft axes is approximately 8-5 m. and one
wheel is to turn at four times the speed of the other. Find the numbers of teeth
on the two wheels and the exact centre distance. If the centre distance is to bo
exactly 8-5 in., what is the velocity ratio nearest to 4 that can be obtamed ?

2 As Question 1, except that the diametral pitch is 5, the approximate centre

distance 7 in. and the velocity ratio 2-70.

3. A train of spur gears is required to give a total reduction of 250 to 1 in four

ffteris No pinion is to have less than 20 teeth and the diametral pitches are to
be 5 for the first step, 3-5 for the second, 2-5 for the third and 1-5 for the fourth
The centre distances must not involve recurring decimals. Fmd the numbers of
teeth, the pitch-circle diameters and the centre distances for a suitable tram ot
gears.
408 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

4. A total reduction of approximately 12 to 1 is required in two steps by means

of spur gears. The driving and driven shafts are co-axial and the diametral
pitch of the teeth is to be 5 for the high-speed pair and 3 for the low-speed pair.
If no wheel is to have less than 18 teeth, find the numbers of teeth, the pitch-
circle diameters and the centre distance for a suitable train of gears.

5. A gear box of the sliding-gear type has two indirect speeds and the constant
mesh wheels are equal. The distance between the centre line of the secondary
shaft and that of the driving and driven shafts, which are in line, is to be as nearly
as possible 6| in. The gear ratios are to be approximately 2 to 1 and 4£ to 1
and the diametral pitch of all wheels is to be 5.
What arrangement of wheels will satisfy the required conditions and what are
the resulting gear ratios ? L.U.

6. As Question 5, except that the centre distance is to be 4| in., the gear ratios
approximately 1-75 to 1 and 3-4 to 1 and the diametral pitch 8.

7. A four-speed gear box with three indirect speeds, similar to that shown in
Fig. 250, is required to give ratios of approximately 1-5 to 1, 2-5 to 1 and 4 to 1.
The diametral pitch of all the teeth is 8 and the centre distance is 2f in. Find the
numbers of teeth on the wheels and sketch the arrangement.

8. As Question 7, except that the centre distance is to be 5 in., the gear ratios
approximately If to 1, 2f to 1 and 5 to 1 and the diametral pitch 6.

9. The fixed internal wheel B, Fig. 252, has 92 teeth; the wheels C and D have
respectively 25 and 15 teeth; and the wheel E has 52 teeth. If the arm A makes
130 r.p.m. and the input torque is 20 lb ft, what are the speed of E, the resisting
torque on E and the holding torque on B ?

10. Referring to Fig. 255, the wheels B, C, D and E have respectively 30, 27, 21
and 24 teeth. If the arm A makes 2400 r.p.m. and the input torque is 130 lb in.,
find the speed and load torque on D and the holding torque on E.

11. Referring to Fig. 255, the wheels B, C, D and E have respectively 25, 26,
75 and 74 teeth. If the arm A makes 470 r.p.m. and the wheel D 100 r.p.m. in
the same sense, what is the speed of wheel E ? If the input torque to D is 35 lb ft,
what torques must be applied to A and E ?

12. An internal wheel B with 80 teeth is keyed to a shaft F. A fixed internal

wheel C with 82 teeth is concentric with B. A compound wheel DE gears with
the two internal wheels; D has 28 teeth and gears with C, while E gears with B.
The compound wheel revolves freely on a pin which projects from a disc keyed to
a shaft A co-axial with F. If the wheels all have the same pitch and the shaft A
makes 800 r.p.m., what is the speed of shaft F ?
If the torque input to shaft A is 40 lb ft, what is the load torque on shaft F and
the holding torque on wheel C ?

13. For an epicyclic gear of the type shown in Fig. 255, the numbers of teeth
are: wheel B, 30; wheel C, 33; wheel E, 24. If the teeth are all of the same
pitch, find the speed of A in terms of that of D. If A is required to revolve in
the opposite direction to D at approximately four times the speed of D, what
change must be made in the numbers of teeth on wheels C and E and what is the
actual speed ratio ?

14. The internal wheels Ia, I2 of a compound epicyclic gear, Fig. 257, have
respectively 79 and 83 teeth, the sum wheels and S2 have respectively 23 and
19 teeth. If the speed of the driving shaft is 2500 r.p.m., what is the speed of the
driven shaft ? If the power input is 40 h.p. and all the wheels are 5 diametral
pitch, find:
(a) the load torque on A and the holding torque on I2;
(b) the fractions of the input torque transmitted by the sun wheels Sx and S2;
(c) the tooth loads.
Xi] GEAR TRAINS 409
15. In the compound epicyclic gear of Fig. 264, A is the driving shaft and B the
driven shaft. The internal wheel or annulus I2 is fixed, the pinions I\ and P2
revolve on pins fixed to the arms C and D, which are in turn fixed to the driven
shaft B, and the internal wheel Ix and the sun wheel S2 form a compound wheel
which revolves about the common axis of shafts A and B. The sun wheel
is keyed to the driving shaft A. The numbers of teeth are Sx, 24; I!, 66; S2, 28;
I2, 62. If the shaft A turns at 1500 r.p.m., the input torque is 60 lb ft, and all the
wheels are 6 diametral pitch, find:
(a) the speed of the driven shaft;
(b) the load torque on B and the holding torque on I2;
(c) the fractions of the load torque transmitted by C and D;
(d) the tooth loads.

16. The numbers of teeth on the wheels of a Wilson epicyclic gear box. Fig. 262,
are: Sx, 23; Sa, 23; S„ 20; Sr, 31; I1( 67; I2, 67; I„ 58; and Ir, 65. Find the gear
ratios provided by the gear box.

I; I2

17. Fig. 265 shows diagrammatically the arrangement of the Ford model T
epicyclic gear box. The cluster A, B, C revolves on a pin attached to the engine
flywheel. The wheels D, E, F are attached to concentric sleeves, winch surround
an extension G of the engine crankshaft. Brake drums H, J, K are integral with
the wheels D, E and F respectively. The propeller shaft and rear axle are driven
from the drum H. Bottom gear is engaged by contracting a brake band round
dmm J; reverse gear by contracting a brake band round drum K; and top gear
by bringing into operation the plate clutch L, which locks together the extension
shaft G and the brake drum H. The numbers of teeth on the various wheels are
A, 27; B, 33; C, 24; D, 27; E, 21; and F, 30. Find the gear ratios in bottom and
reverse gears.

18 The numbers of teeth on the wheels of a Humpage epicyclic gear box.

Fig. 259, are: C, 12; D, 34; E, 40; F, 16; and G, 46. If the shaft A makes
1500 r.p.m., what is the speed of shaft B ?

19 A bevel gear epicyclic is shown in Fig. 266. The wheel A is keyed to the
driving shaft, the wheel F to the driven shaft and the wheel E is fixed. The arm
G which supports the inclined shaft is free to turn about the common axis of the
driving and the driven shafts, and the wheels B, C and D are keyed to the inclined
shaft ^ The wheels A and B are equal in size; C has 19 teeth; D, 18; E, 75;
and F, 74 teeth. Find the speed of F in terms of the speed of A. What is the
speed ratio when E has 81 teeth ?
90 In the epicyclic pulley block shown in Fig. 267, A is a fixed wheel of 48 teeth,
B and C are intermediate wheels carried on an eccentric which is keyed to the
410 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

shaft. B has 30 and C 31 teeth. The wheel D with the sprocket wheel F runs
loose on the shaft. D has 50 teeth. The sprocket wheel E is keyed to the
shaft and is 10 in. diameter. The wheel F is 7 in. diameter. Find the velocity
ratio of the block. L.U.

21. A rotating arm A, making 100 r.p.m. in the clockwise direction, carries two
wheels B and C, which are in gear. The wheel B has 60 teeth and the same axis
of rotation as the arm. A wheel D with 120 internal teeth and mounted on the
axis of rotation of the arm gears with C. Find the speed and direction of rotation
of D when B is fixed and of B when D is fixed. Find in each case the r.p.m. of
C on its own pin. L.U.

22. The scheme of an epicyclic gear for a portable compressor drive is shown
sectionally in Fig. 268. The wheel A is keyed to the engine shaft. Arm D, fixed
to the compressor shaft, carries two axles on which the compound wheel B-C
rotates freely. C gears externally with A and drives B, which gears internally
with the casing E. The casing is held fixed by a friction band F. The engine
supplies 30 h.p. at 1000 r.p.m. Determine the driving torque at the compressor
flange and state the power transmitted directly from pinion C to pinion B.
The diameters of wheels A, B and C are 1\ in., 3£ in. and 2f in. L.U.

23. Fig. 269 shows diagrammatically a compound epicyclic gear. Wheels A,

D and E are free to rotate independently on spindle O, while B and C are compound
and rotate together on spindle P, on the end of arm OP. All the wheels have
teeth of the same pitch. A has 12 teeth, B has 30 and C has 14 teeth cut externally.
Find the number of teeth on wheels D and E which are cut internally.
XI] GEAR TRAINS 411
If the wheel A is driven clockwise at 1 r.p.s., while D is driven counter-clock-
wise at 5 r.p.s., determine the magnitude and direction of the angular velocities
of arm OP and wheel E. L.U.

24. In the gear shown in Fig. 270 the spindle M is driven from the pinion J
keyed to the mainshaft. The sleeve L is driven partly by the disc N keyed to

FIG. 270

the mainshaft and partly by the pinion A, which can be rotated independently.
BC rotates on a pin fixed in N, DE rotates freely in N and FG is free on the main-
shaft. The mainshaft is driven at 350 r.p.m. in the given direction. What
must be the speed of A in order to make L, which has 20 teeth, rotate at a speed
80 r.p.m. slower than M? (The number of teeth in each wheel is indicated on
the diagram; those without numbers are idle wheels.) L.U.
 CHAPTER XII

DYNAMICS OF MACHINES. TURNING

MOMENT. THE FLYWHEEL

151. In every machine there is at least one point at which

energy is supplied and at least one other point at which energy
is delivered. In an ideal machine the energy delivered would
be exactly equal to the energy supplied, both amounts of energy
being measured over the same interval of time. But in an actual
machine this state of affairs does not exist for two reasons:
first, some of the energy supplied is absorbed in overcoming the
inevitable friction at the various joints or couplings, so that
the energy delivered is less than that supplied, the ratio of the
two amounts of energy being the mechanical efficiency of the
machine; secondly, during the given interval of time, the kinetic
and potential energies of each link will, in general, change, so
that either some of the energy supplied will be absorbed in
increasing the total energy, kinetic plus potential, of the moving
parts, or alternatively the energy supplied will be supplemented
by the decrease in total energy of the moving parts. In this
connection it must be emphasised that during the interval of
time required for the machine to complete a full cycle of opera-
tions, the net change of kinetic or potential energy for each
moving part is nil, since at the end of the cycle each moving part
occupies exactly the same position and is moving at exactly
the same speed as at the beginning of the cycle. Hence,
taken over a complete cycle, the energy delivered by the
machine is not affected by the inertia of the moving parts and
only differs from the energy supplied to the machine by the
amount of the energy absorbed in overcoming friction at the
joints.
When analysing the forces which act on the various parts, or
links, of a machine, it is often convenient to consider separately
the forces which would act if the moving parts were without mass
and those which arise from the inertia of the moving parts. It is
then easier to follow the effect of a change in the mean speed of
movement of the parts on the total force to which any one part
is subjected.
412
[CHAP, XII] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 413
152. Effort and Resistance. Referring to Fig. 271, let M repre-
sent any ideal machine to which an effort F is applied and by
means of which a resistance FT is overcome. During a short
interval of time St, let the effort move through a distance Sx and
the resistance through a distance S#r. Then the work done by the
effort must be equal to the work done against the resistance, or
F. Sx — Ft. SXt.
If both sides of this equation are divided by St we have, in the
limit when St becomes infinitesimal,
F.v — Fr.vr (12.1)
where v and vT are respectively the velocities at the given instant
of the effort and the resistance.

If the effort and the resistance are applied in directions other

than those in which the points A and B of the machine are con-
strained to move, as shown by the dotted lines, then clearly the
work done by the effort is given by the product of Sx and the
component F' of F in the direction of Sx; similarly, the work done
against the resistance is given by the product of §#r and the com-
ponent F/ of Fr in the direction of Szr. Equation (12.1) then
applies if F' and F/ are substituted for F and FT.
Should the energy be supplied to the machine by means of a
torque T applied to one link and this energy be used to overcome
a resisting torque TT applied to another link, then by similar
reasoning, we get
Tco — Tj. o)r (12.2)

where w and coT are respectively the angular velocities at the given
instant of the link to which the energy is supplied and the link
from which the energy is delivered.
414 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Example 1. A toggle mechanism such as might be used in a

small hand punch is shown in Fig. 272. The effort F is applied
to the point C on the bell-crank lever CO A and the resistance FT
to the block B, which is guided along a vertical path. What is the
least value of F in terms of FT for the given position of the
mechanism ?
If friction is neglected, the rate of doing work at C must be
equal to the rate of doing work at B.
F.va — F1.vh or F=vb/vc.FI
But vc — OC/OA.va; also, the instantaneous centre of link AB is
at I, where I is the point of intersection of OA produced and a line
through B perpendicular to vb. So that, vjvb = IA/IB.

777
vb v,
_D _a 777
IB OA 7/7
1 1
* *»• ‘ ~ IA’OC
Scaling the lengths from the diagram and substituting, we find
that F — 0-15Fr.

Example 2. In the epicyclic gear shown in Fig. 273, the axes 0

and P are fixed. The pinion A is keyed to the driving shaft and
gears with the external wheel
B, which is integral with the
internal wheel C. The planets
D gear with C and with the
fixed wheel E. The planet
carrier is keyed to a driven
shaft F coaxial with the fixed
wheel E. The numbers of teeth
FIG. 273 are: A, 25; B, 90; C, 83; E, 31.
Find the torque exerted on
the driven shaft if the torque on the driving shaft is 10 lb ft.
Let N with the appropriate suffix represent the speed of rotation
of the corresponding wheel or shaft. Then, for the epicyclic
train C, D, E:
Ne_Nf 83
Nc N{ 3l

But the wheel E is fixed, so that Ne = 0,

0—Nf 83
• • Nc—Nf ~ ~31
from which NJNf = 114/83
XII] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 415

Since B and C are rigidly fastened together, ATb = Nc.

But
90
=
18
+i
s0that
f N_. 18
‘25 6’ Nn ~5

and
N, _ 18 114
-4-94
Nf~Nc'N{ 5 ' 83
If friction is neglected, the rate of doing work on the driven
shaft is equal to the rate of doing work on the driving shaft.

Tt.Nt = T>.N. or 2-f =^S.T„ =-4-94.10 =-49-4 lb ft

The negative sign merely indicates that the torque exerted on the
driven shaft is of opposite sense to that exerted on the driving
shaft.
Example 3. The high-pressure cylinder of a horizontal cross-
compound steam engine has a diameter of 9 in. and a stroke of
24 in. The diameter of the piston rod is 2 in., the length of the
connecting rod is 60 in. and the r.p.m. are 120. When the crank
has turned through 40° from the i.d.c., the steam pressures on
the cover and crank sides of the piston are respectively 160 and
32 lb/in2 abs. Neglecting friction and the inertia of the moving
parts, find the torque exerted on the crankshaft.
The net steam thrust on the piston
= F = 7r/4.92.160—(TT/4)(92—22)32
= 63*6.160—60-5.32
= 8240 lb
Let Ft be the equivalent resisting force, which acts through the
crankpin C tangential to the crank circle.
Then Ftv0 = F.vv
where vc and vp are respectively the velocities of the crankpin and
the piston.
Referring to Fig. 274, I is the instantaneous centre of the con-
necting rod CP, so that vjvc — IP/IC.
But, from the similar triangles IPC, OMC, we have OM/OC
= ip/IC and therefore vjvc = OM/OC. Substituting in the
above equation:
Ft.OC = F.OM

But Ft. OC is equal to the torque T exerted on the crankshaft,

T = F.OM . . . . (12.3)
416 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The length OM may be found either from a scale drawing or by

calculation. Since OM/OC = vjvc, it follows from equation
(3.11) that:
OM/OC sin 0+(sin 2d)l2n
But n — CP/OC = 5 and 6 — 40°,
OM/OC 0-6428+0-9848/10 ~ 0-7413
and the length of OM 0-7413 ft
the torque exerted on the crankshaft = F.OM ^ 8240.0-7413
~ 6108 lb ft

153. The Effective Force and the Inertia Force of a Link. Each
part or link of a machine has a more or less complicated motion
which changes from instant to instant. In general the motion
consists of rotation about an axis, the instantaneous axis of the
link, with varying angular velocity. This is equivalent to a
motion of translation of the c.g. of the link together with rotation
about an axis through the c.g. Both the linear velocity of the
c.g. and the angular velocity of rotation vary from instant to
instant. It was shown in Article 28 that motion of this kind is
produced when the line of action of the force applied to a rigid
body does not pass through the c.g. The magnitude and direc-
tion of the linear acceleration of the c.g. depend upon the mag-
nitude and direction of the applied force and the mass of the body;
the magnitude and sense of the angular acceleration in turn depend
on the magnitude and sense of the moment of the applied force
about an axis through the c.g. and on the moment of inertia of
the body about this axis. Given the linear acceleration of the
c.g. and the mass, the magnitude and direction of the applied
force may be calculated; given the angular acceleration and the
XII] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 417
moment of inertia, the moment of the applied force and therefore
the distance of its line of action from the c.g. may be calculated.
A link of a mechanism is constrained to move in a definite way
by the adjacent links to which it is connected. The resultant of
all the forces applied to the link through those connections,
together with any other external forces, such as the force of
gravity, must be equal to the force required to accelerate the link.
This force is termed the effective force and its magnitude is given
by the product of the mass of the link and the linear acceleration
of its centre of mass.
The direct way of finding the magnitude and the line of action
of the effective force for a given link of a mechanism is to find
first the acceleration fg of the c.g. and the angular acceleration a,
as explained in Articles 46-50. The magnitude F of the effective
force is then given by Wfg.fg, where W is the weight of the link,
and its line of action is parallel to /g. The distance h of the line
of action from the c.g. and the side of the c.g. on which the line of
action lies must then conform to the magnitude and sense of a.
Thus h = W/g. k2a./F, where k is the radius of gyration of the link
about an axis through the c.g. perpendicular to the plane of
motion. Referring to Fig. 275 (b) G is the position of the c.g. of
the link AB, /a and /b the accelerations of the points A and B,
represented to scale in (a) by oa and ob, and ab is the acceleration
of B relative to A. The vector ab may be resolved into two com-
ponents ap and pb perpendicular and parallel to the link AB.
Then ap is the tangential component fh^ of the acceleration of B
relative to A, and the angular acceleration of AB is clockwise and
its magnitude is a = /abVAB. The acceleration /g of G is given
by og, where g divides the acceleration image ab in the same pro-
portion as G divides AB.
The effective force
F = Wlg.f8
and h = Wlg.k2*IF
Since a is clockwise and F acts in the sense og, the line of action
of F is at the distance li above G as shown.
The line of action may however be obtained graphically without
the need for any calculation, if the link is replaced by a dynamically
equivalent two-mass system.
In Article 27 it was shown that any two-mass system which is
to be dynamically equivalent to a given link must have the two
masses rigidly fastened together at distances a and b on opposite
sides of the c.g. of the link, such that a.b — k2, where k is the
radius of gyration of the link about an axis through the c.g.
Further, the sum of the two masses must be equal to the mass of
14—T.M.
418 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the link and the c.g. of the two masses must coincide with the c.g.
of the link.
Referring to Fig. 275 (c), the position of one of the two masses
which form an equivalent dynamical system may be fixed
arbitrarily. The position of the other mass must then be found
so that the product of the distances of the two masses from G is
equal to k2. Let one of the masses be placed at A, then the
position C of the other mass may be found graphically.
Erect GK perpendicular to AB and equal in length to k; join
A to K and draw KC perpendicular to AK to intersect AB at C.
Then, from the similar triangles AGK, KGC, we have AG/GK
= GK/CG or AG.CG = KG2 = k2. The link AB is then
dynamically equivalent to a system of two masses, one of which

is placed at A and the other at C. The resultant accelerating

force on the link must therefore coincide with the resultant
accelerating force on the masses at A and C. It must therefore
pass through the point of intersection of the accelerating force on
C with the accelerating force on A. The accelerations of C and G
are given respectively in magnitude and direction by oc and og,
where c and g divide the acceleration image ab in the same pro-
portions as C and G divide the link AB. Hence the line of action
of the accelerating force on AB passes through D, which is the
point of intersection of /a produced with a line drawn through C
parallel to oc. The magnitude of the accelerating force F is given
by W/g.fg, where /g is the acceleration of the c.g. of the link and
is represented to scale by og.
XII] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 419

It is often more convenient to place one of the two masses which

form the equivalent dynamical system at the acceleration centre
of the link. As explained in Article 47, the acceleration centre
Oa may be found by drawing triangle OaAB similar to the accelera-
tion triangle oab. Then, referring to Fig. 275 (d), the other mass
must be placed at Z on OaG produced, such that GZ = &2/OaG.
The point Z may be found by a graphical construction similar to
that used for finding C in Fig. 275 (c). But the mass at Oa has
zero acceleration, so that the resultant accelerating force on the
two-mass system must pass through Z. In other words, Z must
be a point on the line of action of the accelerating force on link AB.
Each of the individual links of a machine may be examined in
this way in order to find the magnitude and the line of action
of the effective force applied to the link. D’Alembert’s principle,

Article 28, may then be used and for each link the inertia force
equal and opposite to the effective force, may be included with
the external forces applied to the link in order to give a system of
forces which is in equilibrium.
Referring to Fig. 276, AB is a link of a machine with the pins
A and B constrained to move along the paths shown. The weight
W acts through the centre of gravity G and the inertia force
through E. The magnitude and line of action of F{ are found as
explained above. . , ,,
The force F& which is applied to the link AB at pm A by the
adiacent link will usually have a component Fa' tangential to the
path of A and also a component Fa" perpendicular to the path of
A The former component does the useful work on the link, while
the latter constrains the pin A to follow the given path. Similarly,
the force Fb which is applied to the link AB at pin B by the
420 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

adjacent link will have a component Fb tangential to the path of

B and a component Fh" perpendicular to the path of B.
If the component Fa' in the tangential direction is given, then
the component in the normal direction and the two components
of Fb may be found from the necessary conditions for the equili-
brium of the link. These conditions are that (a) the vector sum
of all the forces which act on the link shall be zero and (b) the
algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about any point in
their plane shall be zero.
Since the components of Fa and Fb normal to the paths of A and
B are both unknown, we must obviously take moments about the
point of intersection I of the lines of action of these two com-
ponents. We are then able to find Fb , the tangential component
of Fh, by equating moments:
Fh'. IB = Fa'.IA—TF.IY—Fj .IX . (12.4)
where IY and IX are respectively perpendicular to the lines of
action of W and F j.
It should be noticed that the above equation may be deduced
from the energy equation. The rate at which energy is supplied
to the link is given by the product Fa'.va; the rate at which the
potential energy of the link is increasing is given by W. vw; and
that at which the kinetic energy of the link is increasing is given
by F{ ,vu while the rate at which work is being done on the ex-
ternal resistance at B is given by Fb .vb.
In each case the force is multiplied by the component velocity
of the point of application in the direction of the force. Since I
is the instantaneous centre of the link AB, v& — co. IA, vb = CO. IB,
vw = co. IY and v{ = co. IX, where co is the angular velocity of the
link AB.
But Fa'.va = Fb'.Vb+Fj.Vi-f W .v^
Fa'co.IA = Fb'.CO.IB+Fi.co.IX+1F.CO.IY
or Fb'.IB = Fa\IA—W.IY—Fj.IX as before
When the magnitude of Fb has been found, the magnitudes of
Fa" and Fb" may be obtained by drawing the polygon of forces as
shown at (a) in Fig. 276.
It is customary, when solving problems of this type, to ignore
the effect of the pull of gravity on the link. Obviously this
should only be done when the weight of the link is small in com-
parison with the other forces which act on the link, otherwise the
results obtained may involve considerable error.
Example 4. Fig. 276 is drawn to scale for a link AB 12-5 in.
long. The c.g. is 4 in. from B and the inertia force Fl passes
XII] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 421
through the point E, 2 in. from B, in the given direction. The
weight of the link is 3 lb, the inertia force Fj is 5 lb and the
component FJ is 9 lb. Scaled from the diagram, the lengths
are: IA, 10-75 in.; IB, 10-15 in.; IX, 2-92 in.; and IY, 5-5 in.
Substituting in (12.4):
Fh'. 10-15 = 9.10-75-3.5-5-5.2-92
and Fb = 6-47 lb
From the polygon of forces: Fa" = 7-66 lb and Fb = 3-0 lb,
the total force applied to the link AB at the pin A
= Fa = V(Fa,'2+Faj"*) = n-82 lb
and the total force applied to the link AB at the pin B
= Fb = v(^b/2+n"2) = 7-13 ib
154. Inertia Forces in the Reciprocating Engine. As already
pointed out, it is usually convenient to consider the forces which
are brought into play owing to the inertia of the links separately
from those which would arise if the links were without mass. So
far as the reciprocating engine is concerned, the problem to be
solved is that of finding the torque which must be exerted on the
crankshaft in order to overcome the inertia of the connecting rod
and of the reciprocating parts. Because of the importance of this
problem a method of calculating the torque required will be given
in addition to a method of finding the torque graphically.
(a) Graphical Method: Fig. 277. The first step is to draw the
acceleration diagram for the mechanism. This may be done by
using Klein’s construction, Article 49, which gives a triangle
OCN, such that the sides CO, NO and NC represent to scale the
acceleration of the crankpin C, the acceleration of the piston P
and the acceleration of P relative to C. The construction is not
actually shown but the triangle is shown to an enlarged scale at (b).
The side CN is the acceleration image of the connecting rod CP.
The acceleration of P is /p = a>2.NO in the sense from N to O.
The inertia force Fv of the reciprocating parts therefore acts m
the opposite sense as shown. .
The positions of two masses which form a system dynamically
equivalent to the rod may then be found as explained in Article 27.
One of the masses is arbitrarily placed at the small end centre P
and the position D of the other mass must then satisfy the relation
QP) __ &2/GP. The accelerations of D and G are given by
fd = oi2.dO and fg - co2.gO
where d and g divide CN in the same proportion as D and G
divide CP.
422 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

Since the accelerating forces on the masses at P and D intersect

at E, where DE is drawn parallel to dO, their resultant must also
pass through E. But their resultant is equal to the accelerating
force on the rod, so that the line of action of the accelerating force
on the rod is given by a line drawn through E parallel to gO and
acting in the sense from g to 0. The inertia force F{ of the
connecting rod therefore acts through E in the opposite sense
as shown.
The forces which act on the rod are the inertia force Fv of the
reciprocating parts, which acts along the line of stroke through P,
the side thrust Fn between the crosshead and the guide bars, which

also acts through P at right angles to the line of stroke, the inertia
force F{ of the rod, the weight of the rod Wc and the forces FT
and Ft which act through C parallel and perpendicular respectively
to the crank OC. Taking moments about I, the point of inter-
section of Fn and Fv, we have:
Et.IC = Ep.IP+Ei.IX+TFc.IY . . (12.5)
where IX and IY are respectively perpendicular to Ej and Wc.
From the above equation Ft may be calculated and, by drawing
the polygon of forces as shown at (a), Fa and FT may be obtained.
The torque which must be exerted on the crankshaft in order to
overcome the inertia of the moving parts is then given by Ft. OC.
xn] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 423

(b) Calculation of the Inertia Torque. The effect of the inertia

of the connecting rod on the crankshaft torque may be obtained
approximately by dividing its mass into two parts, one part being
placed at the crankpin C and the other at the crosshead pin P,
while the c.g. of the two masses coincides with G, the c.g. of the
rod (Fig. 278). The mass at C clearly has no effect on the crank-

shaft torque, since its inertia force acts radially outwards along
the crank. The effect of the mass at P may be found by including
it with the reciprocating masses. Let Wc be the weight of the rod,
R the weight of the reciprocating parts, l the length of the rod
and a the distance of G from P. Then the total equivalent recipro-
cating mass weighs
l—a
R . W„
l
The inertia force Fv of this mass is

-(*+'-?. *.)4
where f is the acceleration of the reciprocating parts, and the
corresponding torque exerted on the crankshaft, by analogy with
equation (12.3), is given by:
Tv = Fp. OM (12.6)
This equation only gives the approximate inertia torque
because it assumes that two masses, placed one at G and the other
at P are dynamically equivalent to the rod. As explained in
Article 27, this assumption is not correct. It is necessary to
apply a correction couple T' to the two-mass system. The cor-
rection couple is given by equation (2.33) and for the connecting
rod this may be written T = (WJg)a(l-L)^ where L is the
length of the equivalent simple pendulum, when swung about an
axis through P, and ocr is the angular acceleration of the rod. The
rounle T' may be applied to the system by two equal and opposite
vertical forces Fy acting through P and C. Then
Wc (12.7)
r = — a(Z-L) ar
Fy A? 9
424 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The corresponding torque on the crankshaft = Tc Fy.AO

and, substituting for Fy,
W„ .. AO
9
But AO = OC cos 9 and AP = CP cos </>
Also cos (f> — ^(1—sin2 (/>) = (l/n)\/(n2 — sin2 9)
where n = CP/OC.
cos9
T - a (12.8)
c- g v ^aV(^2-sin2 6»)

The angular acceleration ar of the connecting rod is given by

equation (3.12) and, substituting:
Wc a>2(n2— 1) sin 9 cos 9
c
~ g a (n —sin 9) ' \/(n — sin2 9)
2 2 32 2
'

Wc a>2((n2_
2
— 1) sin 29
= ——a(l—L) 2 w 2 0)2"
sin • • • (12.9)

Since n2 is usually large in comparison with both sin2 9 and 1,

this may be written:
W, C /7 T \ ^ *
Tr. ~ — 29 (12.10)
9 ~a{l-L)2tf sm

There is, of course, in addition the torque due to the pull of

gravity on the rod. It is easily seen that the vertical force through
C is given by 1TC.PG/PC, or Wc.a/l, and therefore the torque
exerted on the crankshaft by gravity is given by
Tw — — Wc. all. AO
Or, since AO = OC cos 9,
Ty, = — Wc(a/n) cos 9 . . . (12.11)
The total torque exerted on the crankshaft by the inertia of the
moving parts is the algebraic sum of Tv, Tc and Tw.
Example 5. The reciprocating parts of the engine referred to
in Example 3, p. 415, weigh 580 lb, the connecting rod weighs
500 lb, the c.g. of the connecting rod is 19 in. from the crankpin
centre and the radius of gyration of the rod about an axis through
the c.g. is 25 in. Find the inertia torque on the crankshaft when
9 — 40° and the r.p.m. are 120.
(a) Graphically. Fig. 277 is drawn to scale to correspond with
the above particulars.
XII] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 425

Tlie acceleration of the piston fp

= co2.NO = (77.120/30)2.9-6/12 = 126-4 ft/s2
The inertia force due to the reciprocating parts
= FV = R/g.fv = 580/32-2.126-4 = 2275 lb
The acceleration of the c.g. of the rod
= /g = co2.gO - 16TT2.10-7/12 = 140-8 ft/s2

The inertia force due to the rod

= Fi = Wc/g.fs = 500/32-2.140-8 = 2185 lb

To find D, GK is set off perpendicular to CP and equal in length

to the radius of gyration of the rod; P is joined to K and KD
drawn perpendicular to PK. Then from the similar triangles
PGK, KGD, it follows that GD = GK2/GP.
Scaled from the figure, IP = 57-5 in., IC = 77-5 in., IX = 18-6 in.
and IY = 40-5 in.
Substituting in equation (12.5):
Ft = (2275.57-5+2185.18-6+500.40-5)/77-5
= (130 800+40 700+20 250)/77-5
= 191 750/77-5 = 2470 lb

The torque exerted on the crankshaft due to the inertia of the

moving parts = 2470 lb ft in the counter-clockwise sense.
From the force polygon, the forces Fn and FT scale respectively
3380 lb and 280 lb.

(b) By Calculation.
The total equivalent reciprocating mass
= (580 + 19/60.500) = 738-3 lb

and the acceleration of the reciprocating parts, from equation

(3.12),
= fp — I6772.1. (cos 40°+cos 80°/5)
= 157-9(0-7660+0-0347)
= 126-4 ft/s2

The total equivalent inertia force

= —738-3/32-2.126-4 = -2895 lb

Also, from Example 3, p. 415, OM = 0-7413 ft, so that, sub-

stituting in equation (12.6), Tp = —2895.0-7413 = —2146 lb ft.
14*—T.M.
426 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The length of the equivalent simple pendulum when the con-

necting rod is swung about the small-end centre
= L = a+k2/a = 41+252/41 = 56-24 in. or 4-687 ft
Substituting in equation (12.10):
K00 41 167T2
T' = -32^T2(5-4-687W'9848 = -51'6 lbft

N.B.—If the exact equation (12.9) is used instead of (12.10), the

value of Tc is —51-2 lbft. The error involved in using the
approximate expression for Tc is therefore negligible.
The torque on the crankshaft due to the pull of gravity on the
rod, from equation (12.11), is:

Tw= -500.r^.0-7660
iz. o = -261-7 lbft

The total torque exerted on the crankshaft due to the inertia of

the moving parts
= yp+Tc + Tw = -2146-51-6-261-7 = -2459 lb ft

Note that in this example the magnitude of the inertia torque

is underestimated when the usual assumption is made that the
mass of the rod may be divided into two parts, one concentrated
at the crankpin and the other at the crosshead pin. So far as the
inertia effect of the rod itself is concerned the approximate method
gives a crankshaft torque of 158-3/738-3.2146 = 460 lbft,
whereas the exact method gives 460+51-6, or 511-6 lbft. The
error in the result given by the approximate method is therefore
—51-6/511-6.100, or —10-3%. The error in the total inertia
torque is of course much smaller. Note too the relatively large
magnitude of the torque due to the pull of gravity on the rod.
155. Inertia Forces in the Four-bar Chain. ABCD, Fig. 279, is a
four-bar chain with AD as the fixed link. It is required to find the
effect of the inertia of the links BC and CD when the driving crank
AB turns with uniform angular velocity and the mass, the centre of
gravity and the radius of gyration of both BC and CD are given.
The first step is to draw the acceleration diagram for the
mechanism. This is most easily done by the method of Article 50,
which gives ABXQTA as the acceleration diagram, Fig. 279 (a):
The acceleration of B = /b — co2. BA.
The acceleration of C = /c = o>2. QA.
The acceleration of C relative to B =/cb = w2.QB.
The centripetal and tangential components of /c are given by
f c = to2.TA and/fcc = o>2.QT, and the centripetal and tangential
c

components of/cb are given by/ccb =w2.XB and/tcb=w2.QX.

XII] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 427
The next step is to consider the forces applied to the link CD,
Fig. 279 (b).
The angular acceleration of CD
= a = / VCD = a>2.QT/CD (clockwise)

and the clockwise torque applied to accelerate CD

= Whh*l9-* = WhJcd2lg. a)2. QT/CD
where lcd = radius of gyration of CD about D.

FIG. 279
428 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Hence the total clockwise torque which must be applied to

overcome the pull of gravity and accelerate CD
Tc = Wh. ED+Whkd2/g. co2. QT/CD
The corresponding component, tangential to the path of C, of the
force applied by BC to CD
= Fc' = Tc/CD
This force acts in the direction shown in Fig. 279 (b).
Since action and reaction are equal and opposite, the component,
tangential to the path of C, of the force applied by CD to BC is
equal and opposite to Fc', as shown in Fig. 279 (c).
The next step is to find the effective force on link BC, i.e. the
force required to provide its acceleration. The acceleration of
the centre of gravity G of BC is equal to o>2. gA, where g divides
BQ in the same proportion as G divides BC. The line of action
of the effective force may be found as explained in Article 153, in
this case by using the acceleration centre Oa to fix the point Z
through which the line of action must pass.
The effective force is parallel to gA and its magnitude is
WJg.oi 2.gA.
The reversed effective, or inertia, force is equal in magnitude
and opposite in sense, as shown by the dotted line Fu and the
link may be regarded as in equilibrium under the system of four
forces consisting of the inertia force Fh the pull of gravity Wg and
the two forces Fh and Fc applied to the link at the pins B and C.
Each of the forces Fh and Fc may be resolved into two com-
ponents, respectively tangential and normal to the paths of B and
C. The normal components intersect at I and the tangential
component Fc' of Fc is known, so that, if moments are taken about
I, the magnitude of the tangential component Fh' may be found.
Finally, the polygon of forces may be drawn as shown in order
to determine the magnitude of the normal components Fc"
and Fh".
The resultant force applied by BC to AB is necessarily equal
and opposite to Fh and the resultant force applied by BC to CD
is equal and opposite to Fc. The torque which must be applied
to the crank AB, in order to overcome the combined effects of the
inertia of the links BC and CD and the pull of gravity on them, is
given by the product Fh'. AB and is counter-clockwise.
Example 6. The lengths of the finks of a four-bar chain are:
AB, 2-5 in.; BC, 7 in.; CD, 4*5 in.; and AD, 8 in. Link AD is
fixed and AB turns at a uniform speed of 180 r.p.m. The fink BC
weighs 5 lb, its c.g. is 4 in. from C and its radius of gyration
XH] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 429
about an axis through the c.g. is 2*9 in. The link CD weighs 3 lb,
its c.g. is 1*5 in. from C and its radius of gjrration about an axis
through D is 3 - 5 in. When BA is at right angles to AD and B and
C lie on opposite sides of AD, find the torque exerted on AB to
overcome the inertia of the links and the forces which act on the
pins B and C.
Fig. 279 is drawn to scale for the particulars of the above
example.
Link CD. The angular acceleration of CD
= a — co2. QT/CD (clockwise)

Bat co — QTT rad/s and QT scales 1-35 in.

a = (677)+1-35/4-5 = 106-6 rad/s2
and the torque applied to accelerate CD
= 3/32-2.(3-5/12)2.106-6
= 0-845 lb ft
= 10-14 lb in.

The additional clockwise torque required to overcome gravity

= JFh.ED = 3.2-3 = 6-9 lb in.
total clockwise torque to be applied to CD
= Tc = 10-14 + 6-9 = 17-0 lb in.

The corresponding component, tangential to the path of C, of

the force applied by BC to CD
= Fc' = TJCD = 17-0/4-5 = 3-78 lb

N.B.—If the pull of gravity on the link is neglected, then:

Fc' = 10-14/4-5 = 2-25 lb
Link BC. The acceleration of G =fg = c+.gA and gA scales
1-8 in., so that fg = 367r2.1-8/12 = 53-3 ft/s2.
The effective force applied to BC is parallel to gA and its mag-
nitude is 5/32-2.53*3 = 8-28 lb. Since OaC scales o 6 in. and
ka is 2-9 in.,
GZ = &g2/OaG == 2-92/5-6 = 1-50 m.
The inertia force Fu equal and opposite to the effective force,
passes through the point Z and is shown dotted.
Moments are then taken about I of the four forces F^ , Fc , l1 j
430 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

and Wg to find Fh'. Scaled from Fig. 279 (c) IB = 9 in., IC

= 5-8 in., IX = 2-49 in. and IY = 1-93 in.
/. Fh' = (3-78.5-8 + 8-28.2-49+5. l-93)/9-0
= (21-9+20-6+9-65)/9-0 = 5-78 lb
N.B.—If the pull of gravity on the links is neglected,
2-25.5-8+8-28.2-49 13-0+20-6

The torque which must be exerted on AB in order to overcome

the inertia of the links = Fb'.AB = 5-78.2-5 = 14-5 lb in. If
the pull of gravity is neglected the torque = 3-73.2-5 = 9-4 lb in.
From the force polygon Fc" is found to be 1-0 lb and Fh" 15-2 lb.
Neglecting gravity, the corresponding values are Fc" 0-4 lb and
Fh" 10-0 lb, but Fc" now acts in the opposite direction to that
shown. The total force applied to the link BC at pin C is the
vector sum of Fcr and Fc" and is given by Fc 3 -96 lb. Similarly,
=

the total force applied at pin B is the vector sum of Fh' and Fb"
and is given by Fh — 16-3 lb.
Neglecting gravity, the values of F0 and Fh are respectively
2-32 lb and 10-7 lb, but the force polygon for this case is not
shown.

156. Turning Moment Diagram for a Steam Engine. Figure 280

shows diagrammatically the arrangement of a single-cylinder,
double-acting, horizontal steam engine. Above the cylinder the
indicator diagrams are drawn, that for the cover end in full lines
and that for the crank end in dotted lines. For the sake of clear-

FIG. 280

ness the exhaust pressure line for the cover end is drawn slightly
above that for the crank end, although it will be understood that
actually the exhaust pressure is the same for both ends of the
cylinder. With the piston in the given position and the crank
turning clockwise, the pressure of the steam on the cover side of
XII] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 431

the piston is given by the ordinate p; similarly, the pressure on

the crank side of the piston is given by the ordinate p\. The
net steam thrust which tends to move the piston towards the right
is therefore given by Fs = p.A— px.AY, where A, Ax are respec-
tively the areas of the cover and crank sides of the piston. If, for
the present, the effect of the inertia of the moving parts is ignored,
Fs will produce a torque on the crankshaft the magnitude of
which may be calculated from equation (12.3). The variation of
the turning moment due to the steam pressure, calculated in this
way, for a complete revolution of the crankshaft is shown in
Fig. 281. The mean height of the curve represents the mean
steam torque on the crankshaft and is shown in the figure. When

the mean speed of rotation of the crankshaft is constant, the

mean height also represents the mean resisting moment, which is
due partly to the frictional resistances between the moving parts
of the engine, but chiefly to the power taken from the engine
crankshaft. Fig. 281 is drawn to scale for the high-pressure
cylinder of a horizontal, cross-compound steam engine, particulars
of which are given in Example 3, p. 415.
For a vertical engine the effect of the deadweight of the recipro-
cating parts must be taken into account. Obviously, when the
piston is moving downwards the weight of the parts must be
added to the effective steam thrust, and, conversely, when the
piston is moving upwards the weight of the parts must be sub-
tracted from the effective steam thrust.

157. Inertia Torque. The torque required on the crankshaft in

order to overcome the inertia of the reciprocating parts and of the
connecting rod may be calculated as explained in Article 154.
The torque required varies for a complete revolution of the crank-
shaft, as shown in Fig. 282.
432 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

For each half-revolution of the crank the diagram has a positive

and a negative loop. The two loops are different in shape because
of the effect of the obliquity of the connecting rod, but they are of
equal area since the energy absorbed in accelerating the parts is
returned during subsequent retardation. Fig. 282 is drawn to

FIG. 282

scale for the high-pressure cylinder of the horizontal cross-

compound steam engine, particulars of which are given in
Examples 3, p. 415 and 5, p. 424.
The diagrams of Figs. 281 and 282 have been combined in
Fig. 283 (a) to give the net torque or turning moment diagram.

The net torque for a given crank position is represented by the

ordinate of the shaded portion of the diagram. Thus for the
crank position represented by C the steam torque is given by CD,
the torque required to accelerate the parts by CE and the net
torque by ED. The variation of net torque is shown in Fig. 283 (b).
xn] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 433
158. Turning Moment Diagram for an Internal-combustion
Engine. Fig. 284 shows diagrammatically the arrangement of a
single-cylinder, single-acting internal-combustion engine operating
on the four-stroke cycle.
Taking a gas or petrol engine as typical the four strokes are:
(1) Suction. The piston draws a mixture of fuel and air into
the cylinder during its outward stroke. The pressure of the
gases in the cylinder is slightly below the atmospheric pressure
throughout the stroke, as shown by the line ab.
(2) Compression. During the next inward stroke of the piston
the mixture is compressed into the clearance space. The pressure
of the gases rises continuously as shown by the line be.
(3) Expansion. At the end of the compression stroke the mix-
ture is fired by an electric spark and combustion takes place
practically at constant volume, as shown by the line cd. The

products of combustion then expand, driving out the piston and

doing useful work on the crankshaft. This expansion is shown by
the fine de.
(4) Exhaust. On the next return stroke of the piston the pro-
ducts of combustion are pushed out of the cylinder.
The cycle of operations differs slightly from the above for most
oil engines. Instead of a mixture of air and fuel, air only is
drawn into the cylinder during the suction stroke and compressed
into the clearance space on the return stroke. The temperature
of the compressed air, combined in some cases with the tempera-
ture of an uncooled portion of the cylinder head, is sufficiently
high to ignite the oil as it is sprayed into the cylinder. Combus-
tion, expansion and exhaust follow as in the gas or petrol engine.
The turning moment on the crankshaft for different crank
positions may be calculated in exactly the same way as for the
434 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

steam engine, and the turning moment diagrams for a complete

cycle may be drawn as shown in Fig. 285. The gas torque diagram
is shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 285 (a). The pressure of the
gases on the working side of the piston is slightly less than the
pressure of the atmosphere on the crank side of the piston during
suction and there is a small negative gas torque loop. During
compression a large negative gas torque loop is obtained owing
to the work done by the piston on the gases. During expansion
the expanding gases do work on the piston and a large positive
gas torque loop is obtained, while during exhaust work is done by
the piston on the gases, since the pressure of the gases in the

cylinder is slightly higher than the external atmospheric pressure,

and the gas torque diagram again shows a small negative loop.
In Fig. 285, which is drawn to scale, the negative loops on the
suction and exhaust strokes are too small to be shown.
The variation of the torque required to accelerate the moving
parts is shown in Fig. 285 (b). For each half-revolution of the
crank the curve is, of course, similar in shape to the corresponding
diagram for a steam engine, Fig. 282.
The net turning moment on the crankshaft for a given crank
position is given by the difference between the gas torque and
the torque required to accelerate the moving parts. It is shown
by the full line in Fig. 285 (a). The torque diagrams of Fig. 285
xn] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 435
have been drawn to scale for a single-cylinder gas engine. The
indicator diagram is shown to scale in Fig. 284. The cylinder
is 9 in. dia., the stroke is 17 in. and the r.p.m. are 270. The
reciprocating parts weigh 110 lb and the connecting rod weighs
150 lb. The length of the rod is 38-25 in. between centres, its
c.g. is 13-75 in. from the crankpin centre and the radius of gyration
about the c.g. is 15-25 in.

159. Turning Moment Diagram for Multi-cylinder Engines. So

far we have dealt only with single-cylinder engines. In order to
determine the shape of the total turning moment diagram for a
multi-cylinder engine, the turning moment diagrams for the
individual cylinders must first be determined. These are then
combined so that the total torque at the instant one of the cranks

occupies a given position is the algebraic sum of the torques

exerted on the individual cranks at the same instant. The turning
moment diagrams for a horizontal cross-compound steam engine
are shown in Fig. 286. The low-pressure crank leads the high-
pressure crank by 90°, so that the turning moment diagram for
436 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the low-pressure cylinder must be displaced 90° to the left relative

to the diagram for the high-pressure cylinder. This brings the
torques exerted on the two cranks at the same instant along the
same ordinate so that they may be combined directly. Referring
to Fig. 286, the dotted line shows the turning moment diagram
for the high-pressure cylinder and the chain-dotted line that for
the low-pressure cylinder. The combined diagrams are shown by
the full line. Fig. 286 (a) is drawn for the steam torque only
and Fig. 286 (b) for the accelerating torque only. The thick line
in Fig. 286 (a) shows the net turning moment diagram when the
steam torque and the inertia torque are combined.
With multi-cylinder internal-combustion engines the indicator
diagram and the weight of the reciprocating parts should be identi-
cal for all cylinders. In practice there may be small differences

in the shape of the indicator diagrams for the individual cylinders,

owing to the difficulty of supplying exactly the same amount
of fuel to each, but the differences should be small for a properly
adjusted engine. For design purposes, it may be assumed that
the turning moment diagrams for all cranks are identical. Since
the cranks are usually spaced round the shaft so as to give equal
firing intervals, it follows that the combined turning moment
diagram will have the same shape between successive firing
intervals. In Fig. 287 (a) and (b) the turning moment diagrams
are shown respectively for a four-cylinder and a six-cylinder gas
engine based on the single-cylinder diagrams of Fig. 285. The
gas torque diagram is shown by dotted lines, and the combined
diagram, gas torque plus inertia torque, by full lines in each case.
xn] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 437
Incidentally the effect of engine speed on the shape of the com-
bined diagram is shown by the chain-dotted lines in the case of
the four-cylinder engine. Curve A corresponds to a running
speed 25% below and curve B to a running speed 25% above the
normal speed of rotation.
It should be pointed out that the combined turning moment
diagrams of Fig. 287 have been drawn on the assumption that the
shape of the gas torque diagram is independent of the speed of
rotation of the crank. This will not be true for any actual
engine, but the change of shape with speed will be relatively
small.
160. The Fluctuation of the Crankshaft Speed. The couple or
torque, which resists rotation of the crankshaft, is to all intents
and purposes uniform for most engines, while, as we have seen,
the turning moment exerted on the crankshaft fluctuates con-
siderably. This means that, except for isolated crank positions,

there is an unbalanced torque which tends either to increase or to

decrease the speed of rotation of the crankshaft.
The net turning moment diagram for a single-cylinder double-
acting steam engine, Fig. 283 (b), is repeated in Fig. 288, and
below the turning moment diagram is shown the approximate
438 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

shape of the curve of fluctuation of speed of the crankshaft. This

curve is obtained as follows: assuming that the resistance to
rotation of the crankshaft is uniform, the resisting moment line
will coincide with the mean turning moment line AB and will
therefore intersect the net turning moment line at the points
a, b, c, d and e, the point e being the point a for the following cycle.
At these points of intersection the turning moment and the
resisting moment are equal and consequently the slope of the
speed curve is zero. Between a and b the turning moment is
greater than the resisting moment and the unbalanced torque
accelerates the crankshaft; conversely, between b and c the
turning moment is less than the resisting moment and the
unbalanced torque therefore retards the crankshaft. Similarly,
between c and d the unbalanced torque accelerates the crank-
shaft, while between d and e it again retards the crankshaft.
Obviously the area of the shaded loop between a and b represents
the work done by the unbalanced accelerating torque and is equal
to the change of kinetic energy of rotation of the crankshaft and
of the attached revolving masses. Let fg represent the speed at
the crank position a and hk the speed at the crank position b.
We are not concerned at present with the actual speeds, but only
with the relative magnitudes of the changes of speed. If the area
of the shaded loop between b and c is smaller than the area of the
shaded loop between a and b, the decrease of speed from b to c
will be less than the previous increase of speed from a to b. Hence
the speed ordinate ml will be longer than the speed ordinate gf.
Similarly, if the shaded loop c to d is smaller in area than that
from b to c, the increase of speed from c to d will be less than the
previous decrease from b to c, and the ordinate pn will be shorter
than the ordinate kh. Finally, the speed decreases between d
and e until at e it has exactly the same value as at a, the ordinate
rq being equal to the ordinate gf. This follows because the net
amount of work done in accelerating and retarding the crank-
shaft during a complete cycle is nil. It is clear therefore that, for
the particular engine to which Fig. 288 applies, the maximum
crankshaft speed occurs at b and the minimum crankshaft speed
at a, the speeds at c and d being within this range. If a>1 and co2
are .respectively the maximum and minimum speeds of rotation
of the crankshaft and I is the total mass moment of inertia of the
flywheel and the other revolving masses which are rigidly attached
to the crankshaft, then the change of kinetic energy of rotation is
given by f/(oq2 — co22). This is clearly equal to the energy
represented by the area of the shaded loop between a and b.
Alternatively, it is equal to the energy represented by the algebraic
sum of the areas of the other shaded loops, b to c, c to d and d to e.
xn] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 439
It is important to realise that the maximum and minimum speeds
of rotation of the crankshaft need not necessarily occur at opposite
ends of the same shaded loop, although this happens to be so in
the case of the single-cylinder engine to which Fig. 288 applies.
The net turning moment diagram for a single-cylinder, single-
acting, four-stroke-cycle gas engine, Fig. 285, is repeated in Fig.
289, and below it is shown the approximate shape of the curve
of fluctuation of speed. Assuming, as before, that the resisting
moment is uniform, the resisting moment line cuts the net turning

moment line at the points a, b, c, d, e, f, g and at these points the

slope of the speed curve is zero. Proceeding as described for
the steam-engine diagram, it is found that the absolute minimum
speed occurs at point d and the absolute maximum speed at point
e, the other maxima and minima occurring within this range. The
area of the shaded loop between the points d and e therefore
represents the amount of energy which has to be absorbed by the
revolving parts of the engine while the speed increases from
CO 2 tO CO\.

161. The Coefficient of Fluctuation of Energy and the Coefficient

Of Fluctuation of Speed. In the preceding pages we have seen how
the crank positions at which the angular velocity of the crankshaft
has its minimum and maximum values may be determined from
440 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAT.

the shape of the turning moment diagram. We have also seen

how the net amount of excess energy between these two crank
positions may be determined from the same diagram. This excess
energy is termed the fluctuation of energy and may be expressed
as a fraction of the indicated work done by the engine during one
revolution of the crank. The fraction is known as the coefficient of
fluctuation of energy and will be denoted by Ke. The values of Ke,
as determined from the turning moment diagrams given earlier
are as follows:
Engine Fig. Ke
Single-cylinder, double-acting steam engine 288 0-21
Cross-compound steam engine 286 0-096
Single-cylinder, single-acting, four-stroke gas
engine 289 1-93
Four-cylinder, single-acting, four-stroke gas
engine • 287 (a) 0-0661
Six-cylinder, single-acting, four-stroke gas engine 287 (b) 0-031

The values of Ke in the above table may be taken as representative

of the particular types of engine. With other types and different
arrangements and numbers of cranks corresponding values of Ke
could be determined. It must, however, be emphasised that con-
siderable divergence in the value of Ke may be found in engines
of a given type, since the indicator diagrams often show consider-
able differences and, in addition, the effect of the inertia torque
on the shape of the turning moment diagram varies. The figures
given in the above table must therefore be used with discretion.
It is nevertheless very clear that engines which operate on the
four-stroke cycle give rise to large values of Ke, whereas even a
single-cylinder steam engine gives a comparatively small value
of Ke.
The coefficient of fluctuation of speed is defined as the ratio of
the difference between the maximum and minimum angular
velocities of the crankshaft to its mean angular velocity. It will
be denoted by Ks. Thus, if col, co2 and a> are respectively the
maximum, the minimum and the mean angular velocities, then:
Ks = (cop—a>2)Jco .... (12.12)

Evidently the difference uq — a>2 may be made as small as desired

by having revolving parts of sufficiently large rotary inertia
keyed to the crankshaft, but there is no point in making aq — cu2
less than necessary. The value of Ks to be used in fixing the
inertia of the revolving parts is largely determined by the purpose
for which the particular engine is required. For general purposes
as, for example, when driving lineshafts for machine tools, a much
1
This value is for the normal speed of rotation as shown by the full-line diagram.
XII] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 441
larger variation of speed may be allowed than when the engine is
direct-coupled to an electric generator. Where engines are
coupled to alternators, which are to work in parallel, the per-
missible fluctuation of speed is even smaller. The following table
gives average values of Ks which may be adopted when the engine
is used for the specified purpose:
Ka
For engines driving agricultural machinery . . . . 0-05
For engines driving workshop shafting 0*03
For engines driving weaving and spinning machines . . 0-02 — 0-01
For engines driving direct-current generators .... 0-006

In order to enable alternators driven by different engines to be

satisfactorily operated in parallel, the angular deviation should
not exceed 2*5 electrical degrees. To satisfy this requirement the
B.E.A.M.A. recommend that the permissible value of Ka be
determined from the equation:
K3—n/6p .... (12.13)
where n — number of impulses per revolution of the crankshaft,
and p = number of poles on the alternator.
The number of poles on the alternator depends on the speed of
rotation and the frequency of the current generated. In this
country the frequency is usually 50 cycles per second, and, since
the number of cycles per revolution of the alternator is equal to
the number of pairs of poles on the alternator, the frequency per
second is given by:
p N V
60'2 120
where N is the speed of rotation in r.p.m.
Example 7. A six-cylinder, single-acting, four-stroke cycle oil
engine is required to generate alternating current at a frequency of
50 cycles per second at a speed of approximately 210 r.p.m. Find
the actual speed, the number of poles on the alternator and the
required value of Ks.
Since F = 50, Np — 50.120 and since N = 210, p/2 — 14-3.
But p/2 must be a whole number, say 14, so that the number of
poles p = 28 and consequently N — 214*3.
The number of impulses per revolution is three, since each
cylinder gives one impulse in two revolutions of the crankshaft.
Therefore, from equation (12.13):
Ka = 3/(6.28) = 1/56 = 0*0179
For a single-cylinder engine of the same type and running at
the same speed, the permissible value of Ks would obviously be
only one-sixth as great, or K3 — 0*003.
442 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

162. The Flywheel. As already explained, the fluctuations of

the turning moment exerted on the crankshaft are reflected in
fluctuations of the speed of rotation. The fluctuations of turning
moment depend upon the type of engine—steam, gas, oil, etc.—
and the number and arrangement of the cranks; while the per-
missible fluctuation of speed depends upon the purpose for which
the engine is used. The function of the flywheel is to act as a
reservoir which will absorb energy during those periods of crank
rotation when the turning moment is greater than the resisting
moment and will restore the energy during those periods when the
turning moment is less than the resisting moment. Absorption
of energy is necessarily accompanied by an increase of speed and
restoration of energy by a decrease of speed. The flywheel must
be so proportioned that these changes of speed do not exceed the
permissible limits. When calculating the dimensions of the fly-
wheel, it is customary to ignore the effect of the rotary inertia of
the other revolving parts of the engine.
Let I = mass moment of inertia of the flywheel = WJc2lg,
co = mean speed of rotation,
col, co 2 = maximum and minimum speeds of rotation respec-
tively,
E — indicated work per revolution of the crankshaft
and Ke, Ks = coefficients of fluctuation of energy and speed
respectively.
The amount of energy, which has to be absorbed by the flywheel
with an increase of speed from co2 to col5 is found, as already ex-
plained, from the turning moment diagram. Where the data for
the construction of the turning moment diagram are not avail-
able, a value of Ke must be assumed, based on the turning moment
diagram for a similar type of engine.
The fluctuation of energy is then given by:
Ef = Ee. E
The change of kinetic energy of the flywheel

= i2—o>22)

= 2^(a)l—w2)(ajl+aj2)

But from the definition of the coefficient of fluctuation of speed,

K s = (coj—co2)/co or o>i—o>2 = Ks. co
Also, although the mean speed is not necessarily, or usually,
the arithmetic mean between the maximum and minimum speeds,
XII] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 443
the difference coi—to2 is generally so small a fraction of to as to
justify the assumption that a>i-\-a>2 = 2a>, so that, substituting
for col—a) 2 and a>iJra>2, the change of kinetic energy of the fly-
wheel may be written IKaoj2.
Equating this to the fluctuation of energy,

IKBto2 = Ef = KeE

1 T 9 KeE
|/w
. (12.14)
=

The term on the left-hand side of the above equation is the mean
kinetic energy of the flywheel.
Example 8. ' The speed of rotation of the compound steam
engine for which Fig. 286 is the turning moment diagram is
120 r.p.m. and the i.h.p. is 94-5. If the fluctuation of speed is not
to exceed 1% of the mean speed and the radius of gyration of the
flywheel is 3-5 ft, what weight of flywheel will be required ?
The fluctuation of energy is represented by the area of the
shaded loop a to b. Taking into account the scales to which the
diagram is drawn, it is found to amount to 2500 ft lb.
Substituting in equation (12.14):
E{ 2500.100
\W 2Ea
30 \2 2500.100
Wk2 : 22-8 ton ft2
32 2
’ (7r.l2oj 2240
Since k is 3-5 ft,
W = 22*8/3*52 = 1-86 tons
Example 9. The gas engine for which Fig. 289 is the turning
moment diagram has two flywheels each of which weighs 1000 lb
and has a radius of gyration of 2-25 ft. The speed of rotation
is 270 r.p.m. and the i.h.p. is 35*8. Find the fluctuation of
speed.
Fluctuation of energy = area of shaded loop d to e = 8450 ft lb.
Or, since
E = 35-8.33 000/270 = 4380 ft lb
and, from the table on p. 440, Ke = 1-93, the fluctuation of energy
Ef = KeE = 1*93.4380 = 8450 ft lb
From equation (12.14):
Ka = KeEIIa>*
444 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

But the moment of inertia of each flywheel

= 1000.2-252 = 5063 lb ft2
and
a, = TTIV/30 = 97r rad/s
32-2 8450
Vs = 0-0337 or 3-4%
'* 10 125'8L/2
The fluctuation of speed is therefore 3-4% or 1-7% on either
side of the mean speed.
Example 10. A single-cylinder, single-acting, four-stroke oil
engine develops 25 i.h.p. at 300 r.p.m.
B The work done by the gases during
the expansion stroke is 2-3 times the
work done on the gases during the
compression stroke and the work
done during the suction and exhaust
strokes is negligible. If the turning
moment diagram during expansion is
assumed to be triangular in shape
and the speed is to be maintained
within 1% of the mean speed, find
FIG. 290 the moment of inertia of the fly-
wheel.
The indicated work done per revolution E
= 25.33 000/300 = 2750 ft lb
indicated work done per cycle = 5500 ft lb
Let We = work done by the gases during expansion.
Then lFe/2-3 = work done on the gases during compression
and IFe(l —1/2-3) = indicated work done per cycle = 5500 ft lb.
.*. We = 5500.2-3/1-3 = 9740 ft lb
The turning moment diagram for expansion is shown in Fig. 290.
The maximum torque
= AB = 9740.2/TT lb ft
But the mean turning moment
= AC = 2750/277 lb ft
and the maximum excess turning moment
= CB = AB-AC = (1/T7)(19 480-1375) = (1/77)18 105 lb ft
XII] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 445
The fluctuation of energy = shaded area a to b and, from the
similar triangles aBb, OBD, this is given by:
/BC\2 /BC\2 /18 105\ 2
I . area OBD
\BA/ ' Ve _ \19 480/ .9740 = 8410 ft lb
\BA/ *
This corresponds to a value of Ke = 8410/2750 = 3-06.
From equation (12.14):
I = Ef/Kea>2
But w = TT.300/30 = 10TT, KS = 2/100, I = (WJg)k2,
32-2 8410
Wk2 . 100 = 13 720 lb ft2
2
IOOTT ' 2

A cast-iron flywheel to run at 300 r.p.m. would have an outside

diameter of about 6 ft and a radius of gyration of about 2’5 ft.
weight of flywheel required W = 13 720/2-52 — 2190 lb
Example 11. The turning moment diagram for a quad-
ruple-expansion marine steam en-
gine is drawn to scale in Fig. 291.
The original diagram of which this B
is a reproduction was drawn to the Q3
following scales: 1 in. = 15 ton ft =3
5 -
and 1 in. = 40°. The areas of the >2
loops above and below the mean
turning moment line, taken in order,
are 0-12, 0-34, 0-91, 0-81, 0-15, 0-18,
1-86 and 1-71 sq. in. The total
moment of inertia of the engine
and propeller masses is 150 ton ft2.
Estimate the percentage variation
from the mean speed which is 100
r.p.m.
Proceeding as described in Article
160, it is found that the minimum
FIG. 291
engine speed occurs at the crank
position corresponding to point A
and the maximum engine speed at the crank position correspond-
ing to point B.
The fluctuation of energy is represented by the algebraic sum
of the areas of the loops between the points A and B or between
the point B and the point A on the following cycle, i.e. the fluctua-
tion of energy is represented by:
—1-71+0-12—0-34 = —1-93 sq. in.
446 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

But 1 sq. in. of turning moment diagram area

= 15.77/180.40 = 10-47 ft tons of energy
fluctuation of energy — 1-93.10-47 = 20-2 ft tons
From equation (12.14):
J/w2 = 20‘2j2Ka
„ 20-2.32-2.302 ^
Ka
*• ~ 150.77 .100 ~ 0,0396
2 2

The total fluctuation of speed is 3-96% and the variation of

speed is 1-98% on either side of the mean speed.

EXAMPLES XII

1. A vertical double-acting steam engine has a cyclinder 12 in. dia. by 18 in.

stroke, and runs at 200 r.p.m. The reciprocating parts weigh 400 lb, the piston
rod is 21 in. dia. and the connecting rod is 45 in. long. When the crank has turned
through 120° from the top dead centre, the steam pressure above the piston is
40 lb/in.2 gauge, and below the piston 2 lb/in2 gauge. Calculate the effective
turning moment on the crankshaft.
2. A horizontal single-cylinder single-acting oil engine has a cylinder 10 in.
dia. X 18 in. stroke. The reciprocating parts weigh 360 lb, the connecting rod is
4*5 cranks long and the r.p.m. are 300. When the crank has turned through an
angle of 40° from the inner dead centre on the firing stroke, the pressure in the
cylinder is 320 lb/in2 gauge. Calculate the effective turning moment on the
crankshaft.
3. A horizontal double-acting steam engine has a stroke of 12 in. and runs at
250 r.p.m. The cylinder is 8-| in. dia., the connecting rod is 5 cranks long and the
reciprocating parts weigh 150 lb. Steam is admitted at 80 lb/in2 gauge for one-
third of the stroke, after which expansion takes place according to the hyperbolic
law PV = C, and the exhaust pressure is —12 lb/in2 gauge. Calculate the
effective turning moment on the crankshaft when the crank has turned through
120° from the i.d.c. Neglect the effect of clearance and of the difference of area
on the two sides of the piston. M.U.
4. A gas engine is coupled to a compressor, the two cylinders being horizontally
opposed with the pistons connected to a common crankpin. The stroke of each
piston is 20 in. and the connecting rods are each 50 in. long. The cylinder
diameters are 8-5 in. and 9-5 in., and the reciprocating parts weigh 290 lb and
360 lb for the engine and compressor respectively. When the crank has turned
through 60° from the i.d.c. on the firing stroke, the pressure of the gas in the
engine cylinder is 150 lb/in2 gauge and the pressure in the compressor cylinder
is 15 lb/in2 gauge. If the crank makes 200 r.p.m. and the flywheel weighs
3000 lb and has a radius of gyration of 3 ft, calculate the angular acceleration of
the flywheel at this instant. M.U.
5. A horizontal single-cylinder single-acting Otto cycle gas engine has a bore
of 11-5 in. and a stroke of 21 in. The engine runs at 180 r.p.m., the ratio of
compression is 5-5, the maximum explosion pressure is 450 lb/in2 abs. and expan-
sion follows the law PF1-3 = G. If the weight of the reciprocating parts is
360 lb and the connecting rod is 48 in. long, calculate the turning moment on the
crankshaft when the crank has turned through 60° from the i.d.c.
XII] DYNAMICS OP MACHINES 447
6. A vertical single-cylinder single-acting Diesel engine has a cylinder 12 in.
diameter and a stroke of 18 in. The reciprocating parts weigh 500 lb, the con-
necting rod is 40 in. long and the r.p.m. are 240. The ratio of compression is 14
and the pressure remains constant during the injection of the oil for one-tenth of
the stroke. If the index in the laws for compression
and expansion is 1 -35, find the effective turning
moment on the crankshaft when the crank makes
an angle of 75° with the i.d.c.

7. The mechanism of a small hand punch is shown

in Fig. 292. OA is 6 in., AB is 3 in. and AC is 9 in.
The angle BAC is 90° and B is guided along a vertical
line 1^ in. from the fixed fulcrum O. The points A,
D, E and F are spaced equally along the path of A.
For the given position of the mechanism and the
positions in which the pin A coincides with D, E
and F, find the resistance which can be overcome
at B when a force of 40 lb is applied at C in a
direction perpendicular to AC.

8. The mechanism of a foot-pump for inflating

car tyres is shown in Fig. 293 OAB is a continuous
lever pivoted at O; the pump barrel is hinged to the
frame at Q and the cranked piston rod is hinged at
A to the lever OAB. The cylinder is 2 in. dia. and
its centre line is 1 in. from Q and 1 in. from A. When the angle AOQ is 45° the
air pressure in the cylinder is 25 lb/in2 gauge. Neglecting friction, what vertical
force must be applied at B, if the compressive force in the spring is 15 lb ?
9. Fig. 294 shows the mechanism of a moulding press used in plastics. The
crank OA rotates counter-clockwise from the horizontal through about 150°,
dragging with it the crank OxB. Movement continues until OA and AB are in
line. The crank OxB operates, through the link BC, a ram at C constrained to
move vertically.
Determine the velocity ratio of C to A (a) when OA is in its initial horizontal
position, (b) when OA has moved through 75°. Neglecting friction, compare the

ratios of the forces transmitted vertically at C and tangentially at A for the two
positions (a) and (b). Comment on the velocity of the ram and the force exerted
by it as OA approaches its extreme position. W.S.
10. A, B, O are the comers of a mechanism, Fig. 295. O is a fixed pivot and A
can move along a horizontal guide. All the pivots are frictionless. Find the
vertical velocities of B, G and H if A moves horizontally at a speed V. Hence, or
otherwise, find the force P at A required to balance a vertical force Q applied
successively at B, G and H. To get rid of the force P at A, a spring is fitted
448 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

between the pins E and F. What force must the spring apply to the pins when Q
is applied successively at each of the three pins B, G and H ? W.S.S.
11. The weight, the radius of gyration and the position of the c.g. of a link
of a mechanism are given; the velocity and acceleration of one point on the link
at a given instant are completely specified and the direction in which a second
point on the link is moving at the same instant is also specified. Show how to
find the direction and magnitude of the resultant accelerating force on the link.

12. The connecting rod of a horizontal steam engine is 90 in. long and weighs
800 lb. The c.g. is 40 in. from the crankpin centre and the radius of gyration
about the c.g. is 25 in. The stroke is 36 in. Reduce the rod to an equivalent
dynamical system of two concentrated masses, one of which is at the crosshead
pin. For an engine speed of 120 r.p.m. and a crank position 60° from i.d.c.,
determine the force and torque on the engine frame—referred to the crankshaft
centre—due to the inertia of the rod.
Contrast these results with what would be obtained by the division of the rod
between the reciprocating and rotating masses in the usual way. L.U.A.
13. The connecting rod of a gas engine weighs 150 lb and has a radius of
gyration of 14-5 in. about an axis through the c.g. The length of the rod between
centres is 40 in. and the c.g. is 13 in. from the crankpin centre. If the crank is
9 in. long and revolves at a uniform speed of 270 r.p.m., find the magnitude and
direction of the inertia force on the rod and of the corresponding torque on the
crankshaft when the inclination of the crank to the i.d.c. is (a) 30°, (b) 90°,
(c) 135°.
14. A swinging rod OaBC, Fig. 296, is pivoted at 02 and is driven by a vibrating
crank OxA connected to it by a link AB. Draw the velocity and acceleration
diagrams for the mechanism in the given position.
At the given instant A is moving at a steady speed of 10 ft/s: OxA = 02B = 6 in.
What turning moment must be applied to OjA to counterbalance the inertia
effect of a mass of 10 lb concentrated at C? 02C = 18 in. W.S.S.
15. The crank OC of the mechanism shown, Fig. 297, is driven through the
given position at constant angular velocity to rad/s. CQ is a uniform rod of
mass M lb and mass-centre G. OC = r; CQ = 3r; QP = l*5r. Find (a) the
acceleration of G and the angular acceleration of CQ, (b) the torque on OC and
the forces at O and P due to the inertia of CQ. W.S.S.
16. The connecting rod of a vertical reciprocating engine is 8 ft long between
centres and weighs 1000 lb. Its mass centre is 3 ft from the centre of the big-
end bearing. When suspended from the crosshead pin and allowed to swing.
XII] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 449
the period of oscillation is found to be 2-93 sec. The crank is 2 ft long and rotates
at 240 r.p.m.
When the crank has turned through 45° from the top-dead-centre position, find,'
due to the inertia of the connecting rod:
(a) the magnitude and the line of action of the resultant force acting upon the
connecting rod;
(b) the reaction at the crosshead guide;
(c) the force on the main bearing;
(d) the torque on the crankshaft. L.U.A.

17. The connecting rod of a vertical high-speed Diesel engine weighs 5T6 lb
and is 12 in. long between centres. Its c.g. is 3-92 in. from the centre of the big-
end bearing. When suspended in a vertical plane and allowed to swing about
the axis of the small-end bearing, it makes 50 complete oscillations in 53-5 sec.
The stroke of the piston is 5 in. and the reciprocating parts of the engine weigh
2-35 lb.
Find the torque exerted on the crankshaft due to the inertia of the moving parts
when the crank makes angles of (a) 35° and (b) 140° with the t.d.c. and the
speed of rotation is 1600 r.p.m.

18. In the mechanism shown in Fig. 298, the swinging link ABC has a weight
of 90 lb and its c.g. is at the point marked G. Its radius of gyration about the
c.g. is 4 in. Construct a velocity diagram for the mechanism in the configuration
shown and determine (a) the angular velocity and kinetic energy of ABC and
(b) the turning moment on the crank OA for a force of 1000 lb acting on the
block D in the direction of motion. L.U.A.
15—T.M.
450 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

19. Fig. 299 shows a reciprocating element E, driven by a crank OA, through
a bell-crank lever BCD. The crank speed is 200 r.p.m. in the direction indicated.
The bell-crank with allowance for attached rods weighs 12 lb and the radius of
gyration about C is 5£ in. The reciprocating element and its connections weigh
15 lb. The motion of E is resisted by a force P of 100 lb.
Determine, for the position of the mechanism given in the figure, (a) the linear
acceleration of E and the angular acceleration of BCD; (b) the torque required
at crank OA to overcome the specified resistance and inertias. L.U.A.

20. ABCD is a four-bar chain with AD as the fixed link. The lengths of the
links are; AB 3 in., BC 13-5 in., CD 6 in., and DA 15 in., and AB turns at a uniform
speed of 120 r.p.m. The link CD weighs 20 lb and has a radius of gyration of
3-5 in. about an axis through D. The link BC weighs 10 lb, its c.g. is 4-5 in. from
B and its radius of gyration about an axis through the c.g. is 5-4 in. For the
configuration in which the angle BAD is 30° and B and C lie on opposite sides of
AD, find the torque which must be exerted on AB in order to overcome the inertia
of the links BC and CD.

21. Use the same particulars as in Example 6, p. 428, and find the inertia
torque on the driving crank AB, when angle BAD is 15° and B and C lie on
opposite sides of AD.

22. Define “ coefficient of speed fluctuation ” and “ coefficient of energy

fluctuation
In a single-crank engine, developing 100 h.p., the coefficient of energy fluctua-
tion is 0-20 and the speed is to be kept within 1% of the mean speed of 120 r.p.m.
Find the weight of a suitable flywheel if the radius of gyration is 3-5 ft.

23. A horizontal cross-compound steam engine develops 400 h.p. at 90 r.p.m.

The coefficient of fluctuation of energy is found from the turning moment diagram
to be 0T and the speed is to be kept within 0-5% of the mean speed. Find the
weight of flywheel required if the radius of gyration is 6 ft. Prove the formula
you use.

24. Deduce the equation connecting the mean kinetic energy of the flywheel,
the coefficients of energy and speed fluctuation and the indicated work done per
cycle.
A gas engine working on the Otto cycle develops 25 i.h.p. at 240 r.p.m. The
coefficient of fluctuation of energy is 1-90; the flywheel weighs 1 ton and has
a radius of gyration of 3 ft. What is the cyclical speed variation from the
mean?
XII] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 451
25. A gas engine working on the Otto cycle develops 200 h.p. at 110 r.p.m.
The coefficient of fluctuation of energy is 2*0; the speed has to be kept within
£% of the mean speed; and the centrifugal stress in the flywheel rim is not to
exceed 800 lb/in2. Calculate the maximum diameter of the flywheel and the
minimum weight of the rim. The weight of 1 in3 of cast-iron may be taken
as 0-26 lb.
26. The turning moment diagram for a four-cyclinder petrol engine is drawn to
the following scales: turning moment, 1 in. = 100 lb ft; crank angle, 1 in. = 25°.
The fluctuation of energy between the crank positions for minimum and maximum
speeds corresponds to an area of 1-05 in2 of turning moment diagram. Deter-
mine the weight of flywheel required to prevent a fluctuation of speed greater than
0-5% from the mean speed of 1500 r.p.m. if the radius of gyration is 5 in.
27. A single-cylinder, single-acting four-stroke cycle gas engine develops 25 h.p.
at 260 r.p.m. The work done by the gases during the explosion stroke is three
times the work done on the gases during the compression stroke. The work done
on the suction and exhaust strokes may be neglected. Determine the fluctuation
of energy. If the flywheel weighs 1 -5 tons and has a radius of gyration of 2 ft 3 in.,
calculate the cyclical fluctuation of speed.
28. The turning moment diagram for a four-cylinder petrol engine is drawn to
the following scales: turning moment, 1 in. = 1000 lb in.; crank angle, 1 in. = 25°.
The curves are identical for each half-revolution of the crankshaft and the areas
below and above the mean turning moment line taken in order are 0-22, 0-93,
0-06, 0-38 and 1-03 in2. The engine runs at 1500 r.p.m. and the flywheel weighs
40 lb and has a radius of gyration of 5 in. Calculate the coefficient of fluctuation
of speed.
29. A machine punching l\ in. holes in a 1£ in. plate does 15 in. tons of work per
square inch of sheared area. The punch has a stroke of 4 in. and punches one hole
every 10 seconds. The maximum speed of the flywheel at the radius of gyration
is 90 ft/s. Find the weight of the wheel if the speed at this radius is not to fall
below 80 ft/s during each punch. L.U.
30. Neglecting the effect of the arms and boss show that the minimum weight
W of flywheel required may be expressed in the form
W = (12Aep/AVc)F
where Ke and Ka are the coefficients of fluctuation of energy and speed, p is the
density of the rim material in lb/in3, /„ is the hoop stress in the rim in lb/in2 and
E is the indicated work done per revolution.
A gas engine develops 30 h.p. at 275 r.p.m. If Ke is 2-2, Ka is 1/75,/c is 750 and
p, for cast-iron, is 0*26, find the minimum weight of flywheel and the mean diameter
of the rim.
31. During the outward stroke of the piston of a double-acting steam engine
the turning moment has a maximum value of 13 000 lb ft when the crank makes
an angle of 60° with the i.d.c. During the inward stroke the maximum turning
moment is 10 000 lb ft when the crank makes an angle of 280° with the i.d.c.
The turning moment diagrams on a crank angle base may be assumed triangular
for both strokes. Find the crank angles at which the speed has its maximum
and minimum values and the coefficient of fluctuation of energy.
If the crank makes 80 r.p.m., the radius of gyration of the flywheel is 5 ft and
the speed is to be kept within 0-5% of the mean speed, what weight of flywheel
will be required ?
32. The turning moment diagram for a three-cylinder engine is drawn to
the following scales: crank displacement, 1 in. = 40°; turning moment,
1 in. = 5000 lb ft.
During one revolution of the crank the areas above and below the mean
turning moment line taken in order are: 0-60, 0-69, 0-64, 0-75, 0-78 and 0-58 in2.
If the speed is to be kept within 1% of the mean speed, which is 90 r.p.m. and
the radius of gyration of the flywheel is 3-5 ft, what weight of flywheel will
be required ? M.U.
452 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

33. A steam engine develops 60 b.h.p. at 250 r.p.m. against a steady load.
The mechanical efficiency is 88% and the frictional losses may be assumed con-
stant. The flywheel weighs 0-6 ton and has a radius of gyration of 2-25 ft. If
the load is suddenly diminished to one-quarter of the full load and no change in
the steam supply takes place for two complete revolutions after the reduction of
load, calculate the speed of the engine at the end of this period. M.U.

34. A single-cylinder double-acting pump is driven through gearing at 40 r.p.m.

by an electric motor which gives a uniform torque. The resisting torque for each
half-revolution of the pump shaft may be assumed to follow a sine curve with a
maximum value at 90° and 270° of 3090 lb ft. Find what weight of flywheel will
be required on the pump shaft to keep the speed within 1£% of the mean speed,
if the radius of gyration of the flywheel is 4 ft. The flywheel effect of the motor
armature and gear wheels is equivalent to 1000 lb at a radius of 3 ft on the pump
shaft. M.U.

35. A machine shaft running at a mean speed of 200 r.p.m. requires a torque
which increases uniformly from 1000 lb ft to 3000 lb ft during the first half
revolution, remains constant for the following revolution, decreases uniformly
to 1000 lb ft during the next half revolution and then remains constant again
for the next two revolutions, this cycle being repeated. It is driven by a motor
which exerts a constant torque and has a rotor weighing 1000 lb with a radius
of gyration of 10 in. If in addition a flywheel with a weight of 2 tons and a
radius of gyration of 2 ft is fitted to the shaft, what will be the percentage fluctua-
tion of speed during the cycle and the required h.p. of the motor ? M.U.

36. The turning moment diagram for a quadruple-expansion marine engine is

drawn to the following scales: 1 in. = 50 ton ft and 1 in. = 40°. The areas of the
loops above and below the mean turning moment line taken in order are: 0T2,
0-34, 0-91, 0-81, 0T5, 0T8, 1-86 and 1*71 in2. If the moment of inertia of the
propeller and entrained water is 1000 ton ft2 and the mean speed of rotation is
100 r.p.m., what is the value of the coefficient of fluctuation of speed ? M.U.

37. The turning moment diagram for a four-stroke, single-acting gas engine
may be assumed for simplicity to be represented by four triangles, the areas of
which measured from the line of zero pressure are as follows: expansion stroke,
8-50 in2; exhaust stroke, 0-80 in2; suction stroke, 0-56 in2; and compression
stroke, 2T4 in2. Each square inch represents 1000 ft lb.
Assuming the resisting torque to be uniform, find the weight of the rim of a
flywheel required to keep the speed between 98 and 102 r.p.m.; the mean radius
of the rim is 3 ft. L.U.

38. A four-stroke-cycle internal-combustion engine indicates 16 h.p. at

160 r.p.m. with 79 explosions or power strokes per minute. The work done on
the gases during the compression stroke is 0-30 of the effective work as represented
by the area of the indicator diagram.
If the total fluctuation of speed is limited to 2|% of the normal speed, find the
mass in tons of each of the two flywheels, the radius of gyration of each wheel
being 3 ft. L.U.

39. A gas engine has a cylinder diameter of 11 in. and a stroke of 20 in. and runs
at a mean speed of 200 r.p.m. Reckoned from atmosphere, the mean pressure
in the cylinder is: during the working stroke+ 100 lb/in2; during suction—1;
during compression +30; during exhaust +2.
Assuming that the instants of lowest and highest speed respectively coincide
with the beginning and the end of the working stroke, find the moment of inertia
of the flywheel required to keep the speed during a working cycle within 1% of
the mean speed.
Also find the drop of speed which will then occur during a cycle in which there
is no admission. L.U.

40. A small single-cylinder, four-stroke cycle oil engine of 5 in. stroke develops
7 h.p. at 1000 r.p.m. The excess energy delivered dining the power stroke is
xn] DYNAMICS OF MACHINES 453
78% of the energy per cycle. The engine is fitted with a combined flywheel and
belt pulley of weight 160 lb and radius of gyration 7\ in. The rotating parts of
the engine—part connecting rod, crankpin, etc.—are equivalent to 9 lb concen-
trated at crank radius and are balanced by weights fixed to the crankwebs, the
c.g. and radius of gyration of which are respectively 3 in. and 3f in.
Estimate the range of speed fluctuation of the engine and state the percentage
error that would be incurred in this estimate by considering the flywheel only.
L.U.

41. The crank effort diagram for an engine is given by T lb ft = 5000

+ 8000 sin 0 + 1200 sin 20+100 sin 30, where 0 is the crank angle. The resisting
torque is uniform and the r.p.m. are 120. Determine: (a) the h.p. of the engine,
(b) the weight of the flywheel rim, of mean radius 4 ft, so that the fluctuation
of speed shall not exceed +1%, (c) the angular acceleration of the flywheel when
0 = 0° and 0 = 45°.

42. The torque exerted on the crankshaft of an engine when corrected for
balance is given by the expression T ton ft = 10 + 5 sin 20 — 7 cos 40. Assuming
that the resistance is uniform, find the moment of inertia of the flywheel, if the
speed variation is not to exceed 0*3% above or below the mean speed, which is
120 r.p.m. W.S.S.

43. A twin-cylinder engine is single-acting with its cranks set at right angles
and it runs at 1500 r.p.m. The torque-crank angle diagram is practically a
triangle for the power stroke with a maximum torque of 120 lb ft at 60° after
dead centre of the corresponding crank. The torque on the return stroke is
negligible.
Find (a) the h.p. developed; (b) the weight of flywheel, concentrated at 8 m.
radius, to keep the speed within ±3% of the mean speed; (c) the angle turned
through by the crank while it is being speeded up. L.U.
 CHAPTER XIII

GOVERNORS

163. The function of the governor must be carefully dis-

tinguished from that of the flywheel. The former is required to
maintain, as closely as possible, a constant mean speed of rotation
of the crankshaft over long periods during which the load on the
engine may vary. The latter, as pointed out in Article 162,
serves to limit the inevitable fluctuations of speed during each
cycle which arise from the fluctuations of turning moment on the
crankshaft. On the one hand the governor exercises no control
over the cyclical fluctuations of speed, while on the other hand the
flywheel has no effect on the mean speed of rotation.
If the load on the engine is constant, the mean speed of rotation
will be constant from cycle to cycle. But if the load changes,
the mean speed will also change, unless the output of the engine is
adjusted to the new demand. It is the purpose of the governor
to make this adjustment automatically.
It is, of course, desirable that the energy supplied to the
engine should be altered by exactly the right amount immediately
the change of load takes place. But if the adjustment of the
supply of energy to the engine is to be carried out automatically,
use has to be made of the tendency for the mean speed of rotation
to change as the load changes. In other words, a change of
speed must take place before the energy supplied to the engine
can be automatically adjusted to the new load. Hence it follows
that the mean speed of rotation will tend to increase continuously
as the load on the engine decreases. The governor and the
mechanism which it operates should be so designed that this
increase of the mean speed of rotation is as small as possible. In
any actual engine the problem is complicated by the fact that
the load may change immediately after a fresh charge has been
supplied to the engine cylinder and, since the governor can only
affect the charge admitted during the next and succeeding cycles,
some lag between the change of load and the change of engine
output is inevitable.

164. Types of Governors. Governors are generally of one of

two types, either (a) centrifugal or (b) inertia.
454
CHAP. XIII] GOVERNORS 455

In the first type two or more masses termed the governor balls
are caused to revolve about the axis of a shaft, which is driven
through suitable gearing from the engine crankshaft. Each ball
is acted upon by a force which acts in the radially inward direc-
tion, and is provided by a deadweight, a spring or a combination
of the two. This force is termed the controlling force and it
must increase in magnitude as the distance of the ball from the axis
of rotation increases. When the governor balls are revolving at a
uniform speed, the radius of rotation will clearly be such that the
outward inertial or centrifugal force is just balanced by the inward
controlling force. If the speed of rotation now increases owing
to a decrease of load on the engine, the governor balls will move
outwards until the centrifugal force is again balanced by the
controlling force. Conversely, if the speed of rotation decreases
owing to an increase of load on the engine, the governor balls will
move inwards until the centrifugal force is again balanced by the
controlling force. This movement of the balls is transmitted by
the governor mechanism to the valve which controls the amount
of energy supplied to the engine, so that movement in the outward
direction reduces the valve opening and movement in the inward
direction increases the valve opening.
Governors of the second type operate on a different principle.
The governor balls are so arranged that the inertia forces caused
by an angular acceleration or retardation of the governor shaft
tend to alter their positions. The amount of the displacement of
the governor balls caused by the inertia forces is controlled by
suitable springs and, through the governor mechanism, alters the
amount of energy supplied to the engine. The obvious advantage
of this type of governor lies in its more rapid response to the effect
of a change of load, since the displacement of the balls is deter-
mined by the rate of change of speed of rotation, as distinct from
an actual change of speed of rotation, such as is required in
governors of the first type. This advantage is offset, however,
by the practical difficulty of arranging for the complete balance
of the revolving parts of the governor. For this reason centri-
fugal governors are much more frequently used than are inertia
governors, and only the former type will be dealt with here.

165. Centrifugal Governors. It was pointed out above that the

controlling force in this type of governor is provided by a dead-
weight, a spring or a combination of both deadweight and spring.
There are many governors in which the control is wholly, or mainly
by means of deadweights; there are many others in which the
control is mainly by means of springs. One or two examples of
each type will be described and analysed in detail.
456 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Three representative governors of the former type are illustrated

in Fig. 300. That shown at (a) is the simplest, and, although now
obsolete, is interesting as being the forerunner of the later examples
which are shown at (b) and (c). It is the original form of governor
as used by Watt on some of his early steam engines. Each ball
is attached to an arm which is pivoted on the axis of rotation.
The sleeve is attached to the governor balls by arms, pin-jointed
at both ends, and is free to slide along the governor shaft. The
weight of the sleeve is balanced by the components, parallel to the
axis of rotation, of the tension T2 hi the two lower arms. The
inward centripetal force which is required in order to maintain
each ball in a circular path of radius r, when the angular velocity
of rotation is co, is provided by the radial components of the tension
T2 in the lower arm and the tension Tx in the upper arm. It
is convenient to suppress the rotation of the governor and reduce
the problem to one in statics. It is then necessary to apply a

force F acting radially outward through the ball centre, as

shown in Fig. 300 (a), equal in magnitude to the force which the
ball actually exerts on the governor when the latter is revolving.
This force is the centrifugal force. In these circumstances, each
ball will be in equilibrium under the four forces, T±, T2, the
weight w and the centrifugal force F. Obviously a change in
the radius of rotation of the governor balls will involve a move-
ment of the sleeve along the shaft. This movement is trans-
mitted by suitable mechanism to the valve which controls the
energy supplied to the engine. An increase of speed raises the
sleeve and is arranged to reduce the supply of energy. Conversely,
a decrease of speed lowers the sleeve and increases the supply of
energy.
The type of governor which is illustrated at (b) is known as
the Porter governor. The only respect in which it differs from the
Watt governor is in the use of a heavily weighted sleeve. The
action is exactly the same as that of the simpler governor. The
advantages of the loaded sleeve will be made clear later.
XIII] GOVERNORS 457
A third form of loaded governor is shown at (c). This is the
Proell governor. It is similar to the Porter governor in that it
has a heavily weighted sleeve, but differs from it in the arrange-
ment of the balls. These are carried on extensions of the lower
arms instead of at the junction of the upper and lower arms. The
action of this governor is again similar to that of the Watt
governor. An increase of the speed of rotation increases the radius
of rotation and raises the sleeve, thus reducing the amount of
energy supplied to the engine. Conversely, a decrease of speed
results in a decrease in the radius of rotation, thus lowering the
sleeve and increasing the amount of energy supplied to the engine.

166. The Porter Governor. In Fig. 301 one-half of a Porter

governor is shown diagrammatically. If the weights of the upper
and lower arms are assumed to be negligible in comparison with
the weight of the ball, the forces acting through the pin joint B
in the equivalent system with rota-
tion suppressed consist of the force
F, equal to the centrifugal force
which the ball exerts, the weight w,
and the tensions Tx and T2 in the
upper and lower arms, all of which
act through the ball centre, together
with one-half the sleeve load W,
which acts through the pin C. The
equation connecting F, w and W
is most simply derived by taking
moments about the instantaneous
centre I of the lower arm BC. Since
B moves along the circular arc which
has A as centre and AB as radius,
and C moves parallel to the axis of the governor, the instantaneous
centre I lies at the point of intersection of AB produced and a line
drawn through C perpendicular to the governor axis.
Taking moments about I:

F. BD = w.ID+^.IC,

ID W IC
F M, +
~ ’ BD 2 'BD

W
= w tan a-)--y (tan oc-j-tan /3)
JJ

= j^(l+&)+wJ tan a ... (13.1)

where h = tan /3/tan a.

15*—T.M.
458 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Note that k will have a different value for each radius of rotation
of the governor balls, unless the upper and lower arms are of equal
length and the pins A and C are either on the governor axis or are
at equal distances from it. In the latter event the angles a and
/3 are equal for all radii of rotation and k = 1.
The distance of the plane of rotation of the governor balls from
the point of intersection of the upper arms (produced if necessary)
with the axis of rotation is termed the height of the governor and
is denoted by h.
Then tan a = r/h.
Also F — (w/g)a>2r
where co = angular velocity of the governor,
substituting in equation (13.1):

= {f'(l+k)+w}l
. 2 _ (fl72)(i-HQ+w g
(13.2)
- •• w “ w ‘h
If k — 1, this reduces to:
W+w g
ft\L —— -
(13.3)

For the Watt governor the weight of the sleeve is small and, if
this be neglected, the corresponding equation is:
oF=g]h (13.4)
In equations (13.3) and (13.4) the linear units for g and h must
be the same, i.e. if g is in ft/s2, then h must be the height of the
governor in feet. It is generally more convenient to work with h in
inches and the speed of rotation in r.p.m. instead of in rad/s.
Equation (13.3) for the Porter governor then becomes:
W-\-w 35 230
(13.5)
w - h"
W+w 35 230
or . (13.6)
w ' ~W~

and for the Watt governor:

35 230
h" . (13.7)
~w
Corresponding values of h and N for the Watt governor are
given in the following table:
N r.p.m. . 40 60 80 100 150 200
h in. . . 22 9-78 5-5 3-52 1-56 0-88
XIII] GOVERNORS 459
It will be seen that the height diminishes very rapidly as the
speed of rotation increases. This type of governor is therefore
only suitable for low speeds of rotation, not exceeding, say, about
75 r.p.m.
It is clear from equations (13.6) and (13.7) that for a given speed
N the height of the Porter governor may be made as much greater
than the height of the Watt governor
as desired by choosing a suitable
value for the ratio W/w.
The following is an alternative way
of deriving equation (13.1). vv
Referring to Fig. 301, the pin joint
B between the upper and lower arms
must be in equilibrium under the
system of four forces shown. These
are the weight w, the tensions rI\ and
T2 in the upper and lower arms and
the centrifugal force F. They must
form a closed polygon as shown in Fig. 302 (a). The sleeve is
also in equilibrium under a system of three forces. These are the
load W on the sleeve, and the tensions T2 in the two lower arms.
They must form a closed triangle as shown in Fig. 302 (b).
From the triangle of forces on the sleeve we have:
W = 2T2 COS jS or T2 = IF/2 cos /3
From the polygon of forces on the ball we have, resolving
vertically:
TY COS a = To cos /?-f-w — \Vj2-\-w

TF/2-fw;
or Ti =
cos a
and, resolving horizontally,
F = TY sin a+T2 sin /3

so that, substituting for Tx and T2:

F = (IF/2-j-w;) tan a+(IF/2) tan
= {(IF/2)(l+&)+w} tan a
where Jc = tan /3/tan a.
Example 1. A Porter governor has all four arms of length 12 in.
The upper arms are pivoted on the axis of rotation and the lower
arms are attached to the sleeve at distances of 1-5 in. from the
460 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

axis. The weight of each ball is 15 lb and the load on the

sleeve is 120 lb. If the extreme radii of rotation of the governor
balls are 8 in. and 10 in., find the corresponding equilibrium
speeds.
A

FIG. 303

Referring to Fig. 303 and using the suffixes 1 and 2 to distinguish

between the maximum and minimum speeds of rotation, we have:
(a) At Minimum Radius.
AF = V(AB2-BF2) = V(122~82) = 8-944 in.
CE = V(122-6-52) = 10-08 in.
tan j82 BE AF 6-5 8-944
2 = = = =
•*' • tan^ CE’BF lO^’W °'720
substituting in equation (13.2):
„T „ 60.1-720 + 15 35 230
2
15 * 8-944
and N2 = 176-3 r.p.m.

(b) At Maximum Radius.

AF = V(122-102) = 6-633 in.; CE = Vl122-8,52) = 8‘47 in.
tan PY BE AF 8-5 6-633
= 0-665

*. substituting in equation (13.2):

,T „ 60.1-665 + 15 35 230
1
15 6-633
and Nl = 201-4 r.p.m.
xm] GOVERNORS 461

167. The Proell Governor. The Proell governor may be

analysed in the same way as the Porter governor by considering
the equilibrium of the lower arm. Thus, referring to Fig. 304 (a),
the instantaneous centre I of the lower arm BC lies at the point
of intersection of AB produced with a line drawn through C at
right angles to the governor axis. Then, taking moments about
I and assuming the extension BG of the lower arm to be vertical,
we have:
F. DG = w.ID+(JF/2)IC

Divide both sides by BD. Then:

JP DG ID W IC W
F = w w tan a + Y(tan oc+tan p)
*BD BD"^“2 BD ==
I 1V\ W
-- -1 w+2 / ^an ^an ^

BD f / w W\ tan 0C
W tan
F = (' +~2 J +'2 H

This may be written in the form:

BD[W _ I
F = C1 +*) +w) tan a
' (13.8)

where h = tan [3/tan a.

If p = a, then Jc = 1 and equation (13.8) becomes:
BD
F = tan a (13.9)

But tan a = r/h and F = (w/g)(o2r, so that, substituting in

equation (13.8), we get:
w
—< r (l+k)+w r
9’y = mi{-2 } h

(1+i:) g (13.10)
=B§{Y 'H 'w.h
and, if k — 1, this reduces to
BD W +w g
to2 = . . (13.11)
DG* w h

On comparing equations (13.10) and (13.11) with (13.2) and

(13.3), it will be at once obvious that the effect of placing the ball
at G instead of at the pin-joint B is to reduce the equilibrium
speed for given values of w, W and h. Hence in order to give the
462 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

same equilibrium speed for given values of W and h, it is necessary

to use a ball of smaller mass in the Proell governor than in the
Porter governor.
A more important effect of the change in position of the ball is
to reduce the increase of speed necessary in order to lift the sleeve
by a given amount. This will be brought out more clearly by
working through a numerical example.

FIG. 304

Example 2. A Proell governor has the same dimensions as the

Porter governor in Example 1, except that the ball is carried on
an extension of the lower arm, such that BG = 4 in. It is re-
quired that this governor shall have the same equilibrium speed
as the Porter governor, when the radius of rotation of the ball is
8 in. and the ball centre is vertically above the pin-joint B. Find:
(a) the weight of ball required, and (b) the maximum equilibrium
speed, if the sleeve lift is equal to that of the Porter governor.
(a) At Minimum Radius. Let w' be the weight of ball required
in the Proell governor in order to give the same equilibrium speed
at the radius of 8 in.
Then, from equation (13.10),

But for the Porter governor, from (13.2),

{W/2)(l+lc)+w g
equating:
(W/2){l+k)+w BD (W/2){l+Jc)+w'
w ~~ DG"
xm] GOVERNORS 463
But, for Example 1, w = 15 lb, W — 120 lb, h — 0-720,
BD = CE = 10-08 in. Also DG = BD+BG = 14-08 in.
substituting:
60.1-720 + 15 10-08 60.1-720+w/
15 ~ 14-08' w' '
and w' = 10-32 lb
Before considering the equilibrium speed at maximum radius, it
will be convenient to find the values of CG, /3 and y in Eig. 304 (a),
which shows the Proell governor when the radius of rotation is 8 in.
CG = -\/(DG2+CD2) = V(14-082 + 6-52) = 15-51 in.
CD 6-5 Q ,
tan r 7 24 47
~ DG “ 144)8’ ~
. _ CD 6-5 „ 0 ,
sm = = 32 48
^ BC 12 ’ £ =
(b) At Maximum Radius: Fig. 304 (b).
BF 10
smai = *. oq = 56° 27' and tan oq = 1-5080

sin p1 = fa = 45° 6' and tan fa = 1-0035

Also yx = y+fa-fi = 24° 47'+45° 6'-32° 48' = 37° 5'.

Taking moments about I, the instantaneous centre of the lower
arm, we have:
i+.GH = w/.IH+(IF/2)IC
= w'(IC-CH)+(TF/2)IC
F1.GCcosy1 — («/ + IF/2)BD(tan oq+tan Pi)— w'.CG sin y1
(w/+TF/2)BD(tan oq+tan px)
Fi = -w/.tan y1
GC cos yi
70-32.8-471(1-5080 + 1-0035)
10-32.0-7559
15-51.0-7977
= 120-9—7-79 = 113-1 lb
The radius of rotation of the ball = r1 — CG sin ^q + 1-5
= 10-86 in.
_
the equilibrium speed =
__ 30 I(Fi 32-2.12\
——— J
30 /113-1.386-4
= 188-6 r.p.m.
77 10-32.10-86
464 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The equilibrium speeds in this example should be compared with

those for the Porter governor in the previous example. It will be
seen how much smaller is the change of speed for the same lift
of the sleeve.
168. Spring-loaded Governors. In addition to the types of
governors so far considered there are many others in which the
control is effected, either wholly or in part, by means of springs.
Representative spring-loaded governors are shown diagrammati-
cally in Fig. 305. That shown at (a) is an example of the well-
known Hartnell governor. The bracket A is keyed to, and
revolves with, the governor shaft. The thrust exerted by the
spring that surrounds the governor shaft is transmitted by means
of three struts T, which pass through holes drilled in the bracket A,
and the centrifugal force on each ball causes an upward thrust on
the sleeve S, which is balanced by the downward thrust of the
spring. The lock-nuts N enable the spring thrust for a given

FIG. 305

sleeve position to be altered while the engine is running, so that

the equilibrium speed may be adjusted between certain limits.
In the type of governor shown at (b), two springs, which straddle
the sleeve, are connected directly between the governor balls.
These two springs are in tension, and it is evident that the load
on the bell-crank pivots will be much smaller than in the case of
the types (a) and (c), where the spring thrust has to be transmitted
through the bell-crank levers. This type of governor, however,
invariably requires an auxiliary spring which is also in tension
and which produces a load on the sleeve that practically balances
the centrifugal forces on the governor balls. One end of the
auxiliary spring is attached to the lever L, through which the
movement of the sleeve is transmitted to the valve which controls
xm] GOVERNORS 465
the supply of energy to the engine. The other end is attached to
an adjusting screw, which passes through a hole in a fixed bracket
and carries two lock-nuts for varying the spring tension. This
auxiliary spring enables the equilibrium speed corresponding to a
given sleeve position to be varied while the engine is running.
In the type of governor shown at (c) the pivots for the bell-
crank levers are carried by the moving sleeve. The spring is
compressed between the sleeve and the cap C,
which is fixed to the end of the governor shaft.
The rollers on the ends of the horizontal arms
of the bell-crank levers press on the cap C, so
that the sleeve is lifted against the compression
of the spring. It is customary for a small
auxiliary spring to be attached to the governor
lever in a similar way to that shown for type
(b), in order to provide for some adjustment of
the equilibrium speed.
FIG. 306
169. The Hartnell Governor: Fig. 305(a). The
relation between the dimensions of the governor,
the equilibrium speed and the spring load may be found by
considering the equilibrium of one of the bell-crank levers,
Eig. 306.
Let w = weight of each ball,
W = weight of the sleeve,
S = the force exerted on the sleeve by the spring which
surrounds the governor spindle,
p = stiffness of the spring,
OJ = the speed of rotation,

a, b — the vertical and horizontal arms of the bell-crank

levers
and r — the radius of rotation.
Then, taking moments about the fulcrum of the bell-crank
lever and neglecting the effect of the pull of gravity on the
governor balls and arms:
W 4-S a
F.a = ^-j-.b or W+S = 2F.^. (13.12)

Let the suffixes 1 and 2 be used to denote the values at maximum

and minimum radius respectively.
Then, at maximum radius :
IT+/S'1 = 2Fl.a/b .... (13.13)
and, at minimum radius:
Wd-/S2 = 2Fz.a/b . (13.14)
466 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Subtracting (13.14) from (13.13):

Si-Sz = 2(a/b)(F1—Fo)
The lift of the sleeve x = (b/a)(rl—r2), so that
Si—S2 =p(b/a){r1-r2) (13.15)
and P{b/a){ri—r2) = 2{ajb){Fl — F2)
a) 2
FY-F2
2
P = h (13.16)

Given the extreme radii of rotation and the corresponding equili-

brium speeds, the stiffness of the spring may be calculated from
equation (13.16).
Example, 3. The following particulars refer to a governor of the
Hartnell type, Fig. 306: weight of each ball, 3 lb; lengths of
bell-crank lever arms, a = 4 in., b — 2 in.; distance of the fulcrum
of each bell-crank lever from the axis of rotation, 3| in.; maximum
and minimum radii of rotation of the governor balls, 4| in. and
3 in. The minimum equilibrium speed is to be 300 r.p.m. and the
maximum equilibrium speed is to be 6% greater than this. Find
the rate or stiffness of the spring and the equilibrium speed when
the radius of rotation of the balls is 34 in.
w 0 3 /7T.300 \23_
2 = = 23-0 lb
F
32^2 30 ) 12 “'

2 r
_\ 4-5
FI=F2. U- 1
= 23-0.1-062.— = 38-8 lb
N2/ r2 3
From equation (13.16):
F\~F 2
p = 2j
ri~r2
38-8—23-0
= 2U
4-5—3
= 84-3 lb/in.
Since the effect of gravity is neglected, F will vary directly
with the sleeve load and therefore with the radius.
when the radius is 3f in., the centrifugal force will be:
38-8—23-0
F2 + (-^i~'F2)1.5 ~~ ^ ^ = 28-27 lb
3
XIII] GOVERNORS 467
170. Spring-controlled Governor of the Type shown in Fig.
305 (b).
Let w — weight of each ball,
W = weight of sleeve,
P — combined pull of the ball springs,
S = pull of auxiliary spring,
pb — stiffness of each ball spring,
pa = stiffness of auxiliary spring,
F = centrifugal force of each ball
and r — radius of rotation of the balls.
Referring to Fig. 307, the total downward force on the sleeve
= W -\-Syjx.

Taking moments about the fulcrum of the bell-crank lever and

neglecting the effect of the pull of gravity on the ball, we have:

(F_P)a ■_ E^at.b
A

At minimum equilibrium speed:

W + S2yIX b
(F 2, — P 2)a (13.17)

At maximum equilibrium speed:

{Fl_Pl)api±pt. (13.18)

Subtracting equation (13.17) from equation (13.18):

{Fl-F2-(Pl-P2)}a - (S1—S2)y/x.b/2 (13.19)
But, if the radius increases from r2 to rl5 the ball springs extend
by the amount 2(rx— r2) and the auxihary spring extends by the
amount (rl—r2)b/a.y/x.
.*. P1-P2 = 2Pb.2(r!-ra) = ±ph{ri-r2)
and Si-S2 =p&-bja.{yjx){rl-r2)
468 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

substituting in equation (13.19) and transposing:

*■*)

1 —F 2
(13.20)
ri—r2
It will be clear from equation (13.20) that either p& or ph may
be fixed arbitrarily and the value of the other stiffness then cal-
culated to suit.
If no auxiliary spring is used, i.e. if^>a = 0, then equation (13.20)
reduces to:
F\ —F2
Pb (13,21)
= 4 (n-r2) * ' * •

It should be pointed out that it is not usually practicable to

design a governor in which the only control is that provided by
tension springs attached directly to the balls. A more practicable
arrangement is that shown in Fig. 315 and referred to in Question
13 at the end of the chapter, where the balls are directly controlled
by separate springs in compression.
Example 4. The following particulars refer to a governor of
the above type. Weight of each ball, 5 lb; minimum radius,
5 in.; maximum radius, 7 in.; minimum speed, 240 r.p.m.; maxi-
mum speed, 5% greater than the minimum; lengths of bell-crank
lever arms, a = 6 in., b = 4 in. The combined stiffness of the
two ball springs is 3 lb/in. Find the equivalent stiffness of the
auxiliary spring referred to the sleeve.
5
F2 = 40-9 lb
32-2

F, -1 = 40-9.1-052.- = 63-1 lb
r2 5
The equivalent stiffness of the auxiliary spring referred to the
sleeve
= P= p&(y/x)2

from equation (13.20):

= 2

= 23-0 lb/in.
xm] GOVERNORS 469
If no auxiliary spring were fitted, so that p,d = 0, the combined
stiffness of the ball springs would have to be ph = 11-1/2
= 5-55 lb/in.
To provide a pull of 40-9 lb on each ball when the distance
between the ball centres is 10 in., the free length of the springs
would be only 10—40-9/5-55 = 2-63 in.
It is quite evident that it would be impracticable, if not actually
impossible, to design a spring to satisfy these conditions. It is
for this reason, as well as to enable the equilibrium speed to be
adjusted, that the auxiliary spring is provided.
Let the free length of each ball spring be 8 in. Then at the
minimum radius of 5 in. the combined pull of the two ball springs
is 6 lb and the force to be exerted at the sleeve by the auxiliary
spring may be found as follows:
Let Q2 be the force on the sleeve due to the auxiliary spring.
Then Q2 — S2.yjx and substituting in equation (13.17),
W+Q2
(F 2—P 2 )&

But F2 — 40-9 lb, P2 = 6 lb, a = 6 in., b — 4 in.

W+Q2 = (40-9—6)(2.6/4)
= 104-7 lb
If the axis of the governor is horizontal, the weight W of the
sleeve will not affect the equilibrium and the whole of the force
on the sleeve must be provided by the auxiliary spring.

171. Spring-controlled Governor of the Type shown in Fig. 305.

(c). This type of governor may be analysed most simply by
taking moments about the instantaneous centre
of all the forces which act on one of the bell-
crank levers. Referring to Fig. 308, the instan-
taneous centre of the bell-crank lever is at I,
since the path of the fulcrum B is parallel to the
governor axis and the path of the roller centre
C is at right angles to the governor axis.
There are two forces, w and F, which act
through the ball centre A, and in addition there
is one-half the total sleeve load, which acts
through the fulcrum B. The total sleeve load
will consist of the deadweight W together with
the load due to the main compression spring, which surrounds the
spindle, and the auxiliary spring, if one is fitted. The total
equivalent spring load on the sleeve is denoted by S.
470 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Taking moments about I:

F. AD = w.DI+—.BI

*. W+S = ^{F.AD-W'VI) (13.22)

Example 5. The following particulars refer to a governor of

the above type. The weight of each ball is 3 lb, the weight of the
sleeve is 15 lb, the lengths of the arms a and 6 of the bell-crank
levers are 4J in. and 2 in., the distance of the fulcrum of each bell-
crank lever from the axis of rotation is 21 in., the minimum radius
of rotation is 2\ in., the corresponding equilibrium speed is
240 r.p.m. and the sleeve is required to lift | in. for an increase of
speed of 5%. Find the stiffness of the governor spring.

F,
_
=
w „
=
3 /TT.240\
3272 [
2

30 / 'T2
2-5
12*25 lb

If we assume that the two arms of each bell-crank lever are at

right angles, the increase of radius for a sleeve lift of 0*5 in. is
evidently:
a/6.0*5 = 4*5/2.0*5 = 1*125 in.; rx = r2+l*125 = 3*625 in.
2 2
/. F1 = {Nl/N2) .r1/r2.F2 = 1-05 .3*625/2*5.12*25 = 19*6 lb

(a) At Minimum Radius: Fig. 309 (a). The instantaneous

centre of the bell-crank lever coincides with the roller-centre C,

.*. Jj.AB = (W+^~2)BC

where W — weight of sleeve, S2 ■= spring load on sleeve and

w = weight of ball.
15 -\-S 2^
12*25.4*5 = (3ff 2 and S2 = 34*2 lb
XIII] GOVERNORS 471
(b) At Maximum Radius: Fig. 309 (b). I is the instantaneous
centre of the bell-crank lever,

Fi.AD = w.DI+5-iS.BI

/ AD DB+BI\

ButDB = r\— r2 = 1*125in. andBI = y^BC2 — IC2) = l*936in.

„ ( 4*5 1*125 + 1*936\
.. W= 2^19*6. — —3. ]_.936 )

= 2(44*1-4*74)
= 78*8 lb
/. Sx = 78*8-15 = 63*8 lb
stiffness of the spring — $2-rsleeve lift
63*8-34*2
“ 0*5
= 59*2 lb/in.

172. Definitions. Before proceeding further it is desirable to

give one or two definitions of terms which are used in connection
with governors.
(a) Sensitiveness. In order to maintain as closely as possible
a constant mean speed of rotation, whatever may be the load on
the engine, it is clearly desirable that the movement of the sleeve
should be as large as possible and the corresponding change of
equilibrium speed as small as possible. The smaller the fractional
change of speed for a given displacement of the sleeve, or the bigger
the displacement of the sleeve for a given fractional change of
speed, the more sensitive is the governor said to be.
This definition of sensitiveness is quite satisfactory when the
governor is considered as an independent mechanism, but when
the governor is fitted to an engine the practical requirement is
simply that the change of equilibrium speed from the full load to
the no load position of the sleeve should be as small a fraction as
possible of the mean equilibrium speed. The actual displacement
of the sleeve is immaterial, provided that it is sufficient to change
the energy supplied to the engine by the required amount. For
this reason sensitiveness is more correctly defined as the ratio of
the difference between the maximum and minimum equilibrium
speeds to the mean equilibrium speed.
472 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

(b) Stability. A governor is said to be stable when for each

speed within the working range there is only one radius of rotation
of the governor balls at which the governor is in equilibrium.
(c) Isochronism. A governor is said to be isochronous when the
equilibrium speed is constant for all radii of rotation of the balls
within the working range.
It follows from the definition of sensitiveness given above that
an isochronous governor will be infinitely sensitive. The sleeve
will remain in the lowest position until the equilibrium speed is
reached, when the slightest further increase of speed will cause the
governor balls to fly out to their maximum radius and thus lift
the sleeve to its highest position.
(d) Hunting. This is the name given to a condition in which the
speed of the engine controlled by the governor fluctuates con-
tinually above and below the mean speed. It is caused by the
use of a governor which is too sensitive and which, therefore,
changes by too large an amount the supply of energy to the engine
when a small change in the speed of rotation takes place. Thus,
to take an extreme case, let us suppose that an isochronous
governor is fitted to an engine and that the engine is running
under a steady load. If a slight increase of the load takes place,
the speed of rotation will fall and the governor sleeve will im-
mediately fall to its lowest position. This will open the control
valve wide and the supply of energy to the engine will now be in
excess of its requirements, so that the speed will rapidly increase
again and the sleeve will rise to its highest position. As a result
of this movement of the sleeve, the control valve will cut off the
supply of energy to the engine and the speed will once more begin
to fall, the cycle being repeated indefinitely. Such a governor
would admit either the maximum or the minimum amount of
energy and could not possibly admit an amount of energy between
these two extremes. The effect, as we have seen, will be to cause
wide fluctuations in the speed of rotation of the engine. In
other words, the engine will hunt.

173. Governor Effort and Power. The effort of a governor is

the force which the governor can exert at the sleeve on the
mechanism which controls the supply of energy to the engine.
When the speed is constant the effort is zero, but if a sudden
change of speed takes place, the sleeve tends to move to its new
equilibrium position and a force is exerted on the mechanism.
This force gradually diminishes to zero as the sleeve moves to the
equilibrium position corresponding to the new speed. The mean
force exerted during the given change of speed is termed the
effort. For convenience in comparing different types of governors,
XIH] GOVERNORS 473
it is usual to define the effort as that which can be exerted for a
1% change of speed.
The power of a governor is defined as the work done at the
sleeve for a given percentage change of speed. It is the product
of the governor effort and the displacement of the sleeve. The
power required will obviously depend on the form of the con-
trolling mechanism which the governor is called upon to operate.
In a gas engine governed on the hit-and-miss principle, for instance,
very little work has to be done by the governor, whereas in a steam
engine governed by alteration of the cut-off, the governor is
required to do more work and must, therefore, be more powerful.
Where the power required is large, it is usual to employ compressed
air or oil under pressure in order to change the position of the valve
or valves that control the supply
of energy to the engine. The
governor is then simply called
upon to move a small pilot valve,
which admits the compressed air or
oil to a cylinder in which moves a
piston connected by suitable link-
age to the energy supply valves.
The governor effort and power
may be determined in the fol-
lowing way. The Porter governor
is used to illustrate the method,
but the same principle is adopted for any other type of governor.
Referring to Pig. 310, let N be the equilibrium speed corresponding
to the configuration shown by the full lines and let a sudden in-
crease of speed, c. N, take place, for which the equilibrium position
is shown by the dotted fines. In order to prevent the sleeve from
rising when the increase of speed takes place, a downward force will
have to be exerted on the sleeve. The magnitude of this force may
be determined by finding what increase is required in the load W on
the sleeve in order to cause the governor to revolve in equilibrium
in the full fine position at the increased speed (1 +c)iV.
When the speed is N r.p.m. and the angles a and are equal
so that k — 1, the height h is given by equation (13.6):
W-j-w 35 230
1
W~

If the speed increases to (l-j-cJiV and the height remains the

same, we have: ^ ^^
h
~ W •(1+C)2JV2 ‘ ‘ <13-23)
where W\ is the required sleeve load.
474 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

On equating the two expressions for h and reducing,

W i-\-w — (W+ic)(l-fc)2,
Wi = (JF+w)(l-|-c)2 — io
and Wi — W = (TF+w>){(l+c)2 —1} • • (13.24)
W \ — W is evidently the downward force P which must be
applied in order to prevent the sleeve from rising when the increase
of speed takes place. It is therefore equal to the force exerted by
the governor sleeve on the controlling mechanism, immediately
after the increase of speed has taken place and before the sleeve
begins to move. As the sleeve rises to the new equilibrium posi-
tion shown by the dotted lines, this force gradually diminishes to
zero. The mean force Q exerted by the sleeve during the change
of speed from N to (l-j-cJiV is therefore equal to
{W1-W)J2 = P/2
Since the change of speed for which the governor effort is
required is small, then to a first approximation (1-fc)2 — l+2c,
so that:
P (fF+w)(l+2c—1) (W-\-w)2c
governor effort Q P/2 c{W-\-w) (13.25)
The governor power is the product of the effort Q and the
sleeve displacement x:
But x = 2(h—hi), where 1nx = height corresponding to the
increased speed (l-j-c)iV, i.e. lnx = h/(l-\-c)2.
f 11 2c
*• X = 2H1—(!+c)2} “ 2^'1+2C * (!3.26)

4c2
governor power = Q.x (13.27)

If a and j3 are not equal, then equation (13.25) for the governor
effort becomes:
(2iv \
W+
1+Jc) • • • • (13.28)
where h = tan /3/tan a.
Similarly, equation (13.26) for the lift of the sleeve will no
longer apply, since x is not equal to 2(h—Ji{). It can be shown
that x is approximately equal to (1 -\-1c)(h—h{).
But hl = h/(l-\-c)2, so that

*~ =! (!+*)»• i
XIII] GOVERNORS 475
2
governor power ~
2c r Jf(l-ffc)-(-2tt>J-A
l

4c2 fW 1
(1 )+ (13-29)
- r+^iT +^ *x
Example 6. Determine the governor effort and power for the
Porter governor of Example 1, p. 459, when the sleeve is in its
lowest position. The fractional increase of speed is 1%.
Here If = 120 lb, w — 15 lb, k = 0-720, c = 0-01 and
h = 8-944 in.
From equation (13.28),

Q = °-01(120+r^) = 1-374 lb
2c 0-02
A1S {1+k)h =
° * = l+2c jTo2-l*720.8-944
= 0-302 in.
governor power — Q,x = 1-374.0-302
= 0-415 in. lb
Example 7. Determine the effort and power of the spring-
loaded governor of Example 4, p. 468, when the radius of rotation
is 6 in. and the increase of speed is 1%
Since the deflections of the ball springs and of the auxiliary
spring are directly proportional to the change of radius of rotation
of the balls, the centrifugal force will also vary directly with the
radius, and we may write:
F = Ar-\-B
where A and B are constants which depend on the stiffness of the
springs.
It has already been determined that F = 40-9 lb when r — 5 in.,
and F = 63-1 lb when r = 7 in.
To satisfy these two conditions, the equation must be :
F — 11-lr—14-6 (1)
so that when r = 6 in. F = 52-0 lb.
If the speed increases by 1% while the radius remains unchanged,
the centrifugal force on each ball will increase to l-012.52-0.
The increase is approximately 2.0-01.52-0 = 1-04 lb, and the
force required to prevent the sleeve from rising is 2a/6.1-04
= 3-12 lb, therefore the mean force exerted as the sleeve moves
to the new equilibrium position = 3*12/2 = 1-56 lb.
476 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The radius of rotation corresponding to the new speed may be

found as follows:
From equation (1),
F/r = 11-1 — 14-6 Jr
But F = 53-04 lb, when r = 6 in.

•
53-04 14-6
11-1
6 r
from which r = 6-46 in.
If the radius of rotation increases by 0-46 in., the sleeve will
lift 5/a.0-46 = 0-307 in.
governor power = 1-56.0-307 = 0-479 in lb

174. Controlling Force. When the speed of rotation is uniform,

each governor ball is subjected either directly or indirectly to an
inward pull which is equal and opposite to the outward centrifugal
reaction. This inward pull is termed the controlling force, and a

curve drawn to show how the pull varies with the radius of rota-
tion of the ball is called a controlling force curve, although in some
types of governor it may be a straight line. The curve enables
the stability and sensitiveness of the governor to be examined and
XIII] GOVERNORS 477
also shows clearly the effect of friction. Such a curve is shown
in Fig. 311.
Since the controlling force is equal and opposite to the centri-
fugal force, we have F = (w/g)co2r,
or co = y'fg/w.F/r) — \/{(g/w) tan </>} . (13.30)

where <j> is the inclination to the r axis of the line joining a given
point on the curve to the origin.
If the governor is to satisfy the conditions for stability, the
equilibrium speed must increase as the radius of rotation of the
governor balls increases, i.e. the shape of the controlling force
curve must be such that the angle <f> increases continuously as r
increases. It also follows from the definition of sensitiveness
that the change in the value of <j> over the range of radius of
rotation should be as small as possible in order to provide the most
sensitive governor. Further, if the controlling force curve is
a straight line which passes through the origin, the angle <f> will
be constant for all values of the radius and the governor will
be isochronous.
From equation (13.30):
tan </> = (w/g)(o2 = C .N2
Using this relation, values of </> may be calculated for different
values of N and lines may be drawn radiating from the origin, as
shown in Fig. 311. These enable the equilibrium speed corre-
sponding to a given radius of rotation to be determined.
Alternatively, the same result may be obtained more simply by
setting-off a speed scale along any arbitrarily chosen ordinate.
The controlling force is calculated for a constant radius and for
different speeds to cover the full working range. The values thus
obtained are then set off along the ordinate that corresponds
to the chosen radius and marked with the appropriate speeds
as shown in Fig. 311. This figure is drawn to scale for the
Porter governor, particulars of which are given in the following
example.
Example 8. The dimensions of a Porter governor are w = 15 lb,
W — 90 lb, length of each arm = 12 in. and all arms are pivoted
on the axis of rotation. The extreme radii of rotation are 6 in.
and 9 in. Draw the controlling force curve and set off a speed
scale along the ordinate corresponding to a radius of 10 in.
The controlling force exerted on each governor ball may be
expressed in terms of the weight of the ball and the deadweight
on the sleeve. It is equal to the sum of the components of the
tensions Tx and T2 in the upper and lower arms.
478 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

From Fig. 302 (a),

w \ w
M [W
— -\-wJ tan

1
2“ tan j3

= (1+&)+M>> tan a

But tan a — rjh and in the example a = /3,

where l = length of the governor arm.

substituting the given values:
JF = I05.r/V(144—r2)
From this equation the following table of values is obtained:
r in. .2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
F lb . 17-7 27-1 37-2 48-2 60-6 75-4 93-9 119 158-4

These are plotted to give the controlling force curve of Fig. 311.
To set off the speed scale along the ordinate through r — 10 in.,
we have:
15 /7TA\2 10
= 0-004 25N2
W 2
2
F ----- -aj r =
9 32-2 \~30/ ‘12
Corresponding values of F and N are given in the table below:
N r.p.m. . 100 150 155 160 165 170 175 180
Fib • .42-5 95-6 102-1 108-8 115-7 122-8 130-1 137-7

The speed scale is then marked off as shown on the figure.

The range of equilibrium speeds for the governor is found by
drawing lines from the origin through the two points A and B on
the controlling force curve that correspond to the extreme radii of
rotation. These two lines are shown dotted and they intersect
the speed scale at approximately 154 and 176 r.p.m. To avoid
confusion radiating lines are drawn for speeds of 100, 150, 160,
170 and 180 r.p.m. only.
Example 9. The following particulars refer to a governor of
the type shown in Fig. 305 (c). The weight of each ball is 3 lb and
the weight of the sleeve is 15 lb. The arms, a and b, of the bell-
crank levers are 4| in. and 2 in. long respectively, and are at right
angles to each other. The extreme radii of rotation are 2| in.
and 4| in. At the minimum radius the ball centres are vertically
below the pivots of the bell-crank levers and the spring load is
XIII] GOVERNORS 479
34-2 lb. The rate of the spring is 59 lb/in. Draw the con-
trolling force curve and erect a speed scale along the ordinate
through r — 5 in.
Referring to Eig. 308, it is simpler to take the angle 0 as the
variable and to determine the controlling force and the radius of
rotation of the ball for different values of 0. Let a be the length
of AB and b the length of BC.
Taking moments about I, the instantaneous centre of the bell-
crank lever, we have:
F.AD = w.DI+^i^.BI
Li

JF+£
*. F .a cos 0 = w(a sin 0-\-b cos 0) b cos 0
2
TF+N b
F tan 0 + -J (1)
2 ‘a
But S = spring load on the sleeve
== spring load at minimum radius + rate of spring x sleeve
lift
= 34-2+59.z = 34-2 + 118 sin 0
Substituting in equation (1):
„ / „ 2 \ 15+34-2 + 118 sin 0 2
F
= ( 3 tan e+i«) -i*
= 3 tan 0+26-2 sin 0+12-25 (2)
Also r = 2-5+BD = 2-5+4-5 sin 0 ... (3)
From equations (2) and (3), the following values of F and r
are calculated for different values of 0.
e° ... 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
F lb . . 12-25 14-80 17-33 19-84 22-30 24-73 27-08
rin. . . 2-5 2-89 3-28 3-67 4-04 4-40 4-75

The controlling force curve is plotted in Eig. 312. It will be

seen that the curve is very nearly a straight line.
To erect a speed scale along the ordinate through r = 5 in., we
have:
w 3 /TTN\2 5
T2= 0-000 425^

From this equation corresponding values of F and N are

calculated as given in the table below.
Vrpm . .100 200 240 245 250 255 260 265
Fib . . . 4-25 17-0 24-48 25-61 26-6 27-6 28-7 29-9
480 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

These values are used to mark off the speed scale as shown on
the figure. The extreme equilibrium speeds are then determined
by drawing dotted lines from the origin through the points A and
B on the controlling force curve at which the radii are 2*5 in. and
4-5 in. respectively. These intersect the speed scale at 240 r.p.m.
and at 257-5 r.p.m. respectively.

FIG. 312

175. The Stability of Spring-controlled Governors. The con-

trolling force curve for a spring-controlled governor is usually,
as in the last example, a straight or an approximately straight
line. It has already been shown that for the governor to be stable
the ratio F/r must increase as r increases. Hence the controlling
force curve when produced must intersect the F axis below the
origin, so that the equation to the curve is of the form F — ar—b.
By increasing the initial tension of the spring, the curve may be
raised parallel to itself so as to make b either zero or positive.
If b is zero, the controlling force curve will pass through the
origin, and the ratio F/r will be constant for all radii, so that the
governor becomes isochronous. If, on the other hand, b is
positive, then the ratio F/r decreases as r increases, so that the
equilibrium speed of the governor decreases with an increase of
the radius of rotation of the balls. Such a governor will be
unstable, as the following considerations show. When the
governor is at rest, the balls are at their minimum distances from
the axis of rotation and the sleeve is in its lowest position. As the
speed of rotation increases no movement of the ball or sleeve takes
place until the equilibrium speed which corresponds to the mini-
mum radius of rotation is reached. The slightest further increase
XIII] GOVERNORS
- - - - 481

of speed then upsets the equilibrium and immediately causes the

governor balls to fly out to their maximum radius. This has
the effect of cutting off the supply of energy to the engine and
the speed begins to fall. The speed continues to fall until the
equilibrium speed which corresponds to the maximum radius of
rotation is reached. The slightest further decrease of speed once
more disturbs the equilibrium and the balls immediately return
to their minimum radius. It fol-
lows that the governor sleeve can
only occupy one or other of the
extreme positions and the control
valve on the engine must be either
wide open or closed. The con-
ditions are, in fact, similar to
those referred to in Article 172
under the definition of hunting,
but with this difference: with an
isochronous governor the slight-
est change of speed above or below
the constant equilibrium speed of
the governor causes the governor
sleeve to move from the lowest to the highest position, or vice
versa, whereas, with the unstable governor, once the governor
sleeve has moved from one extreme position to the other, a finite
change of speed is required in order to cause it to move back
again. Hence the degree of hunting with an unstable governor
will be much greater than with an isochronous governor.
Controlling force curves for stable, isochronous and unstable
governors are shown in Fig. 313.

176. Friction and Insensitiveness. So far the governor has been

assumed to be frictionless. In actual fact there is always friction
in the joints of the governor and of the mechanism which it
operates. Since a friction force always acts in the opposite direc-
tion to that of motion, it is clear that friction tends to prevent the
upward movement of the sleeve and the outward movement of
the balls when the speed of rotation increases, and conversely it
tends to prevent the downward movement of the sleeve and the
inward movement of the balls when the speed of rotation decreases.
Let fs = the force required at the sleeve to overcome the fric-
tion of the governor and its mechanism,
yb = the corresponding radial force required at each ball,
Ws = the total load on the sleeve
an d F = the controlling force on each ball.
16—T.M.
482 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Then, for a given configuration of the governor, the sleeve load

will be IFS +/s if the speed is increasing, and IFS —/s if the speed is
decreasing. In the same way the controlling force will be F-\-fh
if the speed is mcreasing, and F—fh if the speed is decreasing.
For a given type of governor there is a simple relation between
/s and /b.
Thus, for the Porter governor, Fig. 301, the relation between /s
and /b may be found by taking moments about the instantaneous
OPTltl'P I *

/b. BD = /s/2. IC = (/S/2)(ID +DC)

A = (/s/2)(tan oc+tan /3)
= (fs/2)(l+Jc) tan a = (fj2)(l+k)(r/h) . . (13.31)
Similarly, for the spring-loaded governors, Figs. 306, 307, 308,
fb.a=fJ2.b fb=f,.bj2a . . (13.32)
On the controlling force diagram the effect of friction is clearly
shown, since there will be three curves, the ordinates of which are
in the proportion F-\-fh, F, F—fh. The upper curve is that for
increasing speeds, the middle curve is that obtained when friction
is neglected, and the lower curve is that for decreasing speeds.
These three curves are shown in Fig. 314. For the radius OA the
controlling force neglecting friction is AB and the equilibrium

CD

FIG. 314

speed from the speed scale is N. If the speed is increasing, the

effect of friction is to increase the controlling force to AC and the
speed to N', while, if the speed is decreasing, the controlling force
is reduced by friction to AD and the corresponding speed to N".
This means that, when the radius is OA, the speed of rotation may
vary between the limits N" and N' without causing any displace-
ment of the governor sleeve. The governor is said to be insensitive
xm] GOVERNORS 483
over this range of speed. The ratio (N'~N")/N is termed the
coefficient of insensitiveness of the governor. It may be expressed in
terms of the friction force /b and the controlling force F as follows.
Since the controlling force at a given radius is proportional to
the square of the speed, we have:
F = k.N2 (13.33)
F+fh=k(N')* .... (13.34)
F-fb = k(N'r .... (13.35)
Subtracting (13.35) from (13.34):

2/b = k{(Nr-(N'T}
Dividing by (13.33):
2/b N'*-N"2 N'-N" N'+N"
~F ~ W ~ N * N
But N'-f-N" is approximately equal to 2N:
. 2fh_N'-N' .2
*• F ~ N
and the
N'—N" fh
coefficient of insensitiveness
N F
Example 10. The friction of the Porter governor, particulars
of which are given in Example 8, p. 477, is equivalent to a force
of 3 lb at the sleeve. Find the coefficient of insensitiveness at the
extreme radii of rotation.
From equation (13.31):
/b = (/s/2)(l +&)(r/A)
But in the present example, since all the arms are of equal
length and are pivoted on the axis of rotation, k = 1 and the above
equation reduces to:
fb —fs'r/h
It was shown in Example 8 that:
F = [W Jriv)r/h
N'-N"_fb_ f5
coefficient of insensitiveness =
N ” F ~ W+w
i.e. it is independent of the radius of rotation.
Substituting/s = 3 lb, W = 90 lb, w — 15 lb,
N'-N" 3 ^

= 0-029 or 2-9%
N 105
484 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Example 11. For the spring-loaded governor of Example 9,

p. 478, friction in the governor and mechanism is equivalent to a
force of 1-5 lb at the sleeve. Find the coefficient of insensitive-
ness at the extreme radii of rotation.
The lengths of the arms, a and b, of the bell-crank levers are
4-5 in. and 2 in., and at the extreme radii of 2-5 in. and 4*5 in.
the values of the controlling force, read from Fig. 312, are
respectively 12-25 lb and 25-4 lb.
From Fig. 308 (a) it is easily seen that the force fb at the ball
centre is equivalent to a force /s at the sleeve, if:
Zb-AD =/s/2.BI
or /b =/s/2.BI/AD = fB/2.b/a
= 1-5/2.2/4-5 = 1 lb
At the minimum radius:
N'—N' A I
= 0-0272 or 2-72%
N F2 3.12-25
At the maximum radius:
N'—N" fb 1
= 0-0131 or 1-31%
N Fl 3.25-4

EXAMPLES XIII

1. Distinguish carefully between the function of (a) the flywheel, (b) the
governor of an engine.
2. The arms of a Porter governor are 12-5 in. long and are pivoted on the axis
of rotation. Each ball weighs 15 lb and the central load is 90 lb. Find the
equilibrium speeds corresponding to radii of 8 in. and 10 in.
3. The arms of a Porter governor are 12 in. long. The upper arms are pivoted
on the axis of rotation and the lower arms are attached to the sleeve at distances
of 1£ in. from the axis of rotation. The load on the sleeve is 150 lb and each ball
weighs 20 lb. Determine the equilibrium speed when the radius of rotation of
the balls is 9 in.
4. The arms of a Proell governor are 11 in. long and are pivoted on the axis
of rotation. Each ball is carried on an extension, 4 in. long, of the lower arm
and weighs 10 lb. The central load on the sleeve is 150 lb. If the ball centres are
vertically above the pin-joints connecting the upper and lower arms when the
radius of rotation is 7-5 in., calculate the corresponding equilibrium speed.
5. The arms of a Proell governor are 12 in. long; the upper arms are pivoted
on the axis of rotation, while the lower arms are pivoted at a radius of 1-5 in.
Each ball weighs 10-5 lb. and is attached to an extension, 4 in. long, of the lower
arm; the central load is 120 lb. At the minimum radius of 6-5 in. the extensions
to which the balls are attached are parallel to the governor axis. Find the
equilibrium speeds corresponding to radii of 6-5, 7-5, 8-5 and 9-5 in.
XHI] GOVERNORS 485
6. A spring-controlled governor has two balls, each weighing 5 lb and each
attached to the arm of a bell-crank lever which pivots about a fixed fulcrum.
The other arms of the bell-crank levers carry rollers which lift the sleeve against
the pressure exerted by a spring surrounding the governor spindle. The two arms
of each bell-crank lever are of equal length and the minimum and maximum
radii of rotation of the governor balls are 3 in. and in. If the sleeve is to begin
to lift at 240 r.p.m. and the increase of speed allowed is 7%, find the initial load
on the sleeve and the required stiffness of the spring. M.U.

7. Each ball of a governor weighs 3 lb and is attached to one arm of a bell-

crank lever. The other arms of the bell-crank levers lift the sleeve against the
force exerted by a spring under compression, which surrounds the governor spindle.
The lengths of the ball and sleeve arms of the bell-crank levers are respectively
5 in. and 3 in. The fulcrum of each bell-crank lever is 3| in. from the axis
of the governor spindle. The maximum and minimum radii of rotation of the
governor balls are respectively 4£ in. and 3 in. The sleeve is to begin to
lift at a speed of 300 r.p.m. and the maximum speed is to be 6% greater. Find
the rate or stiffness of the spring and the equilibrium speed for a radius of
3£ in.

8. In a governor of the type shown in Fig. 308 the weight of each ball is 3 lb;
the weight of the sleeve is 15 lb; the lengths of the arms a and b of the bell-
crank levers are 4| in. and 1| in.; the distance of the fulcrum of each bell-crank
lever from the axis of rotation is 2 in.; and the minimum radius of rotation of
the governor balls is 2\ in. At this radius the arm b is horizontal. Find the
initial thrust in the spring and the rate or stiffness of the spring in order that the
sleeve may begin to lift at 240 r.p.m. and may rise 0-3 in. for an increase of speed
of 5%.

9. A spring-controlled governor of the Hartnell type with a central spring

under compression has balls each of which weighs 5 lb. The ball and sleeve
arms of the bell-crank levers are at right angles and are respectively 5 in. and 3 in.
long. For the lowest position of the governor sleeve, the radius of rotation of the
balls is 4 in. and the ball arms are parallel to the governor axis. Find the initial
load on the spring in order that the sleeve may begin to lift at 300 r.p.m. If the
stiffness of the spring is 125 lb/in., what is the equilibrium speed corresponding
to a sleeve lift pf 0-5 in. ? M.U.

10. Each ball of a spring-loaded governor is attached to one arm of a bell-

crank lever. The other arm of each lever presses against the sleeve and lifts the
sleeve against the force exerted by a spring under compression, which surrounds
the governor spindle. The pivots of the bell-crank levers are fixed to the spindle
at 3 in. radius. The length of the ball arm of each lever is 6 in., the length of
the sleeve arm is 3 in. and the two arms are at right angles. The weight of each
ball is 5 lb and the stiffness of the spring is 150 lb/in. When the ball arms
are parallel to the governor spindle the equilibrium speed is 300 r.p.m. Neglecting
friction, find the sleeve lift for an increase of speed of 6%.
11 For a governor of the type shown in Fig. 308 the weight of each ball is 3 lb,
the weight of the sleeve 10 lb, the lengths of the arms a and b of the bell-crank
levers 5 in. and 2 in., the distance of the fulcrum from the axis of rotation and the
minimum radius of rotation of the governor balls are each 2£ in. Find the initial
thrust in the spring and the stiffness of the spring in order that the sleeve may
begin to rise at 300 r.p.m., and may rise 0-4 in. for an increase of speed of 5%^

12. In a governor of the type shown in Fig. 308, the two arms of the bell-crank
levers are at right angles and their lengths are a, 5 in., b 2-5 in. The distance of
each pivot from the axis of rotation is 3-5 in. and the minimum radius of rotation
is also 3-5 in. The weight of each ball is 5 lb and the weight of the sleeve is 20 lb.
Find the initial thrust in the spring and the stiffness of the spring in order that the
sleeve shall begin to lift at 180 r.p.m. and shall lift 0-25 in. for an increase of speed
of 8%.
486 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

13. Fig. 315 shows a spring-controlled governor in its mid-position. The

sleeve has a total travel of 1J in. Each revolving mass has a weight of 7 lb
and is directly controlled by a spring of stiffness 50 lb/in. compression. In
the mid-position the compression of each spring amounts to in. The weight
of the gear operated by the governor—reduced to the sleeve—amounts to 25 lb.
Calculate the range of speed and state the sensitiveness of the governor. How
does this alter if there is a frictional effect to be taken into account ? L.U.

14. The weight of each revolving mass of a spring-controlled governor of the

type shown in Fig. 315 is 20 lb and the stiffness of each spring is 150 lb/in. If
the length of each spring is 4£ in. when the radius of rotation is 2f in. and the
equilibrium speed is 360 r.p.m., find the free length of each spring and state
whether the governor is isochronous.

15. In a vertical spring-loaded governor, the bell-crank ball levers are pivoted
at 6 in. radius. The ball arms are vertical and 6 in. long. The horizontal arms
are 3 in. long. Each ball has an effective weight of 8 lb. The balls are connected
by springs and the motion of the governor sleeve is transmitted through a lever
to a spring S, which has a stiffness of 80 lb/in. of elongation. The length of
this lever is 15-75 in. and it is pivoted at a point 7 in. from the governor sleeve.
The governor has a normal speed of 300 r.p.m., the rise in speed at no load is
3% and the sleeve moves 1-25 in. to cut off steam. Determine the necessary
stiffness of the ball springs and find what additional extension of spring S will
be required to raise the normal speed by 5%. L.U.A.

16. In a governor of the type shown in Fig. 307, the two springs attached
directly to the balls each have a stiffness of 3 lb/in. and a free length of 5 in.
The weight of each ball is 8 lb, the length of the ball arm of each bell-crank lever
is 4 in. and that of the sleeve arm is 3 in.; the lever ABC is pivoted at its mid-point.
When the radius of rotation of the balls is 4 in., the equilibrium speed is 240 r.p.m.
If the sleeve is to lift 0-25 in. for an increase of speed of 5%, determine the required
stiffness of the auxiliary spring. M.U.

17. Two masses AF and BE, Fig. 316, each weigh 12 lb and are pivoted at A
and B to a disc which revolves about a fixed axis. The two masses are connected
at E and F by a helical spring, the axis of the spring being at right angles to AB.
The centres of gravity of the masses are on the line CD and each is 6 in. from the
axis of rotation of the disc. A, B, E and F are all on a circle of radius 8 in.
When the disc is at rest, the two masses are pulled by the spring on to the stops S.
Determine:
(a) The pull in the spring so that the two masses will just float from the stops
when the speed is 300 r.p.m.
XHI] GOVERNORS 487
(b) The stiffness of the spring so that the masses will revolve with C and D at
a radius of 7 in. when the speed is 400 r.p.m. L.U.

18. Define the following terms: controlling force, sensitiveness, stability,

isochronism, governor effort.

19. Sketch the controlling force curves for a spring-controlled governor to

correspond to (a) a stable governor, (b) an isochronous governor, (c) an unstable
governor. In the case of the unstable governor, explain clearly what will happen
when the speed of rotation is first increased from zero up to the maximum
equilibrium speed and is then diminished below the minimum equilibrium
speed.

20. Show that the effect of friction in the governor mechanism is to make the
governor insensitive over a certain range of speed at each radius of rotation of
the governor balls. Deduce an expression for the coefficient of insensitiveness
in terms of the controlling force and the equivalent friction force at each ball.

21. The arms of a Proell governor are 11 in. long. The upper arms are pivoted
on the axis of rotation, while the lower arms are pivoted to the sleeve at a distance
of 1-5 in. from the axis of rotation. Each ball weighs 12 lb and is carried on an
extension, 4 in. long, of the lower arm. The central load is 200 lb. The extensions
of the lower arms, to which the balls are attached, are parallel to the governor
axis when the radius of rotation is 8 in. Find: (a) the equilibrium speed for
the above configuration; (b) the equilibrium speed for a radius of rotation
of 9 in.; (c) the mean force exerted at the sleeve during the above change of
radius.

22. The weight of each ball of a Proell governor is 12 lb, the central load is
300 lb and the arms are all 10 in. long. The arms are open and are each pivoted
at a distance of 2 in. from the axis of rotation. The extension of the lower arm
to which each ball is attached is 5 in. long and the radius of rotation of the balls
is 9 in. when the arms are inclined at 40° to the axis of rotation. Find: (a) the
equilibrium speed for the above configuration; (b) the coefficient of insensitive-
ness, if the friction of the governor mechanism is equivalent to a force of 4 lb
at the sleeve.

23. A Porter governor has all four arms of equal length, 12 in., and pivoted on
the axis of rotation. Each ball weighs 16 lb and the weight on the sleeve is
85 lb. The extreme radii of rotation of the governor balls are 7 in. and 9-75 in.
Draw the controlling force curve and erect a speed scale along the ordinate
corresponding to a radius of 10 in. What are the extreme equilibrium speeds for
the governor ?

24. The arms of a Proell governor are all of equal length, l, and are pivoted on
the axis of rotation. The extensions of the lower arms to which the balls are
attached are of length a; each ball weighs w lb and the central load on the sleeve
is IF lb. At the minimum radius of rotation the extensions a are parallel to the
governor axis. Show that the governor will be stable providing that the inclina-
tion a of the arms to the governor axis satisfies the relation:
cos a<£[—PY+A/{P2T2—4p2Y+4}]

where p = o/Z and y = (W+2w)/{W+w)

25 A spring-loaded governor has the balls attached to the vertical arms of

bell-crank levers, the horizontal arms of which lift the sleeve against the pressure
exerted by a spring. The weight of each ball is 6 lb and the lengths of the vertical
and horizontal arms of the bell-crank levers are 6 in. and 4| in. respectively.
The extreme radii of rotation of the balls are 4 in. and 6 in. and the governor sleeve
begins to lift at 240 r.p.m. and reaches its highest position with a 7|% increase of
speed. Determine the required stiffness of the spring and the average force
exerted at the sleeve for an increase of speed of 2% above that corresponding
to a radius of rotation of 5 in.
488 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP, XIH]

26. The controlling force curve of a spring-controlled governor is a straight line.

The weight of each governor ball is 9 lb and the extreme radii of rotation are
4-5 in. and 7 in. If the values of the controlling force at the above radii are
respectively 46-0 and 82-5 lb and friction of the mechanism is equivalent to 0*5 lb
at each ball, find: (a) the extreme equilibrium speeds of the governor; (b) the
equilibrium speed and the coefficient of insensitiveness at a radius of 6 in.

27. The controlling force in lb and the radius of rotation in in. for a spring-
loaded governor are related by the expression F — 15\5r —16-7. The weight of
each ball is 10 lb and the extreme radii of rotation of the balls are 4 in. and 7 in.
Find the maximum and minimum equilibrium speeds. If the friction of the
governor mechanism is equivalent to a force of 1 lb at each ball, find the coefficient
of insensitiveness of the governor at the extreme radii. M.U.
 CHAPTER XIV

BALANCING

177. The high speeds of rotation at which engines and other

machines are required to run at the present day have made it
increasingly important that all revolving and reciprocating parts
should be as completely balanced as possible. Not only are the
bearing loads and the stresses in the members increased by the
dynamic forces which arise from any lack of balance, but there
is also the possibility that unpleasant and even dangerous vibra-
tions may be set up by these forces. In this chapter the balancing
of both revolving and reciprocating masses will be considered.

178. Balance of a Single Revolving Mass. There are two dif-

ferent cases to consider, viz: (a) that in which the balance weight
may be arranged to revolve in the same plane as the disturbing
weight, and (b) that in which the balance weight
cannot revolve in the same plane as the disturbing
weight.
(a) Referring to Fig. 317, let a mass, of weight
W, be attached to a shaft which rotates with
angular velocity to and let r be the distance of the
centre of gravity from the axis of rotation. Then
a centrifugal force due to the inertia of the mass
will act radially outwards and will produce a
bending moment on the shaft. To counteract the
effect of this inertia force a balance weight may be introduced in
the plane of rotation of the disturbing mass, such that the inertia
forces of the two masses are equal and opposite.
Let B = weight of the balancing mass and b = distance of the
centre of gravity of the balance weight from the axis of rotation.
Then, for balance,
(B/g)(jo2b = (Wlg)a>2r
or Bb = Wr (14.1)

The product Bb may be split up in any convenient way. Generally

the radius b is made as large as possible so as to keep down the
value of B.
489

16*—T.M.
490 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

(b) If the balancing mass cannot be introduced in the same

plane of rotation as the disturbing mass, it is not sufficient to use
a single balancing mass. For, although the two inertia forces are
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, they have different
lines of action and therefore give rise to a couple which tends to
rock the shaft in its bearings. It is clear that to put the system in
perfect balance two balancing masses must be used and the three
masses must be so arranged that the resultant dynamic force and
couple on the shaft are zero. This requires that the lines of action of
the three inertia forces shall be parallel and that the algebraic sum
of their moments about any point in the same plane shall be zero.
A L M LA M

In Fig. 318, A denotes the plane of rotation of the disturbing

mass and L and M the planes of rotation of the balancing masses
which may lie both on the same side of A, as in Fig. 318 (a), or
one on each side of A, as in Fig. 318 (b). The magnitudes of the
three inertia forces are proportional to the respective products,
weight X radius, since o»2/g is the same for each mass.
Let the weight of the disturbing mass in plane A be IF and the
weights of the balancing masses in planes L and M be respectively
Bx and Bm; also let the distances of the centres of gravity from
the axis of rotation be respectively r, bx and bm, the distances of
planes L and M from plane A be respectively l and m and the
distance between the planes L and M be d.
Then, taking moments about O, the point of intersection of
plane L and the axis of rotation,
Bmbmd = Wrl
or Bmbm = Wrl/d .... (14.2)
Similarly, taking moments about P, the point of intersection
of plane M and the axis of rotation:
Bxbxd — Wrm
or Bxbx — Wrmjd .... (14.3)
These two equations apply to both cases (a) and (b) of Fig. 318.
XIV] BALANCING 491
Example 1. W = 200 lb, r = 9 in., bl = 6m = 15 in., Z = 10 in.,
cZ = 50 in.
Then for case (a), m — d-\-l = 60 in.; for case (b), m — d—l
— 40 in.
Substituting in equations (14.2) and (14.3 , the balance weights
required are found to be: for case (a), Bm = 24 lb, Bj = 144 lb,
and for case (b), Bm — 24 lb, Bj — 96 lb.
The relative positions of the disturbing mass and the balance
masses are shown in the figure.
The moments of any two of the forces about a point on the
line of action of the third force must be equal and opposite.
Hence the sense of each of the outer forces must be opposite to
that of the middle force.

179. Several Masses revolving in the Same Plane. A number of

masses, of weight Wa, Wh, Wc, etc., is shown in Fig. 319 (a).
Each mass is rigidly attached to a shaft which revolves about an
axis through O perpendicular to the plane of the paper. The
radii of rotation of the masses are ra, rb, rc, etc., and their relative
angular positions are as shown. When the shaft revolves, a
centrifugal force acts on the shaft radially outwards through each
c

mass centre. Each of these forces is proportional to the corre-

sponding product, Wr, and their resultant may be found either
by drawing the polygon of forces, as shown at (b), or by resolving
each force along two mutually perpendicular directions, The
product Bb for the balance mass is represented to scale by the
closing line do of the force polygon and the direction of the radius
of rotation of the balance mass must be parallel to do.
Fig. 319 is drawn to scale to correspond with the following
example.

Example 2. The weights of the four masses W&, Wh, Wc and

TFi are respectively 200, 300, 240 and 260 lb, the corresponding
radii of rotation are 9, 7, 10 and 12 in. and the angles a, 0 and y
492 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

are respectively 45°, 75° and 135°. Find the position and mag-
nitude of the balance weight required if the radius of rotation
is 24 in.
Resolving each force horizontally and vertically, the horizontal
component of the force due to the balance weight is given by:
Hh = 1800+2100 cos 45°—2400 cos 60°—3120 cos 75°
= 20(90 + 74-24—60-40-37) = 20.G3-87
and the vertical component is given by:
Fb = 2100 sin 45°+2400 sin 60°-3120 sin 75°
= 20(74-24 + 103-92-150-69) = 20.27-47
Bb = 20+(63-872 + 27-472) = 1391 lb in.
and B = 1391/24 = 57-9 lb
Also tan 9 = Vh/Hh = 27-47/63-87, so that 9 = 23° 16'.
From the force polygon, Fig. 319 (b), do scales 1390 lb in. and
9 measures 23-5°.
180. Several Masses revolving in Different Planes. Fig. 320
shows a system of masses, of weight IFa, Wh, etc., revolving in
planes A, B, etc., at radii of r&, rb, etc. The relative angular
positions of the arms are shown in the end view. It is required
to find the weights and the angular positions of two balancing

A L B C M D

masses in planes L and M that will give a complete balance of the

system.
Two methods of solving this problem will be given. Although
at first sight the second method may appear less simple than the
first method, it does in fact entail rather less arithmetical work
and is to be preferred for solving most problems on balancing.
First Method. This is an extension of that given for a single
mass. It consists in finding the balancing masses required in
planes L and M for each of the disturbing masses taken separately.
xiv] BALANCING 493
The separate balancing masses in each of the planes L and M are
then combined into single resultant balancing masses.
The data may be conveniently set down in a table as shown
below. In this table there will be one line for each disturbing
mass, but only the line corresponding to the mass in plane A is
entered:

„ . to2 Distance from Balancing forced-—

to2

Radius, 1 orce— —,
Plane Weight, 9
W Wr
Plane L Plane M Plane L Plane M

TfVaWa
A ra RVa k ma 1
Wa
d d

The signs in the last two columns are put in by inspection, remem-
bering that, of three parallel forces which are in equilibrium,
the middle force is opposite in direction to the two outer forces.
For convenience, when the radius of the balancing mass is in the
same direction as the radius of the disturbing mass, the positive
sign is used, and when in the opposite direction the negative sign
is used. The four separate forces in column seven are combined
to give the single resultant force for plane L, and, similarly, the
four separate forces in column eight are combined to give the single
resultant force for plane M.
Example 3. Referring to Fig. 320, the particulars are as
given in the first six columns of the following table:
2
a)
2 Distance from Balancing forced- —
a)
Force d ,
Plane w, r 9
lb in. Wr
lb in. Plane L, Plane M, Plane L, Plane M,
l m Wrm-^-d Wrl+d

9 1800 (15) 12 62 -18-6 + 3-6

A 200
2100 (17-5) 15 35 —12-25 — 5-25
B 300 7
10 2400 (20) 30 20 — 8-0 — 12-0
c 240
D 260 12 3120 (26) 60 10 + 5-2 — 31-2

The angles a, jS and y are respectively 45°, 75° and 135° and the
distance d between the planes L and M in which the balance
weights are to be placed is 50 in. i , ,
To simplify the calculations, the actual values of Wr have been
divided by 120 to give the figures in brackets in column four.
These values have been used in calculating the forces for columns
494 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

seven and eight. The separate forces for planes L and M are
shown to scale at (a) and (b) in Fig. 321 and the resultant forces
for planes L and M are found by drawing the force polygons as
at (c) and (d). The resultants scaled from the drawings are as
follows:
For plane L:
Rj6] = 32*1.120 = 3850 lb in.
For plane M:
B^bm = 21-3.120 = 2560 lb in.
If 6j = bm — 24 in., then
Bi — 161 lb and Bm = 107 lb
The angles 6 and <f>, which give the inclinations of the radii to
the horizontal, are respectively 40° and 49° and the positions of
these two radii in relation to the radii of the disturbing weights
are shown dotted in the end view, Fig. 320.

Second Method. This method is due to the late Professor W. E.

Ealby. It is based on the fact that a force acting on a rigid
body, which is fixed at one point, is equivalent to an equal and
parallel force acting through the fixed point, together with a
couple which tends to cause rotation in the plane containing the
line of action of the force and the fixed point.
If a number of forces act on a rigid body, each force may be
replaced by an equal and parallel force acting through the fixed
point, together with a couple. For the rigid body to be in equili-
brium, the resultant force at the fixed point must be zero and the
resultant couple on the body must also be zero. The construction
of the force polygon is quite straightforward, but some difficulty
may be found in drawing the couple polygon. According to the
usual convention a couple may be represented by a vector at
xiv] BALANCING 495
right angles to the plane of the conple. The length of the vector
represents to a convenient scale the magnitude of the couple
and the arrow-head points in the direction in which a right-
handed screw would move if acted upon by the couple. Where
the planes of all the couples are at right angles to a given plane,
as in the present problem, it is possible to adopt a simpler con-
vention, as the following considerations will show.
Referring to Fig. 322 (a), each of the centrifugal forces due to
the masses revolving in planes A, B, C and D is equivalent to an
equal and parallel force through point P on the shaft, together
with a couple, the magnitude of which is given by the product
of the force and its distance from the fixed point P. According
to the usual convention, each of these couples may be represented

by the vectors shown in the end view, Fig. 322 (b), i.e. OCa is the
couple vector for the revolving mass in plane A, OCb the couple
vector for the mass in plane B, and so on. It is clear that the
planes of these couples are all normal to the plane of the paper in
this view and the vectors lie in the plane of the paper and at right
angles to the corresponding radii. If the couple vectors are all
turned counter-clockwise through 90°, Fig. 322 (c), their relative
positions will remain unchanged, but OCb, OCc and OCd will now
be parallel to, and in the same direction as the radii rb, rc and rd
respectively, while OCa will be parallel to the radius ra, but in the
opposite direction. Hence the couple vectors may be fixed in
their correct relative positions by drawing them radially outwards
along the corresponding radii for all masses which lie on one side
496 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

of the fixed point P and radially inwards along the correspond-

ing radii for all masses which lie on the other side of the fixed
point.
It should be noted that the fixed point P is taken as the point
of intersection of the plane of rotation of one of the balancing
masses, plane L, and the axis of rotation. This is necessary in
order to eliminate the couple due to the mass in this plane. The
plane L is known as the reference plane. The four known couples
due to the masses in planes A, B, C and D may be represented in
magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon and the closing
side of the polygon will represent the couple due to the other un-
known balancing mass in plane M, Fig. 322 (d). Its magnitude
and direction can thus be determined and then used with the
known masses in planes A, B, C and D to draw the force polygon.
The closing side of the force polygon, Fig. 322 (e), will give the
magnitude and direction of the force due to the balancing mass
required in plane L.
The data may be conveniently set down in a table.
Plane L as reference plane.

2
„ OJ Distance from
Plane Weight, Radius, Forced , plane L, Couple^-—,
W r 9 9
Wr l Wrl

A TFa Wara -u W QXQJ'A

L B\ b] Bibi 0 0
B wh n> Whrh + ^b + Wbrbl
C wc re Wcrc ~Mc + Wcrcl„
M Bm bm ~ | ■ I3mbmd
D Wd r<i BVJ -fdd + UWd

In drawing up the above table it is advisable to set down in the

first column the planes in the order in which they occur, reading
from left to right. The distances of all planes to the left of the
reference plane may be regarded as negative and those to the right
as positive. The negative sign indicates that, when drawing the
couple polygon, the vector should be set off in the radially inward
sense of the corresponding radius.
Example 4. The same particulars are used as for the problem
worked out by the first method. From these particulars the
following table is filled in.
Plane L as reference plane.
The couple polygon is drawn to scale in Fig. 322 (d). The
closing line measures 1060 units,
/. Bm = 1060/10 = 106-0 lb; </> = 49°
XIV] BALANCING 497

T, . a>2 Distance from CO 2

Weight, Radius, 4 orce -—, Couple -T—,
Plane plane L, 9
W lb r in. 9
Wr l Wrl

A 200 9 1800 (15) -12 -180

L Bl 24 24Bj (Bid-5) 0 0
B 300 7 2100 (17-5) + 15 + 262-5
C 240 10 2400(20) + 30 + 600
M Bm 24 24J3m (Bav5) + 50 + 10Bm
D 260 12 3120 (26) + 60 + 1560

Using this value of Bm, the force polygon, column four in the
above table, is shown to scale at (e), Fig. 322. The closing line
measures 32-2 units.
Bx = 5.32-2 = 161 lb; 6 = 40°
These results are, of course, identical with those obtained by the
first method.

181. The Effect on the Engine Frame of the Inertia of a Re-

ciprocating Mass. It was shown in Article 51 that the acceleration
of the reciprocating parts of an engine could be expressed with
sufficient accuracy for most practical purposes by equation (3.12):
/p = /c( cos
0+(cos 26)In]
where fp is the acceleration of the piston, /c the acceleration of the
crankpin, 6 the inclination of the crank to the i.d.c. and n the
ratio of length of connecting rod to length of crank.
If R is the weight of the reciprocating parts, then the force
required to accelerate those parts is given by:
F — (Rlg)fc{cos # + (c°s 26)/n} . . (14.4)

This force is provided by the pull of the connecting rod. Refer-

ring to Fig. 323 the connecting rod is in tension and the force Q

applied by the connecting rod to the crankpin C is equivalent to

an equal and parallel force through 0 together with the couple
498 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Q.x. The couple Q.x tends to retard the rotation of the crank-
shaft and its effect is taken into account in finding the net turning
moment exerted on the crankshaft. The force at O is transmitted
from the crankshaft through the main bearings to the engine
frame. Both the force at 0 and that at P may be resolved
parallel and perpendicular to the line of stroke. The horizontal
components are equal and opposite, the one acting through P
accelerates the reciprocating parts and the other through 0 is an
unbalanced force applied to the frame. The latter tends to cause
the frame to slide backwards and forwards on its foundation as
the crank rotates. The two vertical components are equal and
opposite and constitute a couple applied to the frame which tends
to rotate the frame in the clockwise sense.
The magnitude of the couple is S. OP. But the triangles Oba,
POM are similar
.*. ba/Ob = S/F = OM/OP and 8. OF = F.OM
Also, ba/Oa = S/Q = OM/PM
and x/OM. — cos <f> = OP/PM, so that OM/PM = x/OF
S/Q—x/OF and S.OF =Q.x
8.OF = F.OM = Q.x
The full effect on the engine frame of the inertia of the recipro-
cating mass is equivalent to the force F along the line of stroke at
O and the clockwise couple of magnitude 8. OP.
N.B.—The force applied to the frame at 0 is equal and opposite
to the force required to accelerate the reciprocating mass, i.e. it
is equal to the reversed effective, or inertia, force. The couple
applied to the frame has the same sense and magnitude as the
external couple applied to the crankshaft in order to accelerate
the reciprocating mass.
The inertia force may be conveniently divided into two parts
corresponding to the two terms in the brackets of equation (14.4).
F = (F/g)fc{cos 0+(cos 29)/n}
= (B/g)fo cos e+(K/g)fc (cos 26)In
= Fv+Fs
where Fp = (Bjg)fc cos 6, is termed the primary disturbing force
of the reciprocating mass, and represents the inertia force of a
reciprocating mass which has simple harmonic motion, and
Fs = (7?/g)/c(cos 26)In, is termed the secondary disturbing force
of the reciprocating mass, and represents the correction which is
required in order to allow approximately for the effect of the
obliquity of the connecting rod.
xiv] BALANCING 499
It will be seen from these expressions that the maximum value
of the secondary force is only 1 /n times the maximum value of the
primary force, but that this maximum value occurs four times per
revolution of the crank, as compared with twice per revolution of
the crank for the maximum primary force.
It is important to note the essential difference between the
unbalanced force due to a reciprocating mass and the unbalanced
force due to a revolving mass. The former varies in magnitude
but is constant in direction, while the latter is constant in magni-
tude but varies in direction. In general, therefore, a single
revolving mass cannot be used to balance a reciprocating mass, nor
vice versa. There are, however, occasions in which it is desirable
to obtain a partial balance of a reciprocating mass by means of a
revolving balance weight. Before considering the wider problem
of the complete balancing of reciprocating masses, one or two
examples of partial balancing will be given.

182. Partial Primary Balance. Referring to Fig. 324, let R be

the weight of a reciprocating mass driven from the crank OC, of
length r, which turns with uniform angular velocity o>. Then, for
the given crank position, the primary disturbing force is given by:
Fv = (R/g)a>2r cos 9
This is clearly equal in magnitude to the component, parallel to
the line of stroke, of the centrifugal force produced by an equal
mass attached to, and revolving with, the crankpin. Let us
suppose that a balance weight B is
U)
fixed, as shown, at radius b directly
opposite to the crank. Then the com-
ponent parallel to the fine of stroke
of the centrifugal force of this mass
will be given by (B/g)a>2b cos 6. This
component is opposite in direction to
the primary force of the reciprocating
parts and the resultant disturbing force
parallel to the line of stroke is therefore
equal to (R/g)co2r cos 9—(B/g)oj2b cos 6 or (Rr—Bb)(a>2/g) cos 9.
Hence, if Bb = Rr, there is no disturbing force parallel to the
line of stroke.
But the centrifugal force of the revolving mass has a component
perpendicular to the line of stroke, the magnitude of which is
(B/g)oj2b sin 9. As the crank revolves, this component will go
through the same variations of magnitude as the original primary
force of the reciprocating parts, but its maximum values will
occur when the crank is at right angles to the line of stroke. The
500 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

introduction of the revolving balance weight has merely served

to change the direction of the disturbing force. It is usually
preferable to make Bb = c.Rr, where c < 1. This will have the
effect of reducing the unbalanced force parallel to the line of
stroke to (l—c)Rr(a>2lg) cos 9 and the unbalanced force at right
angles to the line of stroke will be cRr(a>2/g) sin 9. Obviously, the
magnitude of the unbalanced force on the engine frame is least
when c = 0-5. But, where a disturbing force parallel to the line
of stroke is more harmful than one perpendicular to it, as, for
instance, in locomotives, a higher value of c may be used.
If the balance weight B has to balance the revolving parts as
well as give a partial balance of the reciprocating parts, then:
Bb — Wr-\-cRr — (W-\-cR)r
Example 5. A single-cylinder oil engine has a stroke of 15 in.
and the crank makes 300 r.p.m. The reciprocating parts weigh
150 lb and the revolving parts are equivalent to 180 lb at crank
radius. A revolving balance weight is introduced at a radius of
6 in. to balance the whole of the revolving parts and one-half of
the reciprocating parts. Find the balance weight required and
the residual unbalanced force on the crankshaft.
The total equivalent revolving weight at crank radius, which has
to be balanced, is
W+cR = 180+0-5.150 = 255 lb
Bb = 255.7-5
and, since b = 6 in.,
B = 255.7-5/6 = 318-8 lb
In practice two balance weights, each of 159-4 lb, would be
attached to the crank webs as shown in Fig. 325. Since only
one-half the reciprocating parts are balanced, the unbalanced
force parallel to the line of stroke is given by \(Rlg)aj2r cos 9, and
the unbalanced force perpendicular to the line of stroke is given
by the component of the centrifugal force of that part of the
balance weight which is required for the reciprocating parts, i.e.
l(R/g)u)2r sin 9
the resultant unbalanced force
= \{RJg)cD2r\/{sin2 0+cos20) = l(R/g)a>2r
2
1 150/TT.300\ 7-5
= 1435 lb
2'32^ 30 ) 12

Referring to Fig. 326, Oa is the primary disturbing force and Ob

the centrifugal force due to the revolving balance weight; Oc is
xiv] BALANCING 501
the residual unbalanced force parallel to the line of stroke and Oe
the unbalanced force at right angles to the line of stroke. The
resultant unbalanced force on the engine frame is given by Of,
the vector sum of Oc and Oe. Since Od = Oa/2, therefore
Oc = Od and angle cOf = 6.

Hence, the force remains constant in magnitude as the crank

revolves and its line of action is inclined to the i.d.c. at the same
angle 6 as the crank, but it revolves in the opposite sense to the
crank.
183. Partial Balance of Locomotives. In many locomotives
there are two cylinders of the same dimensions placed symmetri-
cally either between the frames or outside the frames. The two
cranks are invariably at right angles to each other, so that one
crank, at least, is away from the dead centre, and it is always
possible to start the locomotive. The ratio of the length of the
connecting rod to the length of the crank is generally large, so that
the secondary forces are small. In any case, as we shall see later,
since the cranks are at right angles, the secondary force for one
set of reciprocating parts is always equal and opposite to that for
the other set. The primary disturbing forces not only cause a
variation of the tractive effort of the locomotive but, owing to
the distance between the cylinder centre lines, they also give rise
to a swaying couple. This acts in the plane of the cylinders and
has to be resisted by the side x^ressure between the flanges of the
wheel tyres and the inside of the rails. To reduce the magnitude
of the swaying couple, revolving balance weights are introduced.
But, as shown in the preceding article, the revolving balance
weights cause unbalanced forces to act at right angles to the line
of stroke. These forces vary the downward pressure of the wheels
on the rails and cause oscillation of the locomotive in a vertical
plane about a horizontal axis. Since a swaying couple is more
harmful than an oscillating couple, it has been the practice to
use a value of c from § to f in two-cylinder locomotives with two
pairs of coupled wheels. But in large four-cylinder locomotives
502 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

with three or more pairs of coupled wheels the value of c is fre-

quently as low as §.
The following example will show how the unbalanced forces and
couples may be calculated for a given engine.

JExample 6. A two-cylinder, uncoupled locomotive has inside

cylinders 27 in. apart; the cranks are at right angles and are
each 13 in. long. The weight of the revolving parts per cylinder
is 500 lb and the weight of the reciprocating parts per cylinder
is 600 lb. The whole of the revolving and two-thirds of the
reciprocating parts are to be balanced and the balance weights
are to be placed in the planes of rotation of the driving wheels at
a radius of 32 in. The driving wheels are 6 ft 6 in. diameter and
60 in. apart. Find the magnitude and position of the balance

weights and the maximum unbalanced forces and couples acting

on the locomotive when the speed is 60 m.p.h.
The total equivalent weight of the revolving parts per cylinder
at crank radius = 500+f .600 = 900 lb.
Referring to Fig. 327 (a), A and B are the planes of rotation of
the cranks and L and M the planes of rotation of the wheels and
balance weights. Taking plane L as reference plane, the data
may be used to fill in the table below:

2 Distance from
Weight, Radius, Forced —, Couple -7-—,
Plane W r 9 plane L, 9
Wr l Wrl

L Bi 32 32 R, 0 0
A 900 13 900.13 16-5 900.13.16-5 (Ca)
B 900 13 900.13 43-5 900.13.43-5 (Cb)
M Bm 32 32 Bm 60 32.60.Rm (Cm)
xiv] BALANCING 503
From the last column the couple polygon may be drawn,
Fig. 327 (c). The closing line (7mmay be scaled, or, by calculation:
2
Cm = V^+C'b ) = 900.13\/(16-52-f-43-52)
/. 32.60-Bm = 900.13.46 -52
Bm= 283*3 lb
Also tan a = CJCh = 16-5/43-5
.\ a = 20° 46'
Having found Bm, the force polygon may be drawn from column
four in the table and Bl obtained in magnitude and direction.
Since the engine is symmetrical, it is, however, obvious that
Bl = Bm and that the radii of the balance weights must be
symmetrically placed as shown in the end view, Fig. 327 (b).
To find the unbalanced forces and couples, it is necessary to
know what part of each balance weight is required for the recipro-
cating masses. This is clearly given by:
Bx = 400/900.283-3 = 126 lb
(a) Hammer Blow. The unbalanced force acting in the plane
of each wheel will be the component perpendicular to the line of
stroke of the centrifugal force of BT. This will be a maximum
when the c.g. of the balance weight is directly above or below the
wheel centre. Its effect will be to cause a variation in the pressure
between the wheel and the rail. This variation is shown for one re-
volution of the wheel in Fig. 328, where L is the static wheel load.

The maximum variation of wheel load from the mean is

(Br/p)o>2. b and is termed the hammer-blow. Its magnitude in the
present example is:
126 /88.12\2 32
= 7670 lb
3242 \~ll9~J '12

Since the hammer-blow varies as the square of the speed, it may,

at high speeds, be greater than the static wheel load L and the
wheel may actually lift from the rail.
504 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

(b) Variation of Tractive Effort. The variation of tractive

effort is caused by the unbalanced part of the primary disturbing
force of the reciprocating masses. If the cranks rotate clockwise
in Fig. 327 (b) and 9 is the inclination of OA to the i.d.c., then
90°±0 is the inclination of OB to the i.d.c.
Then
variation of tractive effort — (1—c)(B/g)to2r{cos 0±cos (90°+#)}
= (1— c)(B/g)co2r (cos 0— sin 0)
This is a maximum when cos 0—sin 0 is a maximum, i.e. when
d/d0(cos 0—sin 0) — 0,
or when —sin 6—cos 0 — 0,
or when tan 9 — —1,
i.e. when 9 = —45° or +135°
maximum variation of tractive effort
= ±v/2(1~1c)(B/g)(D2r
/n 1 600 /88.12\2 13
= ±V2-3-32^-39-j ’ 12 = ±6990 lb

(c) Swaying Couple. The unbalanced parts of the primary

disturbing forces cause a horizontal swaying couple to act on the
locomotive owing to the distance a between the cylinder centre
lines. Taking moments about the engine centre line the resultant
unbalanced couple is equal to:
(1— c)(B/g)a>2r (a J2){COS 9—cos (9O°±0)}
Note that the negative sign is used in the bracket because the two
forces lie on opposite sides of the engine centre line about which
moments are taken.
swaying couple = (l—c)(B/g)io2r(a/2)(cos 0±sin 9)
This is a maximum when 9 = 45° or 225°.
. 1—c B 2
maximum swaymg couple = ± —TX
2
. —co ra
V ‘ g
1 6000 /88.12\ 2 13 27
~^3y/2‘32 .39 ) 12‘12‘

= ±7870 lb ft
184. Coupled Locomotives. The example of the last article
represents a type of locomotive which is not used at the present
day. It is usual to have two or three pairs of wheels coupled
together so as to increase the adhesive weight. In such loco-
xiv] BALANCING 505
motives the coupling rod cranks are set at 180° to the adjacent
driving cranks, and in determining the position and magnitude
of the balance weights required each coupled axle must be
separately considered. For instance, for the driving axle there
will be the two sets of coupling rod masses to consider, as well as
the two sets of cylinder masses and the balancing masses in the
planes of the wheels. In order to reduce the hammer-blow in
coupled locomotives, the balance weights required for the recipro-
cating parts are distributed between the coupled wheels instead
of being concentrated in the driving wheels. The effect of the
separate balance weights on the engine frame is the same hori-
zontally as that of single balance weights in the driving wheels,
but the variation of wheel-load on the driving wheels is reduced,
part of the variation being transferred to the coupled wheels.
With this method of balancing the reciprocating parts, the
balance weights required for the coupled wheels are found most
directly by considering the axles to have imaginary cranks,
parallel to the actual cranks on the driving axle, and carrying the
appropriate fraction of the reciprocating masses.

185. Primary Balance of Multi-cylinder In-line Engines. The

usual arrangement with multi-cylinder engines is to have the
cylinder centre lines all in the same plane and on the same side of
the crankshaft centre line. This constitutes the in-line engine.
Other types of engine will be referred to later.
The conditions which must be satisfied in order to give primary
balance of the reciprocating parts of a multi-cylinder engine are
that the algebraic sum of the forces shall be zero and that the
algebraic sum of the couples about any point in the plane of the
forces shall also be zero,
i.e. S(%)wV cos d = 0 . . . (14.5)
and L(I?/gr)aj2m cos 6 = 0 . . . (14.5)
where a is the distance of the plane of rotation of the crank from a
parallel reference plane. It is further necessary that these two
equations shall be satisfied for all angular positions of the crank-
shaft relative to the dead centres. It has already been shown
that the disturbing force due to a reciprocating mass is identical
with the component parallel to the line of stroke of the centrifugal
force produced by an equal mass attached to, and revolving with,
the crankpin. Let Fig. 329 be an end view of the crankshaft of a
four-cylinder engine with reciprocating masses attached to the
cranks OA, OB, etc. Further, let oa, ab, be, cd be vectors repre-
senting the centrifugal forces produced when revolving masses
respectively equal to the reciprocating masses are attached to the
506 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

crankpins. Then it follows that the primary forces for the indi-
vidual cylinders are equal to the components of oa, etc., along the
line of stroke. Hence, if PQ is parallel to the line of stroke, ef,
fg, gh and he are the primary forces and, since the algebraic sum
of these four forces is zero, the engine is balanced for primary
forces when the crankshaft is in the position shown. But now,
suppose the crankshaft turns clockwise through an angle y, then
the effect is the same as if the crankshaft remained fixed and the
line of stroke turned counter-clockwise through an equal angle y,
as shown by PS. For this position of the line of stroke relative
to the crankshaft, the primary forces
are represented by kl, lm, mn and
nkx.
The algebraic sum of these is not
zero, but is equal to kkj. Clearly,
therefore, the primary forces can
only balance for this new position
of the crankshaft if kL coincides
with k, i.e. if d coincides with o
and the centrifugal force polygon is
a closed one. In a similar way it
could be shown that the primary couples can only be balanced
if the couple polygon for the corresponding centrifugal forces
is closed. Hence, if a system of reciprocating masses is to be
in primary balance, the system of revolving masses, which is
obtained by substituting an equal revolving mass at the crank-
pin for each reciprocating mass, must be balanced. Problems
on the primary balance of reciprocating masses may therefore be
solved by using the methods already given for revolving masses.
It must not be overlooked, however, that for complete primary
balance all the masses in the system must be reciprocating masses.

186. Secondary Balance of Multi-cylinder In-line Engines. The

secondary disturbing force due to a reciprocating mass arises
from the obliquity of the connecting rod. Its magnitude is
(B/g)a>2r(cos 26)/n. Just as it was found convenient to consider
the primary force as equal to the component of a centrifugal force,
so it is convenient to regard the secondary force as equal to the
component of a centrifugal force. Thus the expression for
secondary force may be written {Bjg)(2co)2{rj^n) cos 26, and this is
identical with the component parallel to the line of stroke of the
centrifugal force of a mass B, attached to a crank of length rj4n,
revolving at twice the speed of the actual crank. The two cranks
coincide in position at the i.d.c., so that the imaginary secondary
crank always makes an angle 26 with i.d.c.
XIY] BALANCING 507
The conditions for the complete secondary balance of an engine
are that:
S(I?/g)(2a;)2(r/4w) cos 26 = 0 . . (14.7)
2
and ’L(R/g)(2cv) (r/4:n)a cos 26 = 0 . . (14.8)
for all angular positions of the crankshaft relative to the dead
centres.
As for primary balance, these conditions can only be satisfied
if the force and couple polygons are closed for the corresponding
system of revolving masses. This means that, if to each imagin-
ary secondary crank a revolving mass is attached, equal to the
corresponding reciprocating mass, then the system thus obtained
must be completely balanced. The following examples will serve
to illustrate the application of the principles of primary and
secondary balance which have been given in the last two articles.
Example 7. Fig. 330 shows diagrammatically a two-cylinder
engine with the cranks at 180° and the cylinders on the same side
of the crankshaft centre line. Find to what extent the engine is
A

balanced for primary and secondary forces and couples, if the

reciprocating masses, the crank lengths and the connecting rod
lengths are identical for each cylinder.
Primary Force. Since the actual cranks are directly opposite
to each other, it follows at once that the primary forces are equal
and opposite for all positions of the crankshaft relative to the
i.d.c. Hence the primary forces are balanced.
Secondary Force. The secondary crank for each cylinder is
inclined to the i.d.c. at an angle equal to twice that of the corre-
sponding actual crank. Hence the two secondary cranks are
parallel, as shown by the dotted fine OS, and the resultant
secondary force is equal to the sum of the individual secondary
forces.
508 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Primary and Secondary Couples. As regards the couples, it is

clear that the two cranks must revolve in different planes, and
therefore the primary forces, although equal and opposite, must
give rise to an unbalanced couple. Also, since the resultant
secondary force is not zero, it will have a moment about any
point not on its own line of action, which is, of course, midway
between the lines of stroke.

Example 8. The Opposed Piston Engine. Fig. 331 shows dia-

grammatically one cylinder of a type of internal-combustion
engine which has been developed both for large slow-speed marine
engines and for small high-speed aeroplane and automobile engines.
Two pistons reciprocate along the same cylinder but in opposite
directions. The front, or bottom, piston operates a central crank
through a connecting rod in the usual way. The back, or top,
piston operates two outer cranks which are set at 180° to the centre
crank. Thus the two pistons move inwards and outwards to-
gether. Evidently the reciprocating parts for the top piston will
be heavier than those for the bottom piston, since
they include two side rods and two connecting rods
II- II
as well as the crosshead and piston. It has already
been shown that for a two-cylinder engine with the
cranks at 180° and the cylinders on the same side of
the crankshaft centre line, the reciprocating parts
may be balanced for primary forces but not for
secondary forces. If the primary forces are to
balance, the product of the weight of the recipro-
cating parts and the length of the crank must be the
same for each of the two pistons. Hence the two
outer cranks, to which the top piston is attached,
-Mr* must be shorter than the middle crank, to which the
bottom piston is attached. It should be noticed
FIG. 331
that for this engine not only is there no resultant
primary force, but also there is no resultant primary
couple, since the lines of action of the primary forces for the two
pistons coincide.
So far as the secondary forces are concerned, these are un-
balanced. Top dead centre is the inner dead centre for the outer
cranks as well as for the intermediate crank. The secondary
cranks are therefore parallel and the resultant secondary force is
the sum of the secondary forces for the two pistons.
In an actual engine of this type the strokes of the top and
bottom pistons are respectively 760 mm and 1040 mm and the
reciprocating parts weigh respectively 4-84 tons and 3*54 tons.
With these values the product Rr is the same for each piston and
xiv] BALANCING 509

the engine is in primary balance. The connecting rod lengths

are respectively 2080 mm and 3040 mm and the engine speed is
123 r.p.m.
The resultant secondary force is given by:

_ R nr cos 20 cos 2(0+180°)]

Fa = \ n2

where nl} n2 = connecting rod to crank ratio for the bottom and
the top pistons respectively.

Fs8 — -co2r(— + —) cos 20

9 Vh nj
and, substituting the values given above,
4*84/77.123\ 2 380 / ! 1 \
cos 20 = 11*0 cos 20 tons
32d+ 30 / ’304 *8\5 *47 ^""5 *85/

The maximum value of Fs occurs when the plane of the cranks is

either vertical or horizontal.

Example 9. A four-cylinder vertical engine has cranks 1 ft

long. The planes of rotation of the first, third and fourth cranks
are 2*5, 3*5 and 5*5 ft respectively from that of the second crank
and their reciprocating masses weigh 300, 800 and 500 lb respec-
tively. Find the weight of the reciprocating parts for the second
cylinder and the relative angular positions of the cranks in order
that the engine may be in complete primary balance. If each con-
necting rod is 4*5 ft long and the speed is 150 r.p.m., find the
maximum unbalanced secondary force and couple and the crank
positions at which they occur.
Take plane B as reference plane so as to eliminate the couple
due to the unknown mass in that plane.

a>2 Distance from

Weight, Radius, Force-: , plane B, Couple-P —,
Plane R r 9 9
Rr b Rrb

A 300 1 300 -2-5 -750 (Ca)

B Rb 1 i?b 0 0
c 800 1 800 + 3*5 + 2800 (C7„)
D 500 1 500 +5-5 + 2750 (C„)

Since there are three couples of known magnitude (column six),

the couple polygon may he drawn, Fig. 332 (a), and the relative
directions of the three cranks in planes, A, C and D may be found.
Note that since C.d is negative the arrow indicates the radially
inward sense of crank OA.
510 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The force polygon (column four) may then be drawn, Fig.

332 (c), and from this may be found the direction of the crank in
plane B and the magnitude of Rh. Bh = 570 lb and the relative
angular positions of the four cranks are shown at (b). The
angles a, /3 and y are respectively 78*5°, 86° and 30°.
The relative positions of the secondary cranks, Fig. 332 (d), are
found from the known condition that each secondary crank must
be inclined to the i.d.c. at an angle equal to twice that for the
corresponding actual crank. Polygons are then drawn for the
forces and couples shown in columns four and six, but with the
sides parallel to the corresponding secondary cranks. These two
polygons are shown at (e) and (f). The closing line od of the
force polygon measures 980 lb ft, and, multiplying this by a>2Jgn,

the actual force is 1670 lb. The unbalanced secondary force is

the component of this force parallel to the line of stroke and is
given by 1670 cos 8 lb. As the crankshaft revolves, the secondary
force polygon will revolve and therefore the unbalanced secondary
force will be a maximum for the crank positions in which od lies
along the line of stroke. Maximum unbalanced force occurs when
the crank OA makes an angle 8/2 = 24-5° counter-clockwise with
the i.d.c and at successive angular intervals of 90°.
In a similar way the maximum unbalanced secondary couple
is given by oc, and scaling it and multiplying by oB/gn, this gives
10 370 lb ft. The unbalanced secondary couple is a maximum
when the crank OA makes an angle 6/2 — 3*5° counter-clockwise
with the i.d.c. and at successive angular intervals of 90°.
XIV] BALANCING 511
It should be noticed that the magnitude of the unbalanced
secondary couple depends upon the position of the reference
plane. The plane of the crank OB has been taken as reference
plane in the above example.
Example 10. The arrangement of the cranks in what is known
as the four-cylinder symmetrical engine is shown in Fig. 333.
The planes of rotation of the cranks are symmetrically placed
with respect to the engine central plane and, as seen in the end
view, the line which bisects the angle between cranks 1 and 4
also bisects the angle between cranks 2 and 3. The reciprocating
masses attached to cranks 1 and 4 are each equal to R± and those
attached to cranks 2 and 3 are each equal to R2. With this
arrangement it is possible to obtain a complete balance for primary
and secondary forces and also for primary couples, only the
secondary couples remaining unbalanced.

Let al = Jca2, then the angles a and /3 and the ratio of the
reciprocating mass R2 to the reciprocating mass R1 may be
expressed in terms of k.
For the primary forces and couples to balance, the conditions
which have to be satisfied are, as already explained, exactly the
same as if the masses were attached to, and revolved with, the
crankpins. In other words, the force and couple polygons must
be closed figures. The force polygon is obviously as shown at (a)
and the couple polygon as shown at (b), Fig. 333. In drawing the
couple polygon the central plane of the engine is taken as the
reference plane, so that the magnitude of the couple for each
extreme crank is proportional to kRx, while that for each inter-
mediate crank is proportional to R2; also the vectors which
represent the couples for cranks 3 and 4 must be drawn radially
512 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

inward along the corresponding cranks because the latter lie on

the opposite side of the reference plane to cranks 1 and 2.
From the force polygon we have:
R\ cos a = R2 cos . . . (14.9)
and from the couple polygon:
kR1 sin a = R2 sin /3 . . . (14.10)
Since the secondary forces are also to be balanced, it follows
that the system of revolving masses, obtained by attaching to
each secondary crank a revolving mass of equal magnitude to
the corresponding reciprocating mass, must be balanced. Each
imaginary secondary crank is inclined to the i.d.c. at twice the
angle of the corresponding actual crank. The relative positions
of the secondary cranks are therefore as shown at the extreme right
of Fig. 333 and the corresponding force polygon is shown at (c).
From this polygon, we have:
Ri cos 2a = R2 COS (180—2/3) == —R2 cos 2/3 . (14.11)
Substituting for cos 2a in terms of cos a and for cos 2/3 in terms
of cos /3, we have:
Ri(2 cos2 a —1) = R2( 1—2 cos2 /?)
But, from equation (14.9), R22 cos2 /3 = Rx2 cos 2a,
2Rx COS
2 2
cos2 a = Rl-\-R2
<X.-\-2(R1 /R2)
2Rl(l-\-Rl/R2) cos2 a = Rx-\-R2
cos2 a = R2/2RX . (14.12)
From equation (14.9), R2jR\ — cos a/cos /3, so that, substitut-
ing, wo get
2 cos a cos /3 = 1 .... (14.13)
Squaring both sides of equation (14.10),
k2Ri2 sin2 a = R22 sin2 /3

and, substituting for cos /3 from equation (14.13) and for R2/RI
from equation (14.9),

4 cos4 a — (1— Jc2) cos2 a—k2 = 0

= (l/8)[V{(l-&2)2 + 16&2}-(&2-l)] (14.14)

XIV] BALANCING 513

The last step follows because cos2 a must be positive and by

hypothesis k must be greater than unity.
Given the value of k, a may be found from equation (14.14), /3
from equation (14.13) and R2/Bl from equation (14.12).
Thus, let k = 2-0.

Then: cos2 a = (l/8){V(9 + 64)-3} = (1/8)5-5440 - 0-6930

/. cos a = 0-8325 and a = 33° 39'

From equation (14.13), cos /3 = 1/2 cos <x = 0-6006 and

= 53° 5'. Also, from equation (14.12), R2/BI — 2 cos2 a
= 2.0-6930 = 1-386.

187. The Balancing of In-line Engines with Identical Recipro-

cating Parts for each Cylinder. Multi-cylinder in-line internal
combustion engines are very widely used and are capable of high
speeds of rotation. In these engines the reciprocating parts are
identical for each cylinder and the cranks are arranged as far as
possible to provide uniform firing intervals and balance of the
reciprocating parts.
Let Nc = no. of cylinders and a = angular spacing of the cranks
round the shaft.
Then for a four-stroke cycle engine, in which two revolutions
of the crankshaft are required in order to complete the cycle, the
firing intervals will be uniform if a = 47r/N0.
The inertia force due to the reciprocating parts of one cylinder
may be expressed as a Fourier series, equation (3.19):
F = (R/g)oj2r(cos 0+Mx cos 20+Bx cos 40+ . . .) (14.15)

The inertia forces for the other cylinders may be expressed by

similar series in which 0 is replaced by:
0+oc, 0+2a . . . 0+Ac — 1. ot
The resultant inertia force for the engine is therefore given by the
sum of a number of cosine series conforming to the general
equation:
Am{cos m0+cos m(0+a)+ . . . +cos m(0+ATc —1 .a)} (14.16)

where m has values of 1, 2, 4, etc., and A+ = {B/g)oj2r multiplied

by the appropriate constant A\, B\, etc., in equation (3.19).
The sum of a cosine series in which the angles are in arithmetical
progression is given in text-books on trigonometry. For the
above series it may be written:
sin mNccc/2
S = Km cos m (14.17)
sin ma/2

17—T.M.
514 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

But for equal firing intervals Ncoc = 47r, so that mNca/2 = 2-nm,
and, since m is an integer, sin 277m = 0. Hence S = 0, ex-
cept when the denominator sin ma/2 = 0. This will occur
when mx is a multiple of 277, and in these circumstances each
term in the cosine series will have exactly the same value,
so that:
S = KmNc cos md .... (14.18)

For mx to be a multiple of 277, m must be a multiple of NJ2.

Hence for a multi-cylinder in-line four-stroke cycle engine with
identical cylinders and the cranks spaced so as to give uniform
firing intervals, all harmonics will be balanced except those in
which m is a multiple of half the number of cylinders.
So far only the harmonic forces have been considered and no
reference has been made to the couples. For the couples to be
balanced the engine must be symmetrical about a plane normal
to the axis of the crankshaft. This means that the cranks must
be arranged in pairs, which are parallel to each other and which
are situated at equal distances from the central plane. It will,
therefore, only be possible for the couples to be balanced in an
engine of the type under consideration if there is an even number
of cylinders, so that each half of the crankshaft is a mirror-image
of the other half. Thus, for a four-cylinder, four-stroke cycle
engine, the firing intervals will be uniform if a = 4:TT/N = 77, i.e.
C

if the cranks are arranged in two pairs set at 180° to each other.
The unbalanced harmonic components of the inertia force due to
the reciprocating parts are those for which m is a multiple of NJ2,
i.e. a multiple of 2. Hence only the primary forces are balanced,
the secondary and all higher harmonic forces being unbalanced.
For the primary couples to be balanced the crankshaft must be
symmetrical, so that cranks 1 and 4 must be parallel and opposite
to cranks 2 and 3; also, the distance between the
planes of rotation of cranks 1 and 2 must be the
same as that between the planes of rotation of
cranks 3 and 4 (Fig. 334 (a)).
As a further example, consider a six-cylinder
in-line engine. For uniform firing intervals
x = 477/Nc = 277/3. The cranks must therefore
be arranged in three pairs with an angular spac-
ing of 120°. Those harmonic forces are unbalanced
for which m is a multiple of NJ2, i.e. a multiple
of 3. Hence the sixth, twelfth, etc., harmonics are unbalanced
(note that the only odd value of m in the Fourier series for the
inertia force is unity) and the primary, secondary and fourth-
order forces are balanced in this engine. For the corresponding
XIV] BALANCING 515

couples to be balanced, the crankshaft must be symmetrical, so

that cranks 1 and 6, 2 and 5, and 3 and 4 will be parallel, and the
planes of rotation will be symmetrically spaced with respect to
the engine centre line (Fig. 334 (b)).
For a multi-cylinder in-line two-stroke cycle engine with
identical cylinders and the cranks so spaced as to give uniform
firing intervals, Nca = 2n. Hence in equation (14.17)
sin m2Vca/2 = sin mv — 0 and sin moc/2 = sin m7rJN0
which will also be 0 when m is an integral multiple of Nc.
All harmonic forces will therefore be balanced except those for
which m is a multiple of Nc, but even when there is an even
number of cylinders it is impossible for one-half of the crankshaft
to be a mirror image of the other half, so that there will always be
couple unbalance of some harmonics. The choice of firing
order will determine the best arrangement.
188. Direct and Reverse Cranks. Each term in the Fourier
series for the inertia force of a reciprocating mass conforms to the
general expression Amcos md (equation (14.16)). Let us suppose
that two masses, each of which gives rise to a centrifugal force
Km/2, revolve in opposite directions at m times the speed of the
crankshaft and that when 6 = 0° the two masses lie on the i.d.c.
Then, at every instant, the components of the centrifugal forces
of these two masses normal to the fine of stroke will be equal and
opposite, while the sum of the components parallel to the line of

stroke will be equal to Km cos md. Hence the resultant disturb-

ing force due to the two revolving masses will be identical with the
mth harmonic of the disturbing force due to the reciprocating
mass.
For instance, in Fig. 335, the positions of the direct and reverse
cranks of the* first, second and fourth harmonics are shown,
although the forces KJ2, K2/2, and KJ2 are not to scale. Note
that A4 is negative, since the coefficient B1 in equation (14.15) is
negative. The forces KJ2 must therefore act in the opposite
directions to the fourth harmonic direct and reverse cranks. The
516 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

substitution in this way of two revolving masses for a single

reciprocating mass simplifies the problem of finding to what
extent the different harmonic forces are balanced in certain types
of engines. It also helps one to see to what extent any unbalanced
harmonics could be balanced, either partially or completely, by
means of revolving balance weights.
Example 11. Show how the reciprocating parts of a single
cylinder engine may be completely balanced, so far as primary and
secondary effects are concerned, by means of revolving balance
weights.
The primary effect of the reciprocating mass is equivalent to
that of two revolving masses attached to the primary direct and
reverse cranks. Each revolving mass is one-half the reciprocating
mass, and the direct and reverse cranks turn at equal speeds in
opposite senses. It is therefore possible to have revolving bal-
ance weights attached to shafts geared to the crankshaft, as
shown in Fig. 336. The two shafts Q and S are symmetrically

FIG. 336

placed with respect to the line of stroke OP. Equal gear wheels
G and H ensure that Q and S turn at equal speeds in opposite
directions, while equal gear wheels D and E ensure that these
speeds have the same magnitude as that of the crankshaft.
It will be clear that S turns in the same sense as the crank and
Q turns in the opposite sense. Further, if the two balance
weights are of magnitude B and revolve at radius b, the resultant
centrifugal force will act along the line of stroke towards the right,
i.e. in the opposite sense to the primary disturbing force of the
reciprocating mass. Hence, if
2(B/g)bco2 cos 6 — (RJg)ra)2 cos d
i.e., if Bb = Rr/2
there will be no primary disturbing force on the engine frame.
The balance weights must, of course, revolve in the same plane
as the crank OC, if there is to be no unbalanced couple.
xiv] BALANCING 517
In a similar way, revolving balance weights could be introduced
on shafts T, U, which are geared to run at equal and opposite speeds
twice that of the crank. If the balance weights Bs at radius b3
are placed as shown and satisfy the following equation, their
resultant centrifugal force will be equal and opposite to the
secondary effect of the reciprocating mass for all values of 6.
2(Bsbslg)(2co)2 cos 26 — A^R/g^r cos 26
-Ss&s = AiRr/8
where is the coefficient of the second term of equation (14.15)
and is approximately equal to the ratio of the crank length to the
connecting rod length.
It is not suggested that the above is a practicable method of
balancing the disturbing force on the frame caused by the recipro-
cating mass. The cost and complication would not be justified
for a single-cylinder engine, and a partial balance would generally
be adopted, see Example 5, p. 500. But the method has been
used to balance the secondary effects of the reciprocating masses
in a four-cylinder petrol engine, which is inherently balanced for
primary effects.
Example 12. A three-cylinder radial engine has the cylinders
spaced at angular intervals of 120°. The three connecting rods
are coupled directly to a single crank. The stroke is 5 in., the
length of each connecting rod is 9 in. and the weight of the

reciprocating parts per cylinder is 4 lb. Find the resultant

primary and secondary forces at a crankshaft speed of 1500 r.p.m.
Primary Force. For the primary force K — (R/g)iu2r and
m = l. Let OX, OY and OZ be the three cylinder centre lines,
Fig. 337 (a). For convenience let the crank be on the i.d.c. of
cylinder I, i.e. along OX. Then, for cylinder 1, 6 = 0° and the
518 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

direct crank OD1 and the reverse crank ORx coincide in position
with the actual crank, as shown at (b) and (c). For cylinder 2,
9 = 120° (counter-clockwise) and, since m — 1 for the primary
force, the direct crank OD2 also coincides with the actual crank,
wdiile the reverse crank OR2 makes an angle 120° (clockwise) with
the i.d.c. OY, and therefore coincides with OZ. Similarly, for
cylinder 3, 9 — 120° (clockwise) and the direct crank OD3 coin-
cides with the actual crank, while the reverse crank OR3 makes an
angle 120° (counter-clockwise) with the i.d.c. OZ and therefore
coincides with OY.
The resultant primary force for the engine is therefore equivalent
to three revolving masses coinciding with, and revolving with, the
actual crank as shown at (b), together with three revolving masses
spaced at intervals of 120° and revolving in the opposite sense to
the crank as shown at (c). Obviously the system of reverse
cranks forms a balanced system, so that the resultant primary
force is equivalent to the combined centrifugal force of the direct
cranks, i.e. (3/2)Kl = (3/2)(I2/g)aj2r. In other words, the result-
ant primary force is equal to the centrifugal force of a mass
attached to, and revolving with, the crankpin and equal to one-
half the total reciprocating mass for the three cylinders. This
may be balanced by a mass attached to the crankshaft at 180° to
the crank, such that B.b = (3/2)R.r, where B and b are respec-
tively the weight of the balancing mass and the radius at which it
revolves.
In the example, let b — 3*5 in. Then
B = (3/2)(4.2'5/3*5) == 4-29 lb
Secondary Force. For the secondary force Km — (R/g)w2rAl
and m — 2. For cylinder 1, 9 = 0° and m9 — 0°. The direct
secondary crank ODx and the reverse secondary crank ORx coin-
cide in position with the actual crank, as shown at (d) and (e).
For cylinder 2, 6 — 120° (counter-clockwise) and md = 240°
(counter-clockwise), so that the direct secondary crank OD2
coincides with OZ, while the reverse secondary crank OR2 coin-
cides with OX. Similarly, for cylinder 3, 9 = 120° (clockwise)
and m9 = 240° (clockwise), so that the direct secondary crank OD3
coincides with OY, while the reverse secondary crank OR3
coincides with OX.
The resultant secondary force for the engine is equivalent to the
two systems of revolving masses shown at (d) and (e). Obviously
the direct cranks form a balanced system of revolving masses and
therefore the resultant secondary force is equivalent to a force
(3/2)(jR/g)cu2rH1, which revolves in the opposite sense to the
crank, and at twice the speed of the crank. It coincides in
xiv] BALANCING 519
direction with the crank when the crank is on any of the three
inner dead centres.
In the example, R = 4 lb, to = TT. 1500/30 = 5077-, r — 2-5 in.
and Ai 1 In = 2-5/9 = 1/3-6.
2
3 4 (50TT) 2-5
resultant secondary force = ^ * 12
= 266 lb
Example 13. As a further illustration of the application of
direct and reverse cranks, consider the broad-arrow, or W,
engine in which there are three rows of cylinders. An engine of
this type has four cylinders in each row and the crankshaft is of
the normal “ flat ” type with one connecting rod from each row
coupled directly to each crankpin. The middle row of cylinders
is vertical and the other two rows are inclined at 60 to the
vertical. The weight of the reciprocating parts is 6 lb per cylinder,
the cranks are 3 in. long, the connecting rods 11 in. long and the
r.p.m. 2000. Find the maximum and minimum values of the
secondary disturbing force on the engine.
The first step in a problem of this kind is to find the resultant
secondary force for each row of cylinders and then to combine
these by substituting the corresponding direct and reverse cranks.
Each row forms a four-cylinder in-line engine and, as we have
already seen in Article 187, only the first harmonic or primary
force is balanced. The unbalanced secondary force for each row
is four times the secondary force for one cylinder and is given by
4A2 COS 2d, where Z2 = (R/g)to2{r/n) and d is the inclination of the
crank to the i.d.c. for that row. Hence, so far as the secondary
forces are concerned, each row of four cylinders may be replaced
by a single cylinder which has a reciprocating mass equal to the
total reciprocating mass for the four cylinders. The direct and
reverse cranks for any one of the cylinders of the equivalent three-
cylinder engine will each give rise to a centrifugal force of
magnitude 2K2. #
For convenience take the crank on the i.d.c. of the middle row 2.
Then, for row 2, d = 0°, and therefore the direct secondary crank
ODo and the reverse secondary crank OR2 coincide with OY, as
shown in Fig. 338 (b) and (c). For row 1, d = 60° (clockwise).
Therefore 2d = 120° (clockwise) and ODx coincides with OZ, while
ORi is inclinded at 120° (counter-clockwise) to OX and therefore
lies along the o.d.c. for row 2. Similarly, for row 3, d = 60°
(counter-clockwise). Therefore 2d = 120° (counter-clockwise) and
OD3 coincides with OX, while OR3 is inclined at 120° (clockwise)
to OZ and therefore coincides in direction with ORi- The
resultant secondary disturbing force is equivalent to the two
520 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

systems of revolving masses shown at (b) and (c). The three

direct cranks may be combined into the single resultant OD
and the three reverse cranks into the single resultant OR, Fig.
338 (d), where OD represents 4K2, i.e. twice the centrifugal force
for one direct crank of the equivalent three-cylinder engine, and
OR represents 2K2, i.e. the centrifugal force for one reverse crank
of the equivalent three-cylinder engine. The net unbalanced
secondary force for the given position of the engine crankshaft is
therefore OD—OR or 2K2. But the direct and reverse secondary
cranks turn at twice the speed of the crankshaft, so that when
the actual crank has turned through 45° from the i.d.c. OY, the
resultant direct crank OD and the resultant reverse crank OR
will both lie along the horizontal OH. The net unbalanced
secondary force will then be given by OD-f-OR or 6K2.

Secondary Cranks
Y Direct Reverse

It is clear that, if the actual crank turns through 90° from OY,
the resultant secondary force acts vertically downwards and is
again equal to OD—OR or 2K2. Hence the resultant unbalanced
secondary force is a minimum when the plane of the engine cranks
is either vertical or horizontal, and is a maximum when the plane
of the engine cranks is inclined at 45° to the vertical or horizontal.
. , B 2r 77.200\2 3
2.6 /T7.200\ 3
Mmimum secondary force — 2 -to - = . I —-— I
Q 71 OJJ'A \ O J 12 Tl
= 11141b
It acts upwards when the plane of the engine cranks is vertical
and downwards when the plane of the engine cranks is horizontal.
Maximum secondary force = Q>(Rjg)oj2{rjn) — 3342 lb
It acts towards the right when the plane of the engine cranks is
inclined 45° clockwise to the vertical and towards the left when the
plane of the engine cranks is inclined 45° counter-clockwise to the
vertical. It should be noted that the effect of any unbalanced
higher harmonic may be examined in exactly the same way.
xiv] BALANCING 521
189. Balancing Machines. Although every care may be taken
in the design of a rotating part of a machine to ensure that there
is no out-of-balance force or couple, residual errors will always
exist in the finished part. These errors may be due to slight
variations in the density of the material or to inaccuracies in the
casting or machining of the part. Where the rotating part is of
large diameter and relatively small axial length, it is often sufficient
to ensure that it is statically balanced, since the dynamic couple,
if present, will be so small as to be of no practical importance.
But in other cases, where the axial length of the part is appreciable,
it is not sufficient merely to have static balance, the dynamic
couple must also be balanced. As the centrifugal force and couple
vary as the square of the speed, even small errors of balance may
be serious at high speeds of rotation. It is therefore necessary to
measure these residual out-of-balance errors and make suitable
corrections to the part so as to reduce the final errors to the
smallest possible proportions.
Many different types of machines have been devised in order to
measure the extent to which rotating parts are out of balance.
Some of these machines measure the static unbalance, some the
dynamic unbalance, while others measure both the static and the
dynamic unbalance. It is not possible here to do more than
indicate the principles on which balancing machines operate and
to describe one or two of the simpler machines.

190. Static Balancing Machines. A very simple form of static

balancing machine, which relies upon direct weighing, is shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 339. The part P to be balanced is

mounted on a mandrel, which is supported on what is, in effect,

one arm of a balance or weighing machine. A deadweight W is
suspended from the other arm of the balance so as to bring the
17*—T.M.
522 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

beam approximately horizontal. The mandrel is then rotated

slowly, either by hand or, in the case of large machines, by an
electric motor. If the part is out of balance the beam will move
slowly up and down as the mandrel is rotated. Thus, if the
amount of unbalance corresponds to a weight wata radius r, the
apparent weight of the body will be greatest when w is in the full-
line position and least when it is in the dotted-line position. To
facilitate readings of the amount of static unbalance the oscilla-
tion of the beam may be made to operate an indicator I, the
pointer of which moves over a scale calibrated in ounce-inches or
other convenient units. Obviously if the body is in static balance
the indicator pointer will remain stationary as the mandrel is
rotated.
Another type of static balancing machine is shown diagram-
matically in Fig. 340. This is much more sensitive than the
machine just described. The greater sensitiveness is obtained by

mounting the part to be balanced on a cradle which is pivoted

about an axis QQ and held in position by springs S, S, so that the
system has a natural frequency of vibration. The part P is
flexibly coupled to an electric motor and the speed of rotation is
adjusted until it coincides with the natural frequency of the
system. This condition is known as resonance. Under these
conditions, as will be shown later in the chapter on vibrations,
even a small amount of unbalance produces a large amplitude of
oscillation of the cradle. The moment about the axis of oscilla-
tion QQ of the centrifugal force due to the static unbalance is
given by F .1 cos d or (w/g)oj2rl cos 6, where a> is the angular velocity
of rotation. This moment acts in a plane at right angles to the
axis of rotation AA and its maximum value is wrl(aj2/g). It should
be noted that if the part is in static balance but dynamic unbalance,
no oscillation of the cradle will take place, since there are then
two centrifugal forces F which produce equal and opposite
moments about the axis of oscillation.
xiv] BALANCING 523
191. Dynamic Balancing Machines. A dynamic balancing
machine is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 341. This machine is
similar to the static balancing machine which has just been
described, but differs from it in having the axis QQ about which
the cradle pivots, at right angles to the axis of rotation AA instead
of parallel to it. It is easily seen that the oscillation of the cradle
may be excited either by an unbalanced force or an unbalanced

couple. Hence, if the machine is to be used for measuring the

dynamic unbalance of a part, it is essential that the part should
first be statically balanced. The complete balance of a part then
involves two separate operations in two distinct machines.
Referring to Fig. 341, the dynamic couple F.m may be resolved
into two components. One component F.m cos 9 acts in a
horizontal plane and has no effect on the oscillation of the cradle,

the other component F. m sin 9 acts in the vertical plane through

AA and causes forced vibrations of the cradle.
A second type of dynamic balancing machine is shown diagram-
matically in Fig. 342. This machine, although similar to that
just described, has the advantage that no preliminary static
balancing of the part is necessary For this reason it is known as a
universal balancing machine. The principle on which it works
may be understood by referring to Article 180, where it was shown
524 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

that a given system of revolving masses can always be balanced

by introducing two balancing masses in arbitrarily chosen planes
of rotation. In order to balance a body on this machine, the
planes L and M, in which the out-of-balance effects are to be
measured and the necessary corrections applied, are first selected.
The body is then mounted on the cradle, as shown in the figure,
in such a way that the axis of oscillation QQ lies in one of the two
selected planes, say plane L. The out-of-balance effect in this
plane obviously cannot cause oscillation of the cradle, but the
out-of-balance effect in the other selected plane M produces a
moment Fm. a sin 9 in the plane of oscillation and rocks the cradle
about the axis QQ. The maximum value of this moment Fm.a
can be measured and its angular position determined, so that the
amount of unbalance wm. r in plane M may be obtained. The cradle
is then moved along the guides so that the axis of oscillation lies
in plane M and the amount and angular position of the unbalance
wx.r in plane L are determined.

192. Measurement of Unbalanced Force and Couple. So far no

indication has been given of the way in which the amount and
angular position of the out-of-
balance effect may be measured.
Various methods are in use but
only one will be described. This
is the method used on the Olsen-
Carwen machine and is shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 343.
The main spindle of the head-
stock drives a vertical shaft V at
its own speed through spiral gear-
ing. The gear G on the main
spindle has a large face width and
can be made to slide along the
spindle. The vertical shaft carries
two counterbalancing masses Bx
and B2 which are identical in
weight. Both these weights re-
volve with the vertical shaft and
their centres of gravity are on
opposite sides of and at equal
FIG. 343 distances, b, from the axis of
rotation. The plane of rotation
of one of the weights, B1? is fixed, but the plane of rotation of
the other, B2, may be altered by turning the handwheel H,
which slides the weight along the vertical shaft. In this way the
 xrv] BALANCING 525

distance, d, between the planes of rotation of the two weights

may be altered in order to provide a counterbalancing couple equal
in magnitude to the disturbing couple caused by the part to be
balanced. The alteration of the angular position of the counter-
balancing weights relative to the main spindle is effected by
turning the handwheel K which slides the spiral gear G along the
main spindle. This rotates the vertical shaft V, and therefore
the weights Bx and B2, relative to the main spindle. Both the
position of the weight B2 along the vertical shaft and the position
of the gear G along the main spindle may be altered while the
machine is running. In this way the couple exerted on the cradle
by Bj and B2 may be adjusted, both as to amount and as to
angular position, until it neutralises the couple caused by the
unbalance of the part P.
The vertical shaft V and, therefore, the weights BT and B2
revolve at the same speed as the part to be balanced, which is
coupled directly to the main spindle. The centrifugal couple of
the balance weights is equal to (B/g)uj2b.d and it may be resolved
into two component couples, one, of magnitude (B/g)aj2bd sin </>, in
a vertical plane parallel to the axis of rotation AA, and the other,
of magnitude (B/g)oj2bd cos <f>, in a vertical plane at right angles to
the axis of rotation A A. Which of these two component couples
affects the oscillation of the cradle obviously depends upon the
position of the axis of oscillation QQ of the cradle. If QQ is
parallel to AA, as in the static balancing machine Pig. 340, the
effective component is (B/g)aj2bd cos <f> and this is required to
neutralise the rocking moment (w/g)aj2rl cos 9 caused by the static
unbalance of the body mounted in the machine. These two
couples must at every instant be equal in magnitude and opposite
in sign. This requires that <f> = 6, Bbd = wrl and the sense of the
balancing couple must be opposite to that of the rocking moment.
By manipulating the handwheels H and K on the balancing head,
the oscillation of the cradle is rapidly reduced to a minimum, thus
indicating that the above conditions have been satisfied. The
machine may then be stopped and the amount and angular position
of the static unbalance of the body may be read off.
If, on the other hand, the axis of oscillation QQ is at right angles
to the axis of rotation AA (as in the dynamic balancing machines,
■ Figs. 341, 342), the effective component of the centrifugal couple is
(B/g)co2bd sin </>, in a plane parallel to AA. This couple must
neutralise the rocking couple (w/g)co2rm sin 6 caused by the
dynamic unbalance of the body mounted in the machine. This
requires that </> — 9, Bbd — wrm and that the sense of the balanc-
ing couple should be opposite to that of the rocking couple.
526 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

EXAMPLES XIV

1. Three masses A, B and C weigh respectively 20 lb, 18 lb and 32 lb and

revolve in the same plane at radii of 4, 5 and 2 in. respectively. The angular
positions of B and C are 60° and 135° respectively from A. Find the position and
magnitude of a mass D at a radius of 6 in. to balance the system.
2. Four masses A, B, C and D are attached to a shaft and revolve in the same
plane. The masses are 12, 10 18 and 15 lb respectively and their centres of
gravity are respectively 4, 5, 6 and 3 in. from the axis of the shaft. The angular
positions of B, C and D are respectively 60°, 135° and 270° from A. Find the
position and magnitude of a fifth mass E to revolve at a radius of 10 in. and to
balance the system.
3. Five masses A, B, C, D and E revolve in the same plane at equal radii. A,
B and C are respectively 10, 5 and 8 lb. The angular positions of B, C, D and E,
measured in the same direction from A, are 60°, 135°, 210° and 270°. Find the
masses D and E for complete balance.
4. The revolving mass for a single-crank engine is equivalent to a weight of
200 lb at a radius of 9 in. Find the position and magnitude of the balance
weights required at a radius of 24 in., in planes L and M distant 12 in. and 36 in.
from the plane of the crank, when (a) the planes L and M are on opposite sides of
the crank, (b) the planes L and M are both on the same side of the crank.
5. A shaft carries three rotating masses A, B, C of magnitude 20, 18 and 32 lb
with their centres of gravity 4 in., 5 in. and 2 in. respectively from the axis of
rotation. The distance between the planes of rotation of A and B is 3 ft and
between B and C is 5 ft. The angular positions of the masses are B 60° and C 135°
from A in the same direction. Find the magnitude and position of the balance
weights required in planes L and M situated midway between the planes A and B
and the planes B and C respectively. The radius of rotation of the balance
weights is 6 in.
6. A shaft carries three pulleys A, B and C at distances apart of 2 ft and 4 ft.
The pulleys are out of balance to the extent of 5, 4 and 6 lb respectively, at a
radius of 1 in. in each case. The angular positions of the out-of-balance masses
in pulleys B and C with respect to that in pulley A are 90° and 210° respectively.
Determine, in position and magnitude, the balance weights required in planes L
and M midway between planes A and B, and B and C respectively. The radius
of rotation of the balance weights is 5 in.
7. Four masses attached to a shaft revolve at equal radii in planes A, B, C and
D. The distances between planes A and B, B and C, C and D areres pectively
1-0, 2-5 and 1*5 ft. The revolving masses in planes A, C and D are 200, 300 and
180 lb respectively. Find the magnitude of the fourth revolving mass and the
angular positions of the radii to give a complete balance. M.U.
8. Four masses of magnitude 200, 350, 400 and 250 lb are each attached to
cranks of 8 in. radius and revolve in planes A, B, C and D. The angular positions
of the cranks B, C and D with respect to the crank in plane A are 75°, 135° and
240° taken in order. The distances of planes B, C and D from plane A are 2 ft,
6 ft and 8 ft respectively. Find the magnitude and position of the balance
weights required in planes midway between A and B and between C and D.
The radius of rotation of the balance weights is 24 in.
9. A shaft carries five masses A, B, C, D and E which revolve at the same
radius in equidistant planes. The masses in planes A, C and D weigh respectively
100, 80 and 160 lb. The angle between A and C is 90° and that between C and
D is 135°. Find the weights in planes B and E and their angular positions so
that the shaft may be completely balanced. M.U*
xiv] BALANCING 527
10. In a three-cylinder engine with cranks at 120°, the distance between the
planes of rotation of adjacent cranks is 3 ft. The revolving masses attached to
each crank are equivalent to a weight of 400 lb at 1 ft radius. Find the magnitude
and position of the balance weights required at 2-5 ft radius in planes 4 ft and
2 ft respectively on opposite sides of the centre crank.
11. Four masses A, B, C and D revolve at equal radii and are equally spaced
along a shaft. The mass B weighs 15 lb and the radii of C and D makes angles
of 90° and 240° respectively with the radius of B. Find the magnitudes of the
masses A, C and D and the angular position of A so that the system may be
completely balanced.
12. A shaft rotates in two bearings A and B 6 ft apart and projects 1 ft 6 in.
beyond A and B. At the extremities of the shaft are two pulleys of masses 40 lb
and 96 lb, their c.g. being respectively £ in. and f in. from the axis of the shaft.
Midway between the bearings is a third pulley of mass 112 lb its c.g. being f in.
from the axis of the shaft.
If the three pulleys have been arranged so as to obtain static balance, find the
dynamic forces produced on the bearings when the shaft rotates at 300 r.p.m.

13. Particulars of a system of revolving masses rigidly attached to a shaft are

given in the table below:

Distance from Angular

Plane Mass, lb Radius, in. position
plane A, in.

A 12 4 0 0°
B 10 5 6-5 60°
c 18 6 16-0 135°
D 15 3 24-5 270°

Find the magnitudes and angular positions of two balance weights, revolving at
5 in. radius in planes L and M, the first between A and B and 3 in. from A, and the
second between C and D and 7 in. from C.
14. A single-cylinder horizontal oil engine has a crank 7-5 in. long and a con-
necting rod 33 in. long. The revolving parts are equivalent to 110 lb at crank
radius and the piston and gudgeon pin weigh 90 lb. The connecting rod weighs
115 lb and its c.g. is 10-5 in. from the crankpin centre. Revolving balance
weights are introduced at a radius of 8-5 in. on extensions of the crank webs in
order to balance all the revolving parts and one-half of the reciprocating parts.
Find the magnitude of the total balance weight and, neglecting the obliquity of
the connecting rod, the nature and magnitude of the residual imbalanced force
M u
on the engine. R.p.m. 300 - -
15. Explain briefly what advantages are derived from the partial balancing
of the reciprocating parts of a locomotive by revolving balance weights. For an
inside-cylinder locomotive with the two cranks at right-angles, the reciprocating
parts weigh 600 lb per cylinder. The distance between cylinder centre lines
is 24 in. and between the planes of rotation of the wheels 60 in. Each crank is
13 in. long and the driving wheels are 6 ft 3 in. dia. Revolving balance weights
are introduced in the planes of the wheels partially to balance two-thirds of the
reciprocating parts. Find the maximum variation of tractive effort and of wheel
load when the locomotive is running at 60 m.p.h. M.U.
16. An inside-cylinder uncoupled locomotive is to be balanced for revolving
masses and for two-thirds of the reciprocating masses. The revolving mass per
cylinder is 450 lb and the reciprocating mass per cylinder is 540 lb. The cylinder
centre lines are 25 in. apart and the wheel centres are 60 in. apart. Find: (a) the
magnitude and position of the balance weights required at a radius of 30 in.
in the planes of the wheels; (b) the hammer-blow and maximum variation of
tractive effort when the cranks make 4 r.p.s. Stroke = 26 in.
528 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

17. The following particulars relate to an outside-cylinder uncoupled locomotive:

Revolving weight per cylinder 500 lb

Reciprocating weight per cylinder .... 600 lb
Length of each crank 13 in.
Distance between wheel centres 58 in.
Distance between cylinder centres . . . . 70 in.
Diameter of the driving wheels 72 in.
Radius of balance weights 30 in.

All the revolving parts are balanced and the hammer-blow is limited to 4 tons
when the locomotive is running at 50 m.p.h. Find the fraction of the recipro-
cating parts which must be balanced and the magnitude and position of the
balance weights required in the planes of the wheels. M.U.

18. It is required to balance an inside-cylinder uncoupled locomotive in such a

way that the driving wheel is on the point of lifting from the rail when the loco-
motive is running at 75 m.p.h. If all the revolving parts are balanced, what
fraction of the reciprocating parts must be balanced ?

Load on each driving wheel 6 tons

Wheel centres 5 ft
Cylinder centres 2 ft 4 in.
Diameter of driving wheels 7 ft
Length of each crank 13 in.
Weight of reciprocating parts per cylinder . . 720 lb M.U.

19. Two locomotives are built with similar sets of reciprocating parts, one with
outside cylinders, the other with inside cylinders. The former has driving
wheels 7 ft in diameter and the distance between the cylinder centre lines is 6 ft,
whilst in the latter the distance between the cylinder centre lines is 2 ft 1 in.
In each engine the distance between the wheel centres is 5 ft. If, when the inside-
cylinder locomotive is running at 0-75 of the speed of the outside-cylinder loco-
motive, the hammer-blow is the same for both locomotives, what is the diameter
of the driving wheels for the inside-cylinder locomotive ? How do the swaying
couples compare under these conditions ? M.U.

20. Two locomotives are built with identical reciprocating parts; one has
outside cylinders, 6 ft centre to centre, and driving wheels 6-5 ft dia.; the other
has inside cylinders 2 ft centre to centre and driving wheels 4-75 ft dia. The
wheel centres are 5 ft apart in each case and the same fraction of the reciprocating
parts is balanced. Compare the hammer-blow and the variation of tractive
effort when the two locomotives run at the same speed.

21. In a three-cylinder locomotive the two outside cranks are at 90°, while the
inside crank is at 135° to the two outer cranks. The pitch of the cylinders is
3 ft and the stroke 26 in. The planes of the balance weights are 5 ft apart.
The reciprocating masses to be balanced are 400 lb for the inside crank and 286 lb
for each of the outside cranks. If the driving wheels are 7 ft dia., what is the
hammer-blow at 60 m.p.h. ? L.U.
22. The following particulars refer to a four-coupled locomotive with two inside
cylinders:
Pitch of cylinders 27 in.
Revolving parts per cylinder 500 lb
Reciprocating parts per cylinder 600 lb
Distance between the planes of the driving wheels 60 in.
Diameter of the driving wheels 78 in.
Distance between the planes of the coupling rod
cranks 75 in.
Revolving parts for each coupling rod crank 260 lb

The engine cranks are at right angles and are 13 in. long, while the coupling
rod cranks are at 180° to the adjacent engine cranks and are 11 in. long. The
xiv] BALANCING 529
whole of the revolving parts and two-thirds of the reciprocating parts are to be
balanced by masses in the planes of the wheels at a radius of 32 in. The balance
weights required for the reciprocating parts are divided equally between the pairs
of coupled wheels. Find: (a) the magnitude and position of the balance weights
required and (b) the hammer-blow and maximum variation of tractive effort
when the speed is 60 m.p.h.
23. A 4—8—0 locomotive for a 5-ft 6-in. gauge railway has three cylinders with
the cranks at 120°. The dimensions are as follows:

Inside cylinder revolving mass 840 lb

Each outside cylinder revolving mass 700 lb
Reciprocating mass for each cylinder 810 lb
Revolving mass for each coupling rod crank . . . 350 lb
Distance between the outside cylinder centre lines . 91 in.
Distance between the coupling rod centre lines . . 79 in.
Distance between the planes of the balance weights . 69 in.
Length of each crank 13 in.
Diameter of coupled wheels 55-5 in.

The whole of the revolving parts and two-thirds of the reciprocating parts are to
be balanced. Find the position and magnitude of the balance weights required
for the driving axle and for one of the coupled axles and also the magnitude of the
hammer-blow at 60 m.p.h. when the balance weights for the reciprocating parts
(a) are placed in the driving wheels, (b) are distributed equally between the
coupled wheels.
24. Explain what is meant by primary and secondary balancing.
A vertical single-cylinder opposed-piston engine has reciprocating parts weigh-
ing 2 tons for the lower piston and 2-75 tons for the upper piston. The lower
piston has a stroke of 24 in. and the engine is in primary balance. If the ratio of
length of connecting rod to length of crank is 4 for the lower piston and 8 for the
upper piston, what is the maximum imbalanced secondary force for a crankshaft
speed of 135 r.p.m. ? At which crank positions will it occur? M.U.
25. A twin-cylinder V-engine has the cylinder centre lines at 90° and the con-
necting rods drive on to a single crank. The stroke is 5 in. and the length of
each connecting rod is 9-5 in. The crankpin and crank webs are equivalent to
2 - 5 lb at crank radius and each piston weighs 2 lb. The weight of each connecting
rod is 3 lb and the c.g. is 3 in. from the crankpin centre.
Show that the effect of the revolving mass and the primary effect of the recipro-
cating masses may be balanced by a revolving balance weight. Find its mag-
nitude and position if the distance of the c.g. from the crankshaft centre line is
3 in. What is the nature and magnitude of the resultant secondary force when
the crankshaft makes 1600 r.p.m. ?
26. A four-cylinder marine oil engine has the cranks arranged at angular
intervals of 90°. The inner cranks are 4 ft apart and are placed symmetrically
between the outer cranks, which are 10 ft apart. Each crank is 18 in. long, the
engine runs at 90 r.p.m., and the weight of the reciprocating parts for each cylinder
is 1800 lb. In which order should the cranks be arranged for the best balance of
the reciprocating masses, and what will then be the magnitude of the imbalanced
primary couple ? M.U.
27. A four-cylinder engine with cranks 1 ft long is to be balanced for primary
forces and couples. The intermediate cranks are 2 ft apart and are placed
symmetrically between the extreme cranks which are 8 ft apart. If the recipro-
cating masses attached to the intermediate cranks, which are at right angles to
each other, weigh 1000 lb, find the angular positions of the extreme cranks and
the reciprocating masses attached to them.
With this arrangement what will be the maximum imbalanced secondary force
and couple at a speed of 120 r.p.m. ? The connecting rods are 4 ft long. M.U.

28. The reciprocating masses for three cylinders of a four-crank engine weigh
3. 5 and 8 tons and the centre lines of these cylinders are 12 ft, 84 ft and 3£ ft
530 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

respectively from that of the fourth cylinder. Find the fourth reciprocating
mass and the angles between the cranks so that they may be mutually balanced
for primary forces and couples.
If the cranks are each 2 ft long, the connecting rods 9 ft long and the r.p.m. 60,
find the maximum value of the secondary disturbing force and the crank positions
at which it occurs.
29. A four-cylinder, two-stroke internal-combustion engine with two scavenging
pump cylinders is arranged as follows:

Crank angle Equivalent Distance from

Cylinder from No. 1 Crank radius recipro- No. 1 pump
engine crank in. cating mass, cylinder, in.
lb

No. 1 Pump ? 4-5 50 0

,, 1 Engine . 0 6-0 70 19
„ 2 „ 90 6-0 70 36
3 ,, 180 6-0 70 53
4 270 60 70 70
,, 2 Pump ? 4-5 50 89

All the connecting rods are 18 in. long. Determine the angles for the scavenging
pump cranks (which must be opposed, i.e. at 180° to each other) relative to No. 1
engine crank, so as to have the least possible imbalanced primary forces and
couples.
Then determine the magnitude of any unbalanced primary and secondary
forces and couples when the engine is running at 360 r.p.m. Take the reference
plane for couples at the mid-point of the engine crankshaft. L.U.A.
30. A six-cylinder, single-acting, two stroke Diesel engine is arranged with
cranks at 60° for the firing sequence 1-4-5-2-3-6. The cylinders, numbered 1 to
6 in succession, are pitched 5 ft apart, except Nos. 3 and 4, which are 6 ft apart.
The reciprocating and revolving weights per line are respectively 2*2 and
1 -6 tons. The crank length is 15 in., the connecting rod length is 63-75 in. and the
speed is 120 r.p.m. The usual rule for primary and secondary forces in one line
may be assumed.
Determine, with reference to the central plane between cylinders 3 and 4, the
maximum and minimum values of the primary frame couple due to reciprocating
and rotational inertia and the maximum value and phase—relative to crank
No. 1—of the secondary couple. L.U.A.
31. In a four-crank “ symmetrical ” engine the angular positions of the con-
secutive cranks A, B, C, D are in the order A, D, B, C when looking along the
shaft from A towards D. The centre lines of cylinders B and C are each a distance
a from the middle cross-section of the engine, while those of A and D are each a
distance b from this section. The crank angle between A and C is equal to that
between B and D and equals a; the crank angle between A and D equals 2/3 and
the remaining crank angle between B and C equals 2y (— 2n — 2a —2/3). The
reciprocating masses of A and D are each and those of B and C are each W2.
Prove that for complete balance of primary forces and couples:
(1) Wx cos /S = W2 cos y, (2) b/a = tan y/tan £ L.U.A.
32. In a four-cylinder marine engine the consecutive distances between the
cylinder centre lines A, B, C and D are 8 ft, 12 ft and 8 ft. The piston stroke is
4 ft and the reciprocating masses for A and D each weigh 3-07 tons.
Find the masses of the reciprocating parts of B and C and the crank angles so
that the reciprocating parts may be in primary balance and may also be balanced
for secondary forces.
What is then the out-of-balance couple due to reciprocating parts when running
at 120 r.p.m.? L.U.A.
xiv] BALANCING 531
33. In a four-crank symmetrical engine, the reciprocating masses of the two
extreme cylinder sets, A and D, are each 0-8 ton and those of the two inner
cylinder sets, B and C, are each 1-2 tons. Taking the direction of crank A as 0°,
find the angles, measured clockwise, between A and the other three cranks so that
the balance of the engine will be complete except for secondary couples. Find also
the ratio pitch of outside cylinders to pitch of inside cylinders. L.U.A.
34. Prove that in a radial aero engine with an odd number of cylinders, primary
balance may be obtained by the addition of a single weight revolving at a given
radius.
In the case of a five-cylinder engine with a single crank find the magnitude and
position of the weight required at crank radius in terms of W, the weight of each
piston. L.U.A.
35. In a three-cylinder radial engine all three connecting rods act on a single
crank. The cylinder centre lines are set at 120°, the weight of the reciprocating
parts per line is 5 lb, the crank length is 3 in., the connecting rod length is 11 in.
and the r.p.m. are 1800. Determine, with regard to the inertia of the recipro-
cating parts, (a) the balance weight to be fitted at 4 in. radius to give primary
balance; (b) the nature and magnitude of the secondary imbalanced force;
(c) whether the fourth and sixth order forces are balanced or imbalanced.
L.U.A.

36. The pistons of a 60° V-twin engine have a stroke of 4-5 in. The two con-
necting rods operate on a common crankpin and each is 8 in. long. If the weight
of the reciprocating parts is 2-5 lb per cylinder and the crankshaft speed is 2500
r.p.m., find the maximum and minimum values of (a) the primary force and
(b) the secondary force. In each case state the directions in which the forces
act and the crank positions at which the maximum and minimum values occur.
37. An eight-cylinder engine is arranged in Y-form with the two banks of
cylinders at 45° and a flat four-throw crankshaft is used, two rods working on
each crankpin. The reciprocating weight per line is 2-75 lb, the crank radius
2 in., the connecting rod length 9 in. and the r.p.m. 2500. Determine the maxi-
mum and minimum values of the secondary frame force due to the inertia of the
reciprocating parts. Discuss the possibilities of balancing this force. L.U.A.
38. Show how the conception of direct and reverse cranks may be used to investi-
gate the unbalanced inertia forces caused by the reciprocating parts of a multi-
cylinder engine, in which the cylinders are arranged in two, or more, inclined rows.
Determine the maximum and minimum values of the resultant secondary force
for a 12-cylinder engine, with three rows of four cylinders. The centre row is
vertical and the two outside rows are inclined at 60° to the vertical. A four-
throw “ flat ” crankshaft of the usual type is used and one connecting rod from
each row is coupled directly to each crankpin. The weight of the reciprocating
parts is 7 lb per cylinder, the cranks are 3 in. long, the connecting rods are 11-5 in.
long and the r.p.m. are 2200.
 CHAPTER XV

VIBRATIONS

193. When a body which is held in position by elastic constraints

is displaced from its equilibrium position by the application of an
external force and then released, it commences to vibrate. Work
is done by the external force in producing the initial displacement
against the internal elastic forces which resist deformation. This
work is stored up as elastic or strain energy in the constraints,
so that when the external force is removed, the internal elastic
forces tend to restore the body to its equilibrium position. Neg-
lecting for the moment any resistances offered to the motion of
the vibrating body, the whole of this elastic or strain energy is
converted into kinetic energy at the instant the body reaches its
original equilibrium position. As a result, the motion of the body
continues until the whole of the kinetic energy is absorbed in
doing work against the internal elastic forces and the energy in
the system is once more stram energy. Again the body begins
to return to the equilibrium position and the oscillation or vibra-
tion is repeated indefinitely. A vibration of this kind, in which,
after the initial displacement, no external forces act and the
motion is maintained by the internal elastic forces, is termed a
free or natural vibration.
In practice the energy possessed by the system is gradually
dissipated in overcoming internal and external resistances to the
motion, and the body finally comes to rest in its original equili-
brium position. Such a vibration is said to be damped. A third
type of vibration, which is of great practical importance, is that
in which a periodic disturbing force is applied to the body. The
vibration then has the same frequency as the applied force and
is said to be forced.
194. Free Vibrations. Consider the system shown in Fig. 344,
in which a shaft, assumed to be weightless and fixed at one end,
carries a heavy disc or flywheel at the free end. This system
may be made to vibrate in one of three simple ways:
(a) All particles of the flywheel may vibrate along straight paths
parallel to the axis of the shaft. This is termed longi-
tudinal vibration.
532
[CHAP, XV] VIBRATIONS 533
(b) All particles of the flywheel may vibrate along straight
paths perpendicular to the axis of the shaft. This is
termed transverse vibration.
Note.—The paths of the particles cannot strictly speak-
ing be either straight or perpendicular to the axis of the
shaft, since the latter will bend. In practice the amplitude
of the vibrations is generally small in comparison with the
length of the shaft, so that the above statement is
justified.
(c) All particles of the flywheel may vibrate along circular
arcs whose centres lie on the axis of the shaft. This is
termed torsional vibration.
The effect on the shaft material of the three types of vibration is
as follows:
(a) The shaft is alternately extended and compressed.
(b) The shaft is alternately bent and straightened.
(c) The shaft is alternately twisted and untwisted.

In each case, if the limit of proportionality—stress proportional to

strain—is not exceeded, the restoring force, case (a) or (b), or the
restoring couple, case (c), which is exerted on the flywheel by the
shaft, is directly proportional to the displacement of the flywheel
from its equilibrium position. Hence it follows that the accelera-
tion towards the equilibrium position is directly proportional to
the displacement from that position and the vibration is therefore
simple harmonic (Article 24).
Cases (a) and (b).
Let W = weight of flywheel,
a = amplitude of the vibration,
s — stiffness of the shaft, i.e. the force required at the
flywheel to produce unit displacement in the
direction of the vibration,
and n == frequency of the vibrations per second.
534 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Then the restoring foroe

= s X displacement from the equilibrium position.
But the restoring force = W/g X acceleration,
so that
Acceleration s.g
, : = — = constant
Displacement W
and from equation (2.24):
£d7 (15.1)
W '

But Wfs = 8, the static deflection of the shaft under the gravity
load applied by the flywheel.
Note that for case (a) 8 is the extension of the shaft produced
by the load W, while for case (b) 8 is the deflection of the shaft
under the load W when the shaft is placed horizontally as a
cantilever.
Substituting in the above equation:
U =
U 8 (15
'2)

If, as is usual, 8 is the deflection in inches, then g must be in

inches per second per second and
n = 3-13/VS .... (15.3)
or N = 187-8/^8 per minute . . . (15.4)
It should be noted that the above equations will apply equally
well to the calculation of the frequency of the transverse vibrations
of any weightless shaft which carries a single heavy disc. The
position of the disc along the shaft and the end conditions of the
shaft will not affect the above analysis. The deflection must
obviously be the deflection under the load and not necessarily
the maximum deflection of the shaft.
Case (c). An expression similar in form to equation (15.1) may
be deduced for the frequency of the free torsional oscillations of
the system.
In addition to the symbols given for cases (a) and (b), let h =
the radius of gyration of the flywheel, and q = the torsional stiff-
ness of the shaft, i.e. the torque required on the flywheel to produce
an angular displacement of one radian from the equilibrium posi-
tion. It is proved in text-books on the strength of materials that
q — CJ/l, where C is the modulus of rigidity for the shaft material,
J is the polar second moment of area of the shaft cross-section and
l is the length of the shaft.
xv] VIBRATIONS 535
Then the restoring couple which acts on the flywheel
= q X angular displacement from the equilibrium position.
But the restoring couple is also equal to the product of the
mass moment of inertia / of the flywheel and the angular accelera-
tion towards the equilibrium position; so that we have:
Angular acceleration
= j — constant
Angular displacement

The motion is therefore simple-harmonic and, from equation

(2.24), the frequency per second

Since I — (WJg]k2,
-i/f (15.5)

(15.6)
* - rjwt
Example 1. For the system shown in Fig. 344, the weight of
the flywheel is 0-3 ton, the radius of gyration is 15 in., the shaft is
3 in. diameter and 3 ft long to the flywheel boss. For the shaft
material Young’s modulus is 30 X 106 lb/in2 and the modulus of
rigidity is 12 X 106 lb/in2. Find the frequencies of the free longi-
tudinal, transverse and torsional vibrations.

(a) Longitudinal Vibration:

Static extension of the shaft S
Wl 3.224.36.4
== = 0-000 114 in.
AE~ TT.32.30.106
Frequency of the longitudinal vibrations, from equation (15.4),
187-8
17 580 per min
=
v°-° 00 114

(b) Transverse Vibration:

Static deflection of a cantilever §
Wl3 3.224.363.64
= 6 4
= 0-0876 in.
3El 3.30.10 .7T.3

Frequency of the transverse vibrations, from equation (15.4),

187-8
= = 634 per min
^/(T-OSYG
536 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

(c) Torsional Vibration:

CJ 12.106. it. 34
= 2-652.106 lb in.
T “ 32.36
Frequency of the torsional vibrations, from equation (15.6),
qg 1 /2-652.106.32-2.12
= 13-1 per sec
, Wk* 2 ~
277/ 2rrJ 3.224.152
= 786 per min
Example 2. A flywheel is mounted on a vertical shaft as shown
in Fig. 345, the ends of the shaft being fixed. The shaft is 2 in.
dia., the length lx is 3 ft and the length
s\\\\\>\\\\
l2 is 2 ft. The flywheel weighs 0-5 ton
and its radius of gyration is 20 in. Find
the natural frequencies of the longitudinal,
the transverse and the torsional vibrations
of the system.
(a) Longitudinal Vibration. Let Wa be
that part of the weight W of the flywheel
WVmW which is carried by the length of shaft, so
FIG. 345 that W—Wa is the weight carried by the
length l2.
Then the extension of length lx = WJi/AE, where A is the
cross-sectional area of the shaft and E is Young’s modulus.
Similarly, the compression of the length l2 = (W — Wa)l2/AE.
But the extension of shaft lx must clearly be equal to the
compression of shaft l2, so that WJi = (W — Wa)l2.
A TFa.3 = (lF-TFa)2 and Wa = fW
2 0-5.2240.3.12
.*. extension of shaft L — - . *—■ ‘ ' = 0-000 171 in.
5 . O.IO
77 0 0

from equation (15.4)

N = 187-8/V0-000 171 = 14 370 per min
(b) Transverse Vibration. The static deflection under the load,
for a horizontal shaft fixed at the ends and loaded at a point which
divides the shaft into the two parts lx and l2, is given by:
3 = Wli3l23/3EIl3
Substituting the given values, we get:
0-5.2240.363.243.64
S = 3 = 0-0473 in.
3.30.106.77.24.60
from equation (15.4)
N = 187-8/-y/0-0473 = 863 per min
xv] VIBRATIONS 537
(c) Torsional I ibration. The torque required to produce a
twist of 1 radian in the length lx = qx = CJ jlx.
Similarly, the torque required to produce a twist of 1 radian in
the length l2 = q2 = CJjl2.
•. the total torque required at the flywheel to produce an
angular displacement of 1 radian

— q — <Zi+g2 = Oj{r +
Uj

— • 106 lb in.
.*. from equation (15.6)
6
n=± /M.2 _ 1 //5T7 10 .32-2.122
2TTV Wk 2TT\} \ 12 ‘0-5.2240.20
= 5-35 per sec = 321 per min
195. The Effect of the Inertia of the Shaft. So far we have
neglected the effect of the inertia of the shaft on the frequency of
the vibrations. In most practical cases the inertia of the shaft is
small in comparison with that of the attached mass and the
following approximate method of allowing for it will suffice.
(a) Longitudinal Vibration. Referring to Fig. 344 (a), let v be
the velocity of the free end at a given instant. Then the velocity
of the section Sx, at the distance x from the fixed end, is approxi-
mately equal to xjl .v. If w is the weight of the shaft per unit
length, then the kinetic energy of the part 8x at the given instant
wSx (x \2 wv2
= i j-[r) =w?ix
wv2 C 2 IVV l 2 3

Total K.E. of shaft = 7—72^ x dx =

2gl J0 2gP ‘ 3
wl v2

Hence the whole shaft is dynamically equivalent to one-third of

its mass concentrated at the free end.
The inertia of the shaft may therefore be allowed for by adding
one-third of its mass to that of the attached disc or flywheel.
(b) Transverse Vibration. Referring to Fig. 344 (b), let v be
the transverse velocity at a given instant of the free end which
carries the flywheel, and assume that the shape of the curve into
which the vibrating shaft deflects is identical with the static
deflection curve of a cantilever loaded at the end.
538 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

Then at the distance x from the fixed end the velocity at the
same instant is given by {(Six2— x3)/2l3}v, and the kinetic energy
of part Sx
1 w.Sx (Slx2—xz•V \2 2
IV
2 g
w
K.E. of whole shaft v2j (Slx2—x3)2dx
Sgl 6

—
w
7)2
sgl°
J
(9l2x4—6&c5-fx6)d£

w „ 33 „7 33 wl
= J =
8gW ' 35' 280 g
Hence the shaft is dynamically equivalent to the fraction 33/140
of its mass concentrated at the free end. The inertia of the shaft
may therefore be allowed for by adding 33/140 of its mass to that
of the disc or flywheel.
In a similar way it could be shown that, if the flywheel is situated
midway along the shaft and the ends are supported, the fraction
17/35 of the mass of the shaft must be added to that of the flywheel.
If the ends are fixed, the fraction which must be added is 13/35.
(c) Torsional Vibration. Referring to Fig. 344 (c), let o> be
the angular velocity at the free end at a given instant and Is
be the mass moment of inertia of the complete shaft.
Then the angular velocity of the section Sx, distant x from the
fixed end, is given approximately by x/l.co, the kinetic energy of
the section Sx
lSx 1 I>2 2
= x Sx
2 T'1& ” 2~W
and the total kinetic energy of the shaft
1 I,CO 2 ri
x2dx=
co-
2 13 Jo WL

Hence the kinetic energy of the shaft is equivalent to that of a

flywheel of mass moment of inertia IJS at the free end.
The inertia of the shaft may therefore be allowed for by adding
one-third of its mass moment of inertia to that of the disc or
flywheel.

198. Transverse Vibration of a Uniformly Loaded Shaft.

(a) Approximate Solution. A uniformly loaded shaft may be
made to vibrate transversely in just the same way as a shaft
which carries a single concentrated load. There is, however, one
important difference between the two cases. Whereas the shaft
I

XV] VIBRATIONS 539

with a single concentrated load has only one natural frequency of
transverse vibration, a uniformly loaded shaft has, theoretically,
an infinite number. We shall, at present, confine ourselves to
the mode of vibration which gives the lowest frequency. For this
mode of vibration all particles of the shaft vibrate in phase and
the frequency is termed the fundamental frequency.
In his book on the Theory of Sound, Lord Rayleigh showed that
the calculated frequency is only slightly affected by making
different assumptions for the shape of the deflected shaft during
vibration, providing that the assumed shape is consistent with the
end conditions. It is therefore possible to obtain a close approxi-
mation to the true value of the frequency by assuming that the
vibrating shaft bends into a curve of simple shape such as a
sine curve, a parabola or the static deflection curve of the shaft
under the given system of loading.
In what follows it will be assumed that the curve of deflection
during vibration is at every instant similar in shape to the static
deflection curve. The method of finding an expression for the
frequency is first to derive expres-
sions for the maximum additional
strain energy of the shaft during
the vibration and for the maxi-
mum kinetic energy of the shaft.
These are then equated, since
the total energy of the vibrating FIG. 346

system is constant.
Referring to Fig. 346, let the full line represent the static deflec-
tion curve of the shaft and the dotted lines represent the extreme
positions of the shaft when vibrating transversely.
Let yY — static deflection at the mid-point,
d\ = amplitude of vibration at the mid-point,
y, a — corresponding static deflection and amplitude of
vibration of the section Sx of the shaft, distant x
from the support,
w = actual load per unit length
and we — the load required per unit length in order to produce
unit deflection at the mid-point.
Then, since the deflection curve of the vibrating shaft is assumed
at every instant to be similar in shape to the static deflection curve,
it follows that the ratio ajy is constant for all points along the
shaft and may be denoted by c.
The maximum additional strain energy possessed by the shaft
at the end of its swing is equal to the work done in changing the
540 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

deflection curve from that shown by the full line to that shown by
the dotted line. The work done may be found as follows: to
produce the additional deflection at every point along the shaft,
the load per unit length would have to increase from w to w-\-weax.
Consider the section of length Sz.
Then the work done on this section = mean additional load
multiplied by the distance through which the load moves
= \weaxhx.a,
Total work done on the shaft = Maximum additional strain
energy

= I lwe.aladx
£
a c
But \lV\ = a/y = and wey\ — w,
substituting for al} a and weyl, we get:

Maximum strain energy = \c2w ydx

Jo
Since the amplitude of vibration of the portion Sx of the shaft
is a and the frequency of vibration is n per second, the maximum
velocity of Sx when passing through the equilibrium position
is 2'nna.
total kinetic energy of the vibrating shaft
rll w
= - —. {2Trna)2dx
Jo 2 <7
But a — c.y,
2 (27m)2 f
K.E. = ^c ,w y2dx
9 Jo
Equating the maximum kinetic energy to the maximum strain
energy,
l
1 2 1(27m)2 r 2 i 2 rl
~cC . w y dx = -c . w ydx
2 9 'o ^ Jo

71
ydx 1 §y2dxj (15.7)
" 2TTA

Note that: (a) the frequency of vibration is independent of

the amplitude of vibration, but, as in the case of a single con-
centrated load, depends upon the static deflection of the shaft;
(b) equation (15.7) may be applied to any uniformly loaded
shaft if the appropriate expression for y in terms of x is
substituted;
XV] VIBRATIONS 541
(c) the equation is based on the assumption that the deflection
curve of the vibrating shaft is similar to the static deflection curve
and although, as we shall see later, this assumption cannot be
true, nevertheless the frequency of vibration calculated from it
is very nearly equal to the true frequency;
(d) if the maximum value of y is taken equal to the maximum
static deflection of the shaft under the given uniform load and
the given end conditions, any expression for y in terms of x which
is consistent with the end conditions may be substituted in
equation (15.7).
For a uniformly loaded shaft, we have from the ordinary beam
theory that EIA^y/dx* =w, where E is Young’s modulus of
elasticity and I is the second moment of area of the shaft cross-
section. This equation may be integrated four times in succession
in order to derive an expression for y in terms of x. The values of
the four constants of integration will be found by making use of
the end conditions. Without detailing the steps it will be found
that for a shaft with supported ends,
y = (w/24EI)(x‘i—2lx3-{-l3x)
From this equation, it will be found that
fz w l5
Jo*3*" as s
and
jf = ;d
*

Substituting in equation (15.7):

1 // 2dEI 630\
n =
2TTJ V7' wE *155/
But the maximum static deflection of a shaft with supported
ends and a uniform load is given by:
Ss = (5/384)(wE/EI)
so that EljwE = 5/384Ss (15.8)
Substituting in the above equation:
1 jig 24.5 630\ 3*53
n = 2W \F ' “384'155/ =
a

N = 211-8/v/Ss .... (15.9)

where Ss is the static deflection of the shaft in inches.
The constant in the numerator of equation (15.9) varies in
magnitude with the end conditions. Its value may be calculated
542 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

from the equation for the static deflection y in terms of x appro-

priate to the particular end conditions. The results are given in
the following table.

Maximum
End conditions Equation for y Constant
deflection S

wl4
Both fixed .... 215-0
384El
wl4
One fixed—one free = 2 234-3
V 4fe,
+ 6®2z*) 8 El
One fixed—one sup- wl4
213-3
ported .... y = ziEi{x‘-ix’+\lv) 184-6 El

(b) Exact Solution. Referring to Fig. 347, the load per unit
length of the shaft is w and the frequency of transverse vibration
is defined by the angular velocity co radians per second. Let y
be the displacement of the length
8x of the shaft from the equili-
brium position, then the dynamic,
or inertia, load on Sx is given
by (w8x/g)cu2y. Note that this
FIG. 347 is proportional to the product wy,
so that the dynamic load, when
vibrating, is not a uniform load and therefore the shape of the
vibrating shaft cannot be the same as the static deflection curve
of the shaft.
From the beam theory, we have:
El. d4y/dr4 = (w/g)a)2y
This equation may be written:
d4y/da;4—m4y = 0 . . . . (15.10)
where m4 = (w]g)(oj2/EI) . . . (15.11)
The solution of the differential equation (15.10) is
y — A cos mx-{-B sin mx-j-C cosh mx-\-D sinh mx (15.12)
where the constants of integration A, B, C and D are to be
determined from the end conditions.
For a shaft with supported ends, y — 0 when x — 0 or x = l.
Substituting in (15.12):
0 = A cos 0-f-R sin 0+C cosh 0-f-D sinh 0
= A+C (15-13)
and 0 = A cos ml-\-B sin cosh sinh ml (15.14)
XV] VIBRATIONS 543
Also d2yfdx2 = 0 when x = 0 or x = l, so that, differentiating
(15.12) twice and substituting, we get:
0 = —A.d~C (15.15)
2 2 2
and 0 = —Am cos ml—Bm sin ml-\-Cm cosh ml
-{-Dm2 sinh ml (15.16)
From (15.13) and (15.15) A =G = 0
so that (15.14) becomes 0 — B sin ml-\-D sinh ml
and (15.16) becomes 0 = —B sin ml-\-D sinh ml
Adding these 0 = 2 D sinh ml
But sinh ml cannot be zero. Hence D — 0.
B sin ml = 0
If the shaft is vibrating, B cannot be zero,
sin ml = 0
and ml = TT, 2V, 37r, etc.
or m — TT/1, 2TT/1, STT/I, etc. . . (15.17)
Substituting the smallest value of m in equation (15.11):
wto2/gEI = (77/Z) 4

to = n2-\/(gEI/wB)
and, substituting for EI/wB from equation (15.8):
a) = Tr2\/(g.5j3M8s)
N = SOCO/TT = 30/TTV(£.5/384S8) = 211-4/VSs . (15.18)
where Ss is the static deflection of the shaft in inches.
If this result is compared with equation (15.9), it will be seen
how closely the two expressions for N agree.
Equation (15.18) is obtained by using the smallest value of m
from equation (15.17) and therefore gives the lowest or funda-
mental frequency of vibration. Since
to is proportional to m2, other frequen-
cies of vibration for the uniformly
loaded shaft with supported ends are
4, 9, 16, etc., times the fundamental
frequency. FIG. 348
When vibrating with a frequency
equal to four times the fundamental frequency, the shaft will have
a node at its mid-point as well as at each support. When
vibrating with nine times the fundamental frequency, the shaft
will have two intermediate nodes one-third of the length from
each support, and so on for the higher frequencies (Fig. 348).
544 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The solution of the differential equation (15.10) for other end

conditions may be obtained in a similar way. The results
are given below, together with the values of the constant in the
numerator of equation (15.18).

Smallest
End conditions Solution value of Constant
ml

Both supported sin ml = 0 7T 211-4

Both fixed cosh ml = sec ml 4-73 214-4
One fixed—one free .... cosh ml = —sec ml 1-875 233-3
One fixed—one supported . tanli ml = tan ml 3-927 213-0

If the values of the constants given in the last column of this

table are compared with those in the last column of the table on
p. 542, it will be seen how closely they agree.

197. System of Several Loads attached to the Same Shaft. So

far the two simple cases in which the shaft carries either a single
concentrated load or a uniformly distributed load have been
considered. In most practical cases the vibrating system is
more complicated and consists of several unequal masses spaced
at different intervals along the shaft, together with a more or less
uniformly distributed load due to its own weight. There are
several methods which may be used to determine the natural
frequency of the transverse vibrations of such a system.
First Method. This is an approximate method which requires
that the maximum static deflection of the shaft under the given
system of loading be first obtained, either by calculation or by the
usual graphical method. We have seen that, when the shaft
carries a single concentrated load, the frequency of transverse
vibration is given by equation (15.4). When the shaft carries a
uniformly distributed load, the frequency is given by equation
(15.18). We should therefore expect that for any actual system of
loading, which is bound to be intermediate between these two
extremes, the frequency of transverse vibration would be given by
an equation of similar form, but with an intermediate value for
the constant, i.e. a value between 187-8 and 211-4. Unless a
comparatively short length of the shaft carries very much heavier
loading than the rest of the shaft, the appropriate constant is
likely to be nearer to the higher of these two figures.
Hence the frequency of the transverse vibrations of a shaft
with any arbitrary system of loading is given approximately by
N = (187-8/VSm)^ .... (15.19)
XV] VIBRATIONS 545

where Sm is the maximum static deflection of the shaft and K has

a value between 1-0 and 1T27. This may be taken for a normal
system of loading as, say, 1-10, so that

N = 207/y/Sm .... (15.20)

The above equation must be used with a certain amount of

caution. For most systems of loading it will give a close approxi-
mation to the true frequency, but, if the loading is mainly con-
centrated close to the supports and therefore at some distance
from the point of maximum deflection, the calculated frequency
may be much too low. A moment’s reflection will show why this
should be so. Although the constants in the numerators of
equations (15.4), (15.18) and (15.20) do not differ very widely,
the maximum deflection of the shaft is used in the denominator
of equations (15.18) and (15.20), whereas the deflection under the
load is used in equation (15.4). If the deflection under the main
part of the load differs widely from the maximum deflection, it is
hardly to be expected that equation (15.20) will give the correct
frequency.

Second Method. This is a semi-empirical method suggested by

Professor Dunkerley. It can only be applied where the actual
shaft is of uniform diameter or where it can be replaced by a shaft
of uniform diameter without serious error.

Let Wi, W2, etc. = concentrated loads at different points along

the shaft,
Ws = weight of shaft,
Sx, 82, etc. = static deflections of the shaft under loads
Wi, W2, etc., when each load is acting
separately,
8S = maximum deflection of the shaft under its
own weight,
AT1} N2, etc. = frequency of the transverse vibrations with
each load acting separately,
Ng = frequency of the transverse vibrations of
the shaft under its own weight
and N = frequency of the transverse vibrations of
the system as a whole.

Then, Dunkerley’s empirical equation is:

1/AT2 = l/A^-f 1/A22+ . . . +1/AS2 . (15.21)
But
Ai = 187-8/VSi, JV2 = 187-8/^2, etc., Na = 211-4/VS,
18—T.M.
546 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Substituting,
1/A2 = S1/187-82+S2/187-82+ . . . +Ss/211-42
187-8
/. N (15.22)
'\/(§l+§2 + • • • +§3/1-27)

If this equation is compared with equation (15.19), it is clear

that the frequency as calculated by Dunkerley’s method can only
have the same value as that calculated by the first method, if
7T_ / §m
V §i+§2+ - - - +§sA'27

or, taking K as 1-10, if

8m= l-21(S1+82+ . . . +Ss/l-27)
That this relation is approximately satisfied for any normal system
of loading may easily be verified. (See Example 3.)
Third Method. This is usually known as the energy method and
is essentially the same as that used in deducing the approximate
expression for the frequency of the vibrations of a uniformly
loaded shaft. If the deflection curve of the vibrating shaft is
assumed to be similar in shape to the static deflection curve for
the same system of loading, then, proceeding as in Article 196,
we shall get, instead of equation (15.7), the following:
1 / ZWy
71
~ 2TrJgi:Wy2 • * * * (15-23)
The values oi^LWy and SIT?/2 may be found by setting down the
data in tabular form as shown in Example 3.
Fourth Method. This is essentially a method of arriving at the
true shape of the deflection curve of the vibrating shaft and at the
true frequency by successive approximations. It was developed
by Professor Stodola chiefly for use in determining the whirling
speed of a turbine rotor. In applying the method to a particular
shaft, a start is made by assuming:
(i) a deflection curve for the shaft, i.e. both as regards the
shape and the scale of the deflection,
(ii) a frequency of vibration.
Of these assumptions, the shape of the deflection curve is the
only one which affects the accuracy of the first approximation to
the true frequency. The assumed shape should be a reasonable
one, consistent with the end conditions, the distribution of the
masses along the shaft, and the variations of stiffness of the shaft
along its length.
xv] VIBRATIONS 547
From the known masses and the assumed frequency and deflec-
tions, the dynamic loads are calculated. These loads are then
used to derive a dynamic deflection curve either by calculation or,
where the cross-section of the shaft varies from one end to the
other, by a graphical construction. The derived deflection curve
may, and usually does, give very different values for the deflec-
tions along the shaft from those which were assumed, but a
first approximation to the true frequency may be obtained as
follows:
Let n — assumed frequency of vibration,
y = assumed deflection,
n' — first approximation to the true frequency
and y' = derived deflection due to dynamic loading.
Then the dynamic loads used in obtaining the deflection curve
are (TF1/gr)(27r?i)2?/1, {W2/g){27rn)2y2, etc., and the deflections
actually caused by these loads are measured from the derived
deflection curve and are given by y/, y2, etc. Clearly, then,
since the dynamic loads which cause the deflections yx', y2 , etc.,
must be equal to (lTi/g)/(27rn)2y1, {W2/g)(27rn)*y2, etc., it follows
that n2yl = (n')2yi, nhy2 = (n')2y2 , etc., and
etc
n'/n = V(Vi /Vi) = V(V2 IVt), -
This can only be true if the ratio y'/y is the same at all points along
the shaft, in other words, if the derived deflection curve and the
assumed curve are geometrically similar. But where y'/y is not
constant the ratio of the maximum deflections for the two curves
may be used to find n'.
The process may be repeated, the dynamic loads being calcu-
lated for frequency n' and the deflections y' given by the derived
curve. A second deflection curve may then be obtained giving
deflections y", and a second approximation to the true frequency
will be given by
n" = n'Vto'ly")
The process is convergent and it will be found that the ratio
y'ly" is not only very close to unity, but also much more nearly
constant along the length of the shaft. This implies that the
second derived deflection curve is very closely similar in shape to
the true deflection curve, and the value of n" is very close to the
true frequency.
Example, 3. Find the frequency of the natural transverse
vibrations of a shaft 10 ft. long and 4 in. dia. which is supported
548 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

at the ends and loaded as shown in Fig. 349. Young’s modulus

for the shaft material is 30.106 lb/in2.
Since the shaft is of uniform diameter, the static deflection under
each of the four concentrated loads may be obtained by calcula-
tion. Alternatively, the static deflection curve may be obtained
by the usual graphical construction. It is not proposed to give
in detail either the calculations or the graphical construction.
The shape of the deflection curve
is shown in the figure and the
maximum deflection of the shaft
under the given system of loading
is 0-0882 in.
First Method. The frequency of
the transverse vibrations may be
calculated from (15.20).
Then N = 207/^0-0882 = 694
vibrations per min.
Second Method. If Dunkerley’s method is used, it is necessary
first of all to determine the deflection of the shaft under the load
when each load acts separately. If a and b are the distances of
the load W from the two supports, then the deflection under the
load is given by S = Wa2b2j3EIl, where l is the length of the shaft,
I is the second moment of area of the shaft cross-section and E is
Young’s modulus. From this equation the following table may
be filled in:
w a in. b in. S in.
200 18 102 0-0050
300 42 78 0-0237
180 72 48 0-0159
240 96 24 0-0094

The weight of the shaft IFa = (7T/4)d2lp, where p — 0-283 lb/in3

for steel.
Wa = 77/4.42.120.0-283 = 427 lb
The deflection of the shaft under its own weight
8S = 5/384. Wsl*/EI = 0-0254 in.
Si-f-S2'b^3'i_^4_b^s/l*27 = 0-0740 in.
and, substituting in equation (15.22),
N = 187-8/-y/0-0740 = 691 vibrations per min
N.B.—In the above example

™ _
0-0882
— l.iq
SI+S2+S3+S4+S3/1-27 0-0740
XV] VIBRATIONS 549
Third Method. In order to apply the energy method, the total
deflection under each load is either calculated or measured from
the deflection curve for the complete system of loading. To each
concentrated load is added the weight of that part of the shaft
included between the mid-points of the panels into which the con-
centrated loads divide the shaft. For example, the weight of a
1 ft 9 in. length of shaft is included with the first concentrated
load, the weight of a 2 ft 3 in. length with the second load and so
on. It should be pointed out that the effect of the shaft would
be more accurately taken into account by dividing it into a large
number of parts and treating the weight of each part as a con-
centrated load situated at its mid-point. In the present example,
the greater accuracy obtained would not be worth the extra
labour involved. The following table is then filled in and the
values of STTy and SlfT/2 are determined.

Total Deflection,
Concentrated Shaft weight
load, Wy Wy2
load included
W
y

275 0-0410 11-27 C-462

200 75
396 0-0792 31-35 2-487
300 96
276 0-0838 23-12 1*937
180 96
325 0-0521 16-92 0-884
240 85
TiWy 82-66 LWy2 5-770

Substituting in (15.23),
N _ 187-8-\/(82 *66/5-770) = 710 vibrations per min

Fourth Method. The static deflection curve given in Fig 349

could be used as the assumed deflection curve when applying
Stodola’s method. Indeed, if this curve is known, it is the best
one to use. However, in order to illustrate the general procedure
when the static deflection curve is not available, it will be assumed
in this example that the dynamic deflection curve is a sine curve
with a maximum deflection of one mch, say. The deflections
under the loads are then as given in the second line of the following
table:

300 180 240

Load lb 200

0-8910 0-9511 0-5878

yin. . . ■ 0-4540
90-8 267-3 171-2 141-1
Fib . . • 0-0624 0-0659 * 0-0411
y' in. 0-0319
14-23 14-27 14-40 14-29
y\y' • • •
550 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CIIAP.

The dynamic load = F — (Wlg)w2y = (cu2/g)Wy and, since any

value of CL) may be chosen, it is convenient to choose that value
which makes F = Wy lb, i.e. o>2 = 12g = 386*4. The values of
F are given in the third line of the table. The dynamic load due
to the mass of the shaft is not uniform and perhaps the simplest
plan is to divide the shaft into 2-ft lengths. The mean dynamic
load per unit length for each of these sections may then be esti-
mated, and the total dynamic load for each section may be
assumed to act at the mid-point.
The deflection curve for the dynamic loading may then be
derived by calculation, using Macaulay’s method, or graphically.
The values of the deflections under the loads were actually
calculated and are given in the fourth line of the table.
The values of the ratio
Assumed deflection y
Derived deflection y'
are given in the fifth line, and since they do not differ greatly, the
mean value 14*3 may be used to calculate the approximate fre-
quency of the vibrations.
n'/n = OJ'/OJ — V(yly') —
/
But n = O)/27T = (1/27T)V 386*4 = 3*14 per sec
n' — 3*14yT4*3 = 11*86 per sec = 712 per min
The ratio yjy' is so nearly constant for all the loads in this
example that there would be no point in repeating the process.

198. Damped Vibrations. It is well known that, if a body held

in position by elastic constraints is displaced from the equilibrium
position and then released, the amplitude of the resulting vibration
gradually diminishes as the vibration energy is dissipated in
overcoming friction. The vibration is said to be
damped.
The resistance to the movement of the body is
provided partly by the medium in which the vibra-
tion takes place, partly by the internal friction, or
hysteresis, of the material of the elastic constraints
FIG. 350 and partly, in some cases, by a dashpot or other
external damping device. It is usual to assume that
the damping, whatever its cause, is linear, i.e. that the resistance
to the motion of the body is directly proportional to the speed of
movement. Under these conditions the resulting motion of the
body may be analysed as follows:
Fig. 350 shows a mass suspended from one end of a spiral spring,
xv] VIBRATIONS 551
the other end of which is fixed, and a dashpot is provided between
the mass and the rigid support.
Let W = weight of the mass,
s = stiffness of the spring, i.e. the force required to pro-
duce unit extension of the spring,
/ = damping force per unit velocity,
n = frequency of the free vibrations,
nd = frequency of the damped vibrations,
y = displacement of the mass from the equilibrium
position at time t
and 8 = static deflection of the spring = W/s.
Then, the force required to accelerate the mass = W/g .d2y/dt2,
the force required to move the piston of the dashpot
= f.dy/dt,
and the force required to extend the spring — s.y.
The algebraic sum of these three forces is zero.
W d2y dy
/ s+«/=°
9 dt2
d2y (15.24)
dt2
where a =fg/W, b = sg/W = g/S = (2TTW)2, from equation (15.2).
> (a\2
The solution of this equation depends upon whether 6^.1 ^1 •
If b > (a/2)2, which is true for most practical cases of damping,
y = COS \/{b—(a/2)2}i-[-C,2 sin^{6 (a/2)"}^] (15.25)
which may be written in the more convenient form:
y = Ce-<al2» cos W{b-(al2)2}t-a\ . . (15.26)
The constants of integration G and a are determined from the
initial conditions of the motion. Thus, if t is measured from the
instant at which the mass is released after the initial displacement
A, then C = A and a = 0, so that:
y = Ae-» cos ^{b-{a/2)2}t . . (15.27)
The shape of the curve obtained by plotting this equation is
shown in Fig. 351.

FIG. 351
552 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

From equation (15.27) the periodic time is given by:

2TT

<I,=
(15.28)
V{*-(«/2)2}' '
frequency wd = 1 jtv — (1/2?r)\/{b — (a/2)2} (15.29)
If there is no damping, a = 0 and n = (1/2 *)Vb = (l/itn)V(9lS),
which agrees with equation (15.2).
If yx, y2 are successive values of the amplitude on the same side
of the equilibrium position, then
Vi (a/2)t
y,, = = <*"**>= constant . (15.30)

since a and fp are both constant.

The index (a/2)tp is termed the logarithmic decrement.
If b = (a/2)2 the system is said to be critically damped. There
is no true vibration, but the system returns gradually to the
equilibrium position.
If b < (a/2)2 conditions are similar except that the return to
the equilibrium position takes place more slowly.
In all cases of viscous damping, an infinite time is theoretically
required for the system to come to rest, but with critical damping
the approach to the rest position takes place most rapidly. With
less damping time is wasted in oscillation, while with more damp-
ing the rest position is approached more slowly.
Most instruments are required to give as nearly as possible an
instantaneous response of the recording pointer to a change in the
value of the quantity to be measured. It follows that such instru-
ments should have the pointer critically damped.
For critical damping, b = a2/4, but b = (2im)2, where n is the
natural undamped frequency of vibration of the system,
for critical damping,
a/27rn = 2

Example 4. A mass of 50 lb is suspended from a spring of stiff-

ness 100 lb/in. A dashpot is fitted and it is found that the am-
plitude of the vibration diminishes from its initial value of 1 in.
to a value of 0-25 in. in twro complete oscillations. Find the
resistance offered by the dashpot at a speed of 1 ft/s and the fre-
quency of the damped vibrations. Compare the latter with the
frequency of the free vibrations.
The static deflection of the spring = 8 — 50/100 = 0*5 in.
frequency of the free vibrations
= n =(l/27r)\/(<7/S) = 4-424 per sec
xv] VIBRATIONS 553
The ratio of the amplitudes of the damped vibrations after two
complete oscillations, from equation (15.30),
— ^0(&/2)£p^2 — 0^P

But this ratio is given as 1/0*25 = 4,

atv = loge 4 = 1*3863

Substituting for tv from equation (15.28):

2va
/{h , /tm
2 2
-, = 1-3863
V(&-(a/ ) }
6 —(a/2)2 = (27ra/l*3863)2 = 20*54a2
20*79a2 = b and aj\/b — afiirn — 0*219
But 6 = g/S = 32*2.12/0*5 = 772*8 sec'2
sec_1
a = VC772,8/20'79) = 6*096
But a =fg/Wt
/ = 6*096.50/32*2 = 9*46 lb per ft/s
The frequency of the damped vibrations, from equation (15.29):
=
nd = i/Ht)] ^(772-8-9-29) = 4-397 per sec.

This is 4*397/4*424 = 0*994 or 99*4% of the frequency of the free

vibrations.
Example 5. A flywheel of moment of inertia 500 lb ft2 '\\V\\

is fixed to one end of a vertical shaft, dia. 1 in. and

length 3 ft. The other end of the shaft is fixed. The
torsional oscillations of the flywheel are damped by
means of a vane V, Fig. 352, which moves in a dash-
pot D filled with oil. The amplitude of oscillation is
found by experiment to diminish to one-twentieth of v° (in
its initial value in three complete oscillations. Assum- D
ing the damping torque to be directly proportional to
the angular velocity, find its magnitude at a speed
FIG. 352
of 1 rad/s. The modulus of rigidity of the shaft material
is 12.106 lb/in2.
The frequency of the free vibrations, from equation (15.5),

U
_ i /*
“ ~ 2TTJ I

4 4
But q 36 ‘32 l = 3-27.10 lb in/rad
/
1 /3 *27.104.32*2.12
n = 2W = 2*11 per sec
500.122 T~
18*~T.M.
554 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

For damped vibrations, the equation of motion may be found

as follows:
Let 6 — angular displacement from the equilibrium position at
time t,
q = torsional stiffness of the shaft
and T{ — damping torque per unit angular velocity.
Then I. d26/dt2 -f- Ti. dOjdt-j-q. 0 — 0
or d20/di2-fa1.d0/d^+610 = 0
where aY = Tf/I and Zq = qjl = (27TU)2.
The solution of this equation will be of the same form as equa-
tion (15.27), if A radians is the initial amplitude of the torsional
vibrations and cq, £q are substituted for a, b. By analogy, the
ratio of the amplitudes at the beginning and at the end of three
complete oscillations may be obtained from equation (15.30).
Since this ratio is given as 20 to 1, we have
20/1 = e“l/2-3*p or (3/2)a^p = loge 20
and, from equation (15.28),
277
<p -

2TTCII

2 loge 20 = 2-9957
•• 2V{&I-(«I/2) }
377CL\
= &
2-9957 A/{ 1 — (ai/2)2}
\ 9-895<q2 == 6j— aq2/4
.*. aY = V(&i/io-i5)
q 3-27.104.32-2.12
Also h 175-5 sec-2
I ~ 500.122
cq = -\/(175-5/10-15) = 4-16 sec"1
But eq = Tf/7, so that Tt = 4-16.500/32-2 = 64-8 lb ft per
rad/s.
The frequency of the damped vibrations, from equation (15.29):

= 2-08 per sec

Ratio njn — 0-988 or 98-8%

199. Forced Vibrations. A type of vibration of great practical

importance is that in which the body is subjected to an external
XV] VIBRATIONS 555
periodic force. Referring to Fig. 353, let a harmonic force repre-
sented by F cos cot act on the mass. Then the equation of motion
may be written:
Wlg.d2yldt2-\-f.dy/dtd-s.y — F cos cot
or d2y/dt2-\-a.dy/dt-\-by = c cos cot . . (15.31)
where a =fg/W, b = sg/W and c = FgJW.
The complete solution of equation (15.31) is found by adding to
the solution of equation (15.24) of the last article a particular
solution of equation (15.31) as it stands. The particular solution
may be obtained by assuming y — H sin cot-\-K cos cot. Then, on
substituting and equating coefficients, we get
2
caco )
c(b-co
H = K =
2 2 2
(b—co ) -\-a co ’ 2
(b—co ) -f-a o>
2 2 2 2

c
y 2 2 2 2 [aco sin cot-\-(b — co2) cos cot}
(b—cu ) -|-a c(j

This may be written in the alternative and more convenient

form: Q

y = •y/{(6—cu
. /<,K „.2)w
2 i
cos
M-0) (15.32)
+a2cu2}

. aco
where tan p — (15.33)
-co

The complete solution of equation (15.31) is:

y = Ae-u** cos (tot-fi)

In this equation the first term represents the transient

vibration which dies out rapidly owing to the
damping effect of friction. The second term
represents the forced vibration which is main-
tained by the periodic force. Hence, when a
steady state of vibration has been reached, the
motion of the mass is represented completely by
COS Wt
equation (15.32). From this equation the ampli- '

tude of the forced vibration is evidently given by: FIG. 353

ymax ■\Z{(b—co2)2-\-a2co2}

Dividing numerator and denominator by b:

c/b_
2W — ^/(( i —co2 Jb)2 -]-a2co2 jb2} (15.34)

_ FJs — A, the deflection produced by a static load F.

556 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Also b — g/S = (27m)2 and co — 2 77%, where % is the frequency

of the applied periodic force.
ymax = D.A .... (15.35)
where
1
D = VU1 —co2Jb)2 +a2co2/62}

=
Vl{ 1 -(%/w)2}2+(a/27m)2(%/n)2] ' (15 36)
'

Z) is termed the dynamic magnifier, since it gives the factor by

which the static deflection produced by a force F must be multi-
plied in order to obtain the amplitude of the forced vibrations
caused by the harmonic force F cos cot. If the vibration is
undamped, a is zero and the second term under the root sign
vanishes. Hence
1
D = (15.37)
l-(n{/n)2

For the undamped vibration, equation (15.37) shows that D is

infinitely large when n{ = n.
For the damped vibration, equation (15.36) shows that D is
always finite even when % = n.
The phase difference between the force and the displacement
is given by equation (15.33). Dividing the numerator and
denominator by b and substituting b — (27m)2, this equation may
be written:
a/2irn.n{/n
tan [3 = (15.38)
l—(n{/n)2

The solution of the equation of motion for a forced and damped

vibration may also be obtained by the use of vectors. This
method has the advantage that it gives a clearer picture of the
relation between the physical quantities involved.
Let it be assumed that the displacement of the mass in the
system shown in Fig. 353 under the action of the applied simple
harmonic force F cos cot is itself simple harmonic, so that it can
be represented by the equation
y — A cos (cot-fi)
Then
dy/dt = —coA sin (cot—ft) = coA cos {90°-f (cot— fi)}
and
d2y/dt2 = —co2A cos (cot—ft) = co2A cos{180°-f (cot— /?)}
xv] VIBRATIONS 557
The force required to extend the spring
= s.y = sA cos ((ot— ft) . . . (15.39)
the force required to overcome the resistance of the dashpot
= f.dy/dt=fajAcos{90°+{cot-P)} . (15.40)
and the force required to accelerate the mass
= m.d2yldt2 = ma>2A cos (180°-j-(o>£—/3)} (15.41)
The algebraic sum of these three forces must at the given instant
be equal to the applied force F cos cot.

Set off three vectors OA, OB and OC at successive angular

intervals of 90°, as shown in Fig. 354 (a). Let the three vectors
represent to the same scale the maximum values sA, fcoA and
ma>2A of the three forces and let the inclination of OA to the
vertical represent the angle cot— /?. Then the projected lengths
Oa, Ob and Oc of the three vectors along the vertical will clearly
represent the instantaneous values of the three forces at time t,
and Od the algebraic sum of Oa, Ob and Oc must represent the
value F cos cot of the applied force at the same instant.
For this to be true at all values of t, the force vector OD must
be the vector sum of OA, OB and OC or F must be the vector sum
of sA, fcoA and mco2A, as shown at (b).
From the geometry of the figure, we get
F = OD = V((OA-OC)2+OB2}
= A y'Ks — mco2)2-\-f2co2}

0r
A — y^g_mco2)2_|_J2w2).
1 F
2 2 2 2 2
^ ~y/{(\-muo ls) -Ff oo ls Y s
= D.A
where as before A = F/s = the deflection produced by the static
558 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

load F and D is the dynamic magnifier, which may be expressed

in the more convenient form of equation (15.36).
The angle DOA = /3 == phase difference between the force
vector and the displacement vector and
OB fco
tan
P “ OA-OC ~ s-moj2
which may be expressed in the form of equation (15.38).
The effect of increasing the forcing frequency is easily seen. It
increases the length of the vectors OB and OC relative to the
vector OA, so that the angle increases. At resonance, when
n{ = n, the vectors OA and OC are equal in length, so that the
force vector OD coincides with the damping force vector OB, the
phase difference /3 is 90° and A = F/faj. For values of % > n
the vector OC is longer than the vector OA, and the angle /3 > 90°.
In the limit, when n{ = oo, OD coincides with OC, = 180° and
A = Fjmio2 — 0.
xv] VIBRATIONS 559
Values of D and /3 are plotted in Fig. 355 for different values of
nfln and for values of a/27m = 0-1, 0-2 and 0-5.
Values of D for an undamped vibration are also shown. For
convenience they are shown positive throughout the range of
rifln. It will be seen that:
(a) damping has very little effect on D except close to resonance
(when Ufln = 1);
(b) the value of ft changes from 0° when n{/n = 0, to 90° when
nf/n — 1, and to 180° when n^n — oo;
(c) the value of D at resonance is slightly less than the maxi-
mum value.
From equation (15.36) the dynamic magnifier at resonance is
given by:
D = 27m/a (15.42)
There are three important frequencies to be distinguished in
connection with a forced and damped vibration. They are:
(i) the free undamped frequency, given by equation (15.2).
n = (1/2TT)V& = (1/2Tr)V(#)
(ii) the damped frequency, given by equation (15.29)
wd = (1/2T7)V{&-(«/2)2}
= nV(l-a2/4&) = n^{\-l(al2TrnY} . (15.43)
(iii) the forcing frequency which corresponds to maximum
amplitude. This may be obtained from (15.34) by dif-
ferentiating with respect to co and equating to zero, when
it will be found that
a> = 2TT% = V(b —0/2
12)
nf = n\Z(l—a2/2b) = n\/{l—Kaftan)2} . (15.44)
It will be seen that the damped frequency nd is intermediate
between the free undamped frequency n and the forcing frequency
for maximum amplitude. In practical problems of systems
which undergo forced and damped vibrations, a/2-rrn is usually
less than 0*1 and seldom exceeds 0-4, so that the relative values
of the three frequencies considered are:
Natural Damped Forcing frequency
frequency, n frequency, n a for maximum D, nt
When a/2nn = 0-1 1 0-9988 0-9975
When a/27m = 04 1 0-9798 0-9592

It follows that the damped frequency and the forcing frequency

for maximum amplitude may with little error be assumed to be
560 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

identical with the free undamped frequency. Note, too, that

although the maximum value of the dynamic magnifier D
will be slightly greater than its value at resonance, as given
by equation (15.42), the difference is small and may often be
neglected.

Example 6. A mass of 20 lb is suspended from one end of a

spiral spring, the other end of which is fixed. The stiffness of the
spring is 50 lb/in. Damping, which may be assumed proportional
to the velocity, causes the amplitude to decrease to one-tenth of
its initial value in four complete oscillations. If a periodic force
of magnitude 30 cos 50£ lb is applied to the mass, find the am-
plitude of the forced oscillation. What would be the amplitude if
the period of the applied force coincided with the natural period
of vibration of the system ?
Since the amplitude decreases to one-tenth of its initial value
in four oscillations, we have from equation (15.30).
e-'tfp _ io or 2atv = 2-303

Substituting for tp in equation (15.28) and reducing, we get

a1 2/6 = 1/30-02
The static extension of the spring due to gravity = 8 = 20/50
= 0-4 in. and the extension of the spring produced by a steady
force of 30 lb = A =0-6 in.
The dynamic magnifier is given by equation (15.36)

•y/{(l —a)2/b)2 -\-a2u)2/b2}

But b — gjh — 32-2.12/0-4 = 966 (sec-2) and co = 50 (sec-1)

• D = 5
V{( 1 -50 /966)
2 2
+1/30-0.502/966}
_ 1 A n9
— —
+(2-521+0-086)
Hence the amplitude of the forced vibration
D.A = 0-62.0-6 = 0-372 in.
At resonance, from equation (15.42),
D = 2Tm(a = V(b/a2) = V30'0 = 5-48
and the amplitude of the forced vibrations
= 5-48.0-6 = 3-29 in.
XV] VIBRATIONS 561
200. Elastic Suspension. There are two somewhat similar prob-
lems which often arise in practice, (a) A machine may require
to be so supported that the periodic forces to which it gives rise
when operating are, as far as practicable, prevented from reaching
the surrounding structure, (b) An instrument may require to be
so supported that it is, as far as practicable, unaffected by the
vibrations of the surrounding structure. In
both cases the desired effect can be obtained
F cos tut
by supporting the machine or instrument on
suitable springs.
The arrangement is shown diagrammati-
cally in Fig. 356. The machine is supported
on two, or more, springs of total stiffness s
and is assumed to have one degree of free-
dom, i.e. it can move up and down only.
The arrangement is clearly analogous to that FIG. 356

of Fig. 353 except that the springs are in

compression instead of in tension. Hence exactly the same
equation of motion will apply and the amplitude of vibration of
the machine on the springs will be given by equation (15.35).
Both the springs and the dashpot react on the foundation and
the total force transmitted to the foundation is the sum of these
reactions.
From equation (15.32)
y — A cos (cot—ft)
where y — displacement of machine at time t
and A = amplitude of the forced vibrations.
The springs must in any case transmit the weight W of the
machine to the foundation, so that the total reaction of the springs
at time t TT7 , . , , m
= W-\-sy = IF+sA cos (cot—ft)
Also dy/d£ — —a>A sin (cot—ft)
and the reaction of the dashpot on the foundation
= —fcoA sin (cut—)8)

the total force transmitted to the foundation

= TF+sA cos (cot— ft) —feu A sin (wt-fi)
= W-f Ay'(s2-f-/2o»2) cos (cot—P+y)
where tan y =fco/s.
The maximum value of the periodic force transmitted to the
foundation = A ^2 _|_/2Ct>2)
562 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

The ratio of the force transmitted to the force applied is termed

the transmissibility of the spring support and is given by
«= (A/F)V(s2+/2^2)
But A — D.A, from equation (15.35), and A = F/s.
« = (D/sW(s2+f2co2) = DVil+fW/s*)
= Dy/{l+(a/27rn)2(nf/n)2}
and, substituting for D from equation (15.36),
l + (a/27m)2(wf/w)2
e = (15.45)
(1 — (n{ln)2}2-\-(a/27rn)2(nf/n)2
If there is no damping this equation reduces to
1
6
l—(n{/n)2
For values of nt]n > 1, e is negative, which nlerely means that
there is a phase difference of 180° between the transmitted force
and the disturbing force. The value of nr/n must be greater than
-y/2, if c is to be less than 1, and it is the numerical value of e, inde-
pendent of any phase difference between the forces that may
exist, which is important. It is therefore more convenient to
change the sign on the right-hand side of the equation and write
1
6
(15.46)
(%/n)2 —1
Values of e for different amounts of damping are plotted against
the frequency ratio in Fig. 357. It will be seen that the curves
all pass through the point e = 1, when nf/n — \/2 and that
e < 1 for all values of nf/n > \/2. Since the purpose of the
spring support is to ensure that the force transmitted to the
foundation is less than the periodic force which arises from the
operation of the machine, it follows that the stiffness of the spring
support should be so chosen that nfln is as large as possible. It
is also apparent from the curves that for a given value of the
frequency ratio, greater than p2, the effectiveness of the springs
is reduced by an increase of damping. Against this must be set
the fact that increased damping reduces the amplitude of vibra-
tion of the machine on the springs at resonance and it is, of course,
necessary to pass through the resonant condition when the machine
is started from rest.
An arrangement of the kind just considered is just as effective
in insulating the machine or instrument from vibrations which
originate in the structure from which it is supported. The
essential requirement is that the ratio nf/n shall be as large as
xv] VIBRATIONS 563
possible, the natural frequency of vibration of the machine or
instrument on its elastic supports being as low as possible relative
to the disturbing frequency.
If the curves of e, Fig. 357, and of D, Fig. 355, are compared, it
will be seen that they have a similar shape, but for a given value
of the damping and of the frequency ratio e > D, and the per-
centage difference increases with increase of the frequency ratio.

Ratio ll
n

FIG. 357

Example 7. A machine has a total mass of 200 lb and un-

balanced reciprocating parts of mass 3 lb which move through a
vertical stroke of 3-5 in. with S.H.M. The machine is mounted
on four springs, symmetrically arranged with respect to its centre
of mass, in such a way that the machine has one degree of freedom
and can undergo vertical displacements only.
Neglecting damping, calculate the combined stiffness of the
springs in order that the force transmitted to the foundation shall
not exceed one-thirtieth of the applied force, when the speed of
rotation of the machine crankshaft is 1200 r.p.m.
When the machine is actually supported on the springs, it is
found that damping reduces the amplitude of successive free
vibrations by 20%. Find: (a) the fraction of the applied force
564 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

which is actually transmitted at 1200 r.p.m., (b) the amplitude of

the forced vibrations of the machine at resonance and the corre-
sponding value of the force transmitted.
The value of e is given as 1/30, so that if damping is neglected
equation (15.46) applies and
1 _ 1
30 ~ (nf/n)2 — 1
nf/n = +31 = 5-568
Since the forcing frequency is 1200 per min, the natural fre-
quency of vibration of the machine on the springs == 1200/5-588
= 215-5 per min.
The corresponding static deflection of the springs, from equa-
tion (15.4) is
S = (215-5./187-7)2 = 1-32 in.
and the required combined stiffness of the springs
= 8 = W/B = 200/1-32 = 152 lb/in.
(a) Assuming linear damping, the damping factor aj27rn may
be obtained as explained in example 4.
From equation (15.30)
(a/2)(p = loge & = 0-2231
and, substituting for tv from equation (15.28),
6—(a/2)2 = (7ra/0-2231)2
a2/6 = 1/198 and a^n = +(a2/&) = V14 1
* = 0-0709
The actual value of the transmissibility from equation (15.45)
is given by:
l+0-07092.5-5682
e =
(1 —5-5682)2+0-07092.5-5682
/ 1+0-156 1
V 900+0-156 27A)
The maximum unbalanced force on the machine at 1200 r.p.m.
due to the reciprocating parts
3 + .1200^ 2 7
( I — = 217 lb
J
32-2!, 30 ' '48
and the maximum force transmitted to the foundation
= 217/27-9 = 7-8 lb
XV] VIBRATIONS 565
(b) At resonance, nf/n = 1 and from equation (15.45)
/1+0-07092 / 1-0050
C 2 = 14,1
“V 0-0709 “ V 0-00503
The maximum unbalanced force on the machine at the resonant
speed 215-5 r.p.m.
= 217(215-5/1200)2 = 7 lb
and the maximum force transmitted to the foundation =14-1 7
= 98-7 lb.
From (15.42) the dynamic magnifier
= D = 27rn\a = 14-1
The static deflection of the springs caused by the force of 7 lb is
given by A = 7/152 = 0-0461 in. so that the amplitude of the
forced vibrations at resonance = D.A = 14-1.0-0461 = 0-650 in.
201. Critical or Whirling Speeds. In the nature of things the
centre of gravity of a loaded shaft will always be displaced from
the axis of rotation, although the amount of the dis-
placement may be very small. This displacement
may be due to one or more of a number of causes,
such as eccentric mounting of the discs or rotors
with which the shaft is loaded, lack of straightness
of the shaft, bending under the action of gravity in
the case of a horizontal shaft, unbalanced magnetic
pull in the case of electrical machinery, etc. As a
result of this initial displacement the centre of
gravity is subjected to a centripetal acceleration as
soon as the shaft begins to rotate. The inertia FIG. 358

force acts radially outwards and bends the shaft,

thus increasing the displacement of the centre of gravity from
the axis of rotation. The effect is therefore cumulative.
(a) Whirling of a Shaft with a Single Rotor. Fig. 358 shows a
rotor of weight W attached to a vertical shaft of negligible mass.
Let s = stiffness of the shaft, i.e. the force required in the plane
of rotation of the disc in order to produce unit
deflection of the shaft,
h — initial displacement of the c.g. of W from the axis of
rotation
and y = additional displacement of the c.g. from the axis of
rotation, due to bending of the shaft under the action
of the inertia force, when the shaft rotates at a
uniform speed a> radians per sec.
566 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

Then the radial outward inertia, or centrifugal force

= (W/g)co2(y+h)
This is balanced by the inward elastic pull exerted by the shaft,
the magnitude of which is s.y.
(Wlg)co2(y-\-h) — s.y
h y i
y 2 r
“ sg/Wco -! ° h sg/Wco2 — l
Let w2 — sg/W = gj8, where § is the static deflection under the
load when the shaft is placed horizontal and is subjected to the
pull of gravity. Then
1
y_ (15.47)
h [cojco)2 1
The ratio y/h will be infinitely large when the denominator of this
expression is zero, i.e. when co — coG.
This value of co is termed the critical or whirling speed.
Expressed in r.p.m.:
L 187-8
Nc VI
7ry o ~V8~
(15.48)

where S is the static deflection in inches.

Note that this equation is identical with equation (15.4), which
gives the frequency of the free transverse vibrations of the same
system.
Equation (15.47) may be written:
1
y
h ~ (NJN)2-1
It will be seen from this equation that when N/Nc is very large,
y/h tends towards the limiting value —1. This result is interest-
ing as showing that, if the shaft is run at a speed in excess of the
critical, the tendency is for the shaft to deflect so that the axis
of rotation passes through the centre of gravity of the rotor.
Use is made of this fact in the case of high-speed shafts, such
as those of small impulse turbines, where the normal running speed
is much in excess of the critical speed, with the result that the
shaft runs with exceptional steadiness.
Although not strictly correct, since it assumes much simpler
conditions for the motion than those which actually obtain, the
following alternative way of looking at the problem may help
the student to understand what happens when the running speed
coincides with the frequency of the free transverse vibrations.
Let us suppose that the shaft is running at a uniform speed of co
radians per second, where co is less than the critical value coc and
XV] VIBRATIONS 567
that the centre line of the shaft takes up the position shown by
the full line of Fig. 358. In this position we have:

(W/g)co2(y-\-h) = s.y
If a sharp blow is now given to the shaft, so that the deflection is
increased by the amount A, the centrifugal force will be increased
by the amount (IFlg)co2A and the elastic force by the amount s.A.
Under the assumed conditions, co < a>c, the increase of elastic
force is greater than the increase of centrifugal force and an un-
balanced force sA—(W/g)co2A or (s—(W/g)co2JA acts on the rotor.
The shaft therefore begins to move back to the position which it
occupied before the blow was struck. It is clear that in these
circumstances the shaft will vibrate transversely while at the same
time rotating about its axis. The conditions so far as the trans-
verse vibration is concerned are analogous to those of a shaft
which is not rotating, but the effective stiffness is reduced from
2
s to 5—(IF/g)co . The frequency of the vibrations of the shaft is
therefore lower when rotating and may be found by substituting
the effective stiffness in equation (15.1).
It follows that, as the speed of rotation of the shaft increases,
the frequency of the transverse vibrations diminishes until, when
co — a>c, s—(W/g)a>2 — 0, i.e. the effective stiffness of the shaft is
zero, and the frequency of the transverse vibrations is zero. At
the speed coc the shaft is in a state of neutral equilibrium, since for
all values of y which are possible without straining the material
of the shaft beyond the limit of proportionality, the inertia force is
exactly balanced by the elastic force.
In practice, as the speed of rotation of a shaft is gradually
increased, the reduction of effective stiffness results in a whirl or
region of instability arising in the neighbourhood of the value
co — coc. It is for this reason that this particular speed is termed
the critical or whirling speed.
(b) Whirling Speeds for Other Systems of Loading. The whirl-
ing speed of a shaft which carries a single disc has been shown to
be identical with the frequency of the free transverse vibrations
of the same shaft. The whirling speed of a uniformly loaded shaft
may be shown to be identical with the frequency of its free trans-
verse vibrations, since the dynamic load per unit length of the
rotating shaft is clearly given by the expression (w/g)co2y, so that
equation (15.10), Article 196, applies to the uniformly loaded
shaft, whether that shaft is vibrating transversely or is rotating.
We are therefore justified in assuming that the whirling speed and
the frequency of the transverse vibrations are identical for a shaft
with any other system of loading. It is therefore possible to use
568 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

the methods of Article 197 in order to determine the whirling

speed of a shaft which carries a number of concentrated loads at
different points along its length.
202. Torsional Vibration. Two-rotor System. In practice the
problem of torsional vibration seldom presents itself in so simple a
form as that dealt with in Article 194. There are often two, and
frequently more, rotors attached to the shaft, and the latter is
often made up of lengths of different diameters. For instance,
consider the two-mass system shown in Fig. 359 (a). The first
step is to replace the actual shaft by a shaft of uniform diameter

to which it is torsionally equivalent. A torsionally equivalent

shaft is one which twists through exactly the same angle as the
actual shaft, when equal and opposite torques of given amount
are applied to the two rotors. Let us suppose that l is the length
of shaft of uniform diameter d which will satisfy this condition.
Let qi, q2, etc., be the torques required to produce unit angle of
twist on the lengths ll} l2, etc., where
q\ = CJi/li — (•7r/32)(di4/Z1)(7, q2 = (7r/32)(d24/L)C, etc.
Then, if equal and opposite unit torques are applied to the rotors
A and B, the total angle of twist of B relative to A is given by the
sum of the twists produced in each of the lengths Zl5 l2, etc.
The twist of length lx under unit torque = ljq1 and the twist of
length 12 under unit torque = l/g2, etc.
.’. total twist of B relative to A = l/<Zi + l/<?2+ • • •
= (32/77L)(Z1/d14-fT2M244- • • •)
But the twist of B relative to A, when the two rotors are connected
by a shaft of length l and uniform diameter d, is given by:
1/q = 32/irC J/d4
32/TTC.l/d± = (S2/vC){ll/dl*+l2/d2*+ . . .)

.. I — ^i(d/di)4-f-Z2(d/d2)4-)- . . .
 XV] VIBRATIONS 569
To save labour it is convenient to reduce the shaft to an equiva-
lent length of diameter equal to that of one of the sections of the
actual shaft. Thus the equivalent length of diameter d1 is given
by:
^ = ^1 h^2(^1/^2)4~l~^3(^1/^3“f- • • • • (15.49)
The system (b) is then torsionally equivalent to the system (a).
When such a system vibrates torsionally the two flywheels, or
rotors, twist in opposite directions and at some point along the
shaft there is a node, i.e. a section of the shaft which remains un-
disturbed by the vibration. The system behaves as though the
shaft were clamped at the node, each of the two sections into
which the node divides the system vibrating with the same fre-
quency but opposite in phase. In practice the torsional vibrations
occur while the system as a whole is turning with a certain mean
angular velocity and power is being transmitted along the shaft.
But for the purpose of calculating the frequency of the vibrations
the shaft may be assumed to be at rest. Referring to Fig. 359 (b),
let the node divide the shaft into the two parts Za and lh and let
7a, 7b be the mass moments of inertia of the two rotors. Then
the frequency of vibration of the system to the left of the node,
from equation (15.5), is given by:

and the frequency of the system to the right of the node is given
similarly by:

b
_! I(CJ i\
" - 2W \ ■ij
But these two frequencies must be equal:

177 l(9L1\ _ _L U9L

2 V \h 27T*J \ Zb 7b/
• L1 LT tIT
l
• • a,- & — b- b

i.e. the node divides the length of the shaft inversely as the mass
moments of inertia of the rotors, or

l
* = T~tr-1 (15-51)
The position of the node having been found from equation
(15.51), the frequency of the vibrations may be calculated from
equation (15.50).
570 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

If de and fg represent to scale the amplitudes of the oscillations

of the two rotors A and B, then the straight line eg will pass through
the node. The amplitude of oscillation at any section of the shaft
will be represented to scale by the distance of eg from the axis df
at that section. The line eg is called the elastic line of the
shaft.
Example 8. Referring to Fig. 359 (a), let the moments of
inertia of the rotors A and B be respectively 1500 lb ft2 and
1000 lb ft2, the lengths llt l2, l3, h and l5 be respectively 11, 10,
15, 4 and 10 in., and the diameters dx, d2, d3, d4 and d5 be respec-
tively 3, 5, 3-5, 7 and 5 in. Find the frequency of the natural
torsional oscillations of the system.
The equivalent length of shaft of diameter 3 in. is found from
equation (15.49):
l = ll+20(3/5)4 + 15(3/3-5)4+4(3/7)4
= 11+2-59 + 8-1+0-135 = 21-83 in.
The distance of the node from rotor A is given by equation
(15.51):
1000
i __A_ .1 .21-83 = 8-73 in.
4+4
a
"
1500 + 1000
CJ 12.106 77 4
& = L .3 = 10-92.106 lb in./rad
8-73 ' 32
„ 1 /& _ 1 /10-92.106.32-2.12
2 = -V(l-95.104)
“ 277A/ L ~ 2W 1500.12
= 22-2 per sec

203. Torsional Vibration. Three-rotor System. The method

of the last article may be applied to systems in which there are
three or more rotors. As before, the first step is to reduce the
actual shaft to an equivalent shaft of uniform diameter. Refer-
ring to Fig. 360 (a), which shows a three-rotor system, there are
two possible natural or normal modes of vibration, in which the
rotors all reach their extreme positions at the same instant and
all pass through their equilibrium positions at the same instant.
There will be a different natural frequency for each of these normal
modes. In one mode there is a single node between A and B or
between B and C and the oscillations of the outside rotors A and
C are opposite in phase, while in the other mode there are two
nodes, one between A and B and the other between B and C and
the oscillations of the outside rotors are in phase. The relative
amplitudes of the three rotors for the one-node and the two-node
xv] VIBRATIONS 571
vibrations are shown respectively in Fig. 300 (b) and (c). It is
assumed in (b) that the node lies between B and C. For the two-
node vibration, let Za be the distance of one node from A and l0

the distance of the other node from C. Also let 7a, 7b and /c be
the mass moments of inertia of the three rotors. Then the fre-
quency for the left-hand rotor, from equation (15.5):

- ij(x-r)
Similarly, for the right-hand rotor:

For the middle rotor:

-Llfci)
b
- 2-irfJ /„
where qh, the torque required to twist B through 1 rad when the
shaft is fixed at the nodes, is the sum of the torques required
to produce a twist of 1 rad in each of the lengths Za and l2—10.
CJ CJ I 1 1
+
•• - h-Vh-le “ \h-l, h-h
and, substituting for qb

Since the frequencies na, nh and nc must all be equal, the three
equations enable a quadratic in (or le) to be obtained. The two
572 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

roots of this quadratic give the positions of the nodes for the one-
node and the two-node vibration frequencies. The actual fre-
quencies are obtained by substituting the two values of Za in the
equation for na.
Note that only one of these two values of may give the posi-
tion of a real node, while the other gives the point at which the
elastic line between A and B, when produced, cuts the axis of the
shaft.
We have seen that a two-rotor system has one natural frequency
of vibration, while a three-rotor system has two. In general, the
number of different natural frequencies of a given system is one
less than the number of rotors in the system. Where a system
with a large number of rotors is involved, the method used in this
article for finding the frequency would require the solution of
an equation of higher degree than the second. Such equations
can only be solved by trial and error and a more convenient
practical method of finding the frequency is given in the next
article.

Example 9. The moments of inertia of 3 rotors A, B and C are

respectively 2*5 ton ft2, 7-5 ton ft2 and 3-0 ton ft2. The distance
between A and B is 9 ft 6 in. and between B and C is 25 ft. The
shaft is 8-5 in. dia. and the modulus of rigidity for the shaft
material is 11-8.106 lb/in2. Find the frequencies of the free
torsional vibrations of the system.
Referring to Fig. 360, if we equate the frequency of vibration
of /a on the length l& of shaft, to the frequency of vibration of/c,
on the length lc of shaft, we have:
Uc (1)
Similarly, if we equate the frequencies for 7a and 7b, we get:
_1 1/1 1 \
^a/a Ibv'l ^a ^2 ^c!
. j 1 pl + ^2 —(^a~Hc)l
*• h\(h-W2-ic)S
(^i la)(l 2 lc) = (IJIh).l a{/i -j-/2 — (^a~Hc)} • (2)
Substituting for /a and 7C in (1):

k = (3-0/2-5& = 1-2 lc
Also, substituting for ll} l2, l&, 7a and 7b in (2):
(9-5 —1*2ZC)(25—ZC) = (2-5/7-6)l-2Zc(34-5—2-2Zc)
xv] VIBRATIONS 573
237-5-39-5Zc + l-2Zc2 = 13-8Zc-0-88?c2
2-08Zc2-53-3Zc+237-5 = 0
Zc2 —25-6Zc +114-1 = 0
lc = 19-88 ft or 5-74 ft
and Za = 23-86 ft or 6-89 ft
The fundamental frequency will be that which corresponds to
the larger of these two values of lc or Za.
The torsional stiffness of the length L of shaft —q= CJIL.
When l0 = 19-88 ft,
11-8.106 7T A „ „ . , ,
8 5 2 54 10, Ibm
»■ = 19^02-32- ' = • • -/rad
3,0
Also Jc = :fo4°;122 = 2-50.103 lb in. sec2
32-2.12
fundamental frequency of vibration,
1 lqc 1 /2-54.107
= = W/t =
W 2^TTO3 =160 Per sec or 960 Per min

and the two-node frequency

= 16-0y/(19-88/5-74) = 29-8 per sec or 1788 per min

If the amplitude of rotor A is assumed to be 1 rad, then, for

the fundamental vibration, the amplitude of rotor B
Za—lx 23-86—9-5
= 0-602 rad
Za 23-86
lc
and the amplitude of rotor C = y—
v
y . amplitude of B
c 19 —

19-88
.0-602 = — 2-34 rad
19-88—25-0'

For the two-node vibration, the amplitude of rotor B

Za—lx 6-89—9-5
= —0-379 rad
k 6-89
l
and the amplitude of rotor C = y—c y . amphtude of B
io ^9!

5-74
-0-379 = 0-113 rad.
5-74—25'

Fig. 360 is drawn to scale to correspond to the particulars of

this example.
574 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

A convenient check on the arithmetic is provided by the fact

that for each mode of vibration 2(/A) should be zero. (See
Article 204.)

204. Torsional Vibration. Multi-rotor Systems. A shaft of

uniform diameter which carries several rotors is shown in Fig. 361.
Such a system has several normal modes of vibration each with
its appropriate frequency. In this case there are five normal
modes, equal to the number of sections into which the rotors
divide the total length of shaft. For each mode there is a different
elastic line which shows the relative amplitudes of vibration of the
individual rotors. The elastic line for the fundamental, or lowest,
natural frequency intersects the axis of the shaft at one point
only, as shown in Fig. 361. The elastic lines for the higher fre-
quencies intersect the axis at two, three, four and five points.
Each point of intersection gives a node and the larger the number

of nodes, the higher is the frequency. If there is one node, the

vibration is said to be of the first degree. If there are two nodes,
the vibration is of the second degree, and so on.
If equal and opposite couples are applied to the end rotors, so
as to twist the shaft, and the couples are then suddenly removed,
the system will not vibrate in a normal mode, since the relative
angular displacements of the rotors will not correspond to a
normal elastic line. But, after a time, the relative displacements
will tend to adjust themselves to correspond to the fundamental
frequency. To start the system vibrating in a normal mode it is
necessary to give to each rotor the relative angular displacement
appropriate to that mode.
In what follows, the method of finding the natural frequency
 xv] VIBRATIONS 575
of tlio fundamental mode is given, but the same procedure is
adopted to find the natural frequencies of the other normal
modes.
Let A, with the appropriate suffix, be the amplitude in radians
of the torsional oscillation of a given rotor. Let to = where
n is the vibration frequency per second. Then, so long’as the
stresses in the material of the shaft do not exceed the limit of
proportionality, each rotor will oscillate with simple harmonic
motion. The maximum angular acceleration of a rotor is to2A,
when the rotor is at the extremity of its swing, and the torque
which the rotor exerts on the shaft is given by:
T = Ico2A (15.52)
When vibrating freely the only torques which act on the system
are the inertia torques and at any instant the algebraic sum of the
inertia torques must be zero. Hence, when all the rotors are in
their extreme positions,
SfZ7 = 0, .*. Z(Ito2A) = 0
Since to is the same for all rotors, this may be written:
2(/A) =0 (15.53)
It is also clear that, if the inertia of the shaft is neglected, there
will be no change in the torque as it is transmitted along the shaft
from one rotor to the adjacent rotor. Consequently, the difference
between the amplitudes of vibration of adjacent rotors will be
equal to the angle of twist of the shaft due to the torque trans-
mitted from the one rotor to the other.
Starting with the left-hand rotor of the system, the maximum
inertia torque is T& and this is also the torque transmitted along
the length of shaft. The angle of twist of is given by Tl/ql,
where qx = CJ= the stiffness of the length lY of shaft.
A
•• a, A = TJqi (15.54)
A
= A~TJql
=
ASL—Ia,to2AJq1 . . (15.55)
Similarly, the torque transmitted along l2 is the algebraic sum
of the inertia torques of the rotors A and B and is given by
^a+Tb. The angle of twist of l2 when transmitting this torque
is (Ta+7’b)/(72, where q2 = CJJl2 = the stiffness of the length U2
of shaft. °
/. Ah-Ac = (Ta+Th)/q2 .... (15.56)
A
c = A-{^!q2){hA&+hAb) . (15.57)
576 THE THEORY OE MACHINES [CHAP.

A similar expression may be written down by analogy for the

amplitude of vibration of any other rotor.
These results are applied to the multi-rotor system as follows.
The amplitude of vibration Aa is assumed arbitrarily to have any
convenient magnitude, say 1 rad. A value is then arbitrarily
assumed for a>. As a rule an approximate value of a> may be
obtained by reducing the multi-rotor system to an equivalent two
or three-rotor system. The amplitudes of the other rotors may
then be calculated from equations (15.55), (15.57), etc. Finally
the sum of the products IA for all the rotors is determined.
According to equation (15.53), this sum must be zero for the
correct value of a>. If the sum is not zero, then another value of a>
must be tried. Two or three trials will generally suffice to fix
the correct value. The lowest value of a> which enables (15.53) to
be satisfied corresponds to the fundamental or first degree vibration.
If Aa, Ab, etc., Fig. 361, represent to scale the amplitudes of
vibration of the rotors A, B, etc., and their extremities are joined
by straight lines, the elastic line of the shaft is obtained. It shows
how the angular twist of the shaft varies from point to point along
its length. The point of intersection of the elastic line and the
axis of the shaft determines the position of the node.
It is easily seen that the frequency of vibration of the system is
the same as that of the single rotor If attached to the shaft of
length lf, where lf is the distance from the rotor F of the point at
which that part of the elastic line between the rotors E and F,
produced if necessary, intersects the axis of the shaft.
Similarly, the frequency of vibration of the system is the same
as that of the single rotor /a attached to the shaft of length la,
where la is the distance from the rotor A of the point at which
that part of the elastic line between the rotors A and B, produced
if necessary, intersects the axis of the shaft.
There will be other and higher values of o> which enable equation
(15.53) to be satisfied. These correspond to the second-, third-,
etc., degree vibrations. Each value of to will give a different
elastic line. The positions of the nodes for each frequency are
determined by the points of intersection of the elastic line with
the axis of the shaft.
The calculations may be conveniently set down in a table, as
in the following example.

Example 10. A four-cylinder engine drives a motor vessel.

The equivalent moment of inertia of the revolving and the recipro-
cating parts of each cylinder is 0-625 ton ft2, that of the flywheel
is 7 -5 ton ft2 and that of the propeller, with an allowance for en-
trained water, is 3-0 ton ft2. The equivalent shaft is 8-5 in. dia.
xv] VIBRATIONS 577
and the distances between the masses are shown in Fig. 362. Find
the frequency of the fundamental torsional vibrations of the
system and also that of the two-node vibrations. C = 11-8.106
lb/in2.
As a first approximation, the four engine masses A, B, C and D
may be combined into a single rotor G, shown dotted in the figure.
The moment of inertia of G is 2-5 ton ft2 and its distance from E
is 114 in. or 9-5 ft. The equivalent three-rotor system, G, E, F,
has already been worked out in Example 9. The frequencies of
vibration were found to be 16-0 per sec and 29-8 per sec. The
corresponding values of to are 100-5 and 187 rad/s.
For the fundamental vibration the value of a> may be assumed
as a first approximation to be 100 rad/s.
The mass moment of inertia of each engine rotor
0-625.2240.122
= 521 lb in. sec2
32-2.12
The mass moment of inertia of the flywheel
7-5.2240.12
6250 lb in. sec2
32^2
The mass moment of inertia of the propeller
3-0.2240.12
2500 lb in. sec2
32-2
The following table may then be filled in.
to = 100; to2 = 10 000.

/-MO3, l, -XlO3 A, 2(/^)

/.4-M03
lb in sec2 in. lb in. per 2 radians -MO3 radians
rad

0-521 1-0000 0-521 0- 521

46 13-14 0-0761 0-0396
0-521 0-9604 0-500 1- 021
46 13-14 0-0761 0-0777
0-521 0-8827 0-460 1-481
46 13-14 0-0761 0-1127
0-521 0-7700 0-401 1-882
45 13-42 0-0745 0-1402
6-25 0-6298 3-936 5-818
300 2-02 0-495 2-878
2-50 -2-248 -5-620 0-198

The first three columns of this table are filled in from the known
dimensions of the system, while the fourth column is filled in
from the assumed value of o>. The amplitude of the left-hand
engine rotor is assumed to be 1 radian in column five and the first
entries in columns six and seven follow at once. The first entry
in column eight is obtained by multiplying together the first
19—T.M.
578 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

entries in columns four and seven. This gives the twist of the
length of shaft between rotors A and B, so that the amplitude of
the rotor B is found by subtracting 0-0396 from 1-000. The
difference, 0-9604 radian, is entered on the second line of column
five. The entry in the second line of column six then follows
and is added to the first entry in order to give 2 (/A) for the rotors
A and B. This sum is entered in the second line of column seven
and is multiplied by the second entry in column four to give the

second entry in column eight. The process is repeated in order

to complete the table.
From column seven, 2{IA) for the complete system is +0-198.
It should of course be zero for the correct value of to. For odd-
degree vibrations, i.e first, third, fifth, etc., a positive value of
2(/A) shows that the assumed value of to is too low. It will
therefore be necessary to repeat the calculations for a higher
value of to. In the table below to has been assumed to be 102.
a> = 102; to2 = 10 400.

W-S(IA),
Jd-103,
3 1 531

l, A, X(IA)
CO
O

IA+103
X

lb in.sec2 in. lb in. per radians d-103 radians

rad

0-521 1-0000 0-521 0- 521

46 13-14 0-0792 0-0413
0-521 0-9587 0-499 1- 020
46 13-14 0-0792 0-0808
0-521 0-8779 0-457 1-477
46 13-14 0-0792 0-1169
0-521 0-7610 0-396 1-873
45 13-42 0-0775 0-1451
6-25 0-6159 3-847 5-720
300 2-02 0-515 2-945
2-50 -2-329 -5-823 -0-103

For this value of to, the value of 2(/M) is negative. This

indicates that to is too high.
xv] VIBRATIONS 579
The calculations may be repeated with co = 101, or, alternatively,
the correct value of co may be found by simple proportion, since
it will be found that, if the values of Z(/A) are plotted against
the corresponding values of co2 for several different values of co
close to the true value, the resulting curve is practically a straight
line.
0-198
correct value of co2 = 10 000-}
0-198+0-103'400
= 10 260

correct value of to = 101-3 rad/s

fundamental frequency = (30/w)101-3 = 967 per min

The frequency of the two-node vibrations is found from

Example 9 to be 29-8 per sec, which corresponds to a value of co
of 187. As a first approximation, assume co = 200 and draw up a
table similar to those shown above. The value of 2 (+4) is found
to be —0-238. For vibrations of even degree this shows that the
assumed value of co is too low. The calculations are then repeated
with a slightly higher value of co and after one or two trials the
correct value of co is found to be 200-7. This corresponds to a
frequency of 31-9 per sec or 1916 per min
The relative amplitudes of the rotors are given by column five
of the table, drawn up for the correct value of co. These ampli-
tudes may be used to plot the elastic lines for the fundamental
and the two-node vibrations; as shown in Fig. 362, which is drawn
to scale for the particulars of this example.
The usual method of finding the natural frequencies of torsional
oscillation of a multi-rotor system by trial and error has just been
given, but the following modification will be found to reduce
appreciably the amount of arithmetical work involved. It con-
sists in finding the true shape of the elastic line by a process of
trial and error. The simplification lies in the fact that the shape
of the elastic line is quite independent of the diameter of the shaft
and depends only on (a) the relative spacing of the rotors along
the shaft, and (b) the relative moments of inertia of the rotors.
The system is therefore first reduced to its simplest form by
expressing each moment of inertia in terms of one which is taken
as unity, and each distance between adjacent rotors in terms of
one which is also taken as unity.
Referring to Fig. 361, the frequency of torsional vibration of
the multi-rotor system is identical with that of the rotor A on a
shaft of length /a.
580 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

But the maximum angle of twist of the length Zx of shaft, from

equation (15.54),
— SAX = Aa—Ah — TJqx = I&oAAJqx
and substituting for oA,

8A1 = Aa-Ab = (qJql)A& = (h/QA* • (15.58)

Similarly, the maximum angle of twist of the length l2 of shaft,
from equation (15.56),
T 4- 7k OA
= $A2 = Ab—Ac — —— = —(/aAa+7bHb)
72 72
2
and substituting for co ,

7a I a. A a ~1~ 7bA b _ l2 I&A&-\-IbAb (15.59)

SA2 — Ab—Ac
72 7a /a /a
A similar expression may be written down for the angle of
twist of any other section of the shaft. Thus for the section
between the nth and the (n-f-l)th rotors, we get
In ^1(1 A)
8Ar -A n+1 (15.60)

It will be seen that in evaluating SAj, §A2, etc., from these

equations, the lengths lA, lx, etc., and the moments of inertia
/a, Ib, etc., appear simply as ratios.
To illustrate the application of the method, the particulars of
Example 10, p. 576, will be used.
The moment of inertia of each of the engine rotors A, B, C, D,
is taken as unity, so that the corresponding moment of inertia
of the engine flywheel is 7-5/0-625 = 12 and that of the propeller
is 3-0/0-625 = 4-8. Also the cylinder pitch is taken as unity, so
that the corresponding distance between the rotors D and E is
45 in./46 in = 0-9781 and that between the rotors E and F is
300 in./46 in. = 6-521. The system reduced to its simplest form
then appears as shown in Fig. 363.
The approximate distance from the rotor A, at which that part
of the elastic line between the rotors A and B when produced
intersects the axis of the shaft, may be found from the solution of
the equivalent three-rotor system, which is given in Example 9,
p. 572. In that example it was found that the fundamental node
was 19-88 ft from the propeller rotor F, so that the corresponding
distance Za of the pseudo-node from the engine rotor A in the
complete system is evidently given by
= 19-88.4-8 = .95-42 ft
XV] VIBRATIONS 581
or, in terms of the cylinder pitch,
la — 95-42.12/46 = 24-89
This may be used as a first approximation in finding the true
shape of the elastic line.

7 7 7 7 12 4-8

The following table may then be filled in.

7a = 24-89 times the cylinder pitch.

Rotor I l A IA E(/A) SA
A 1-0 1-0000 1-0000 1-0000
1-0 0-0402
B 1-0 0-9598 0-9598 1-9598
1-0 0-0787
C 1-0 0-8811 0-8811 2-8409
1-0 0-1141
D 1-0 0-7670 0-7670 3-6079
0-978 0-1418
E 12-0 0-6252 7-5024 11-1103
6-521 2-910
F 4-8 -2-285 -10-968 0-142

The first three columns give the data for the simplified system
shown in Tig. 363. The first entry in column four gives the ampli-
tude of the rotor A, which is assumed to be 1 rad. The first
entries in columns five and six follow at once. The first entry in
column seven is calculated from equation (15.58). This gives the
582 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

twist of the length of shaft between the rotors A and B, and sub-
tracting it from 1 -0000, the first entry in column four, we get the
amplitude of the rotor B, 0-9598, which is entered in the second
line of this column. The product of I and A for rotor B is entered
on the second line of column five, and the sum of the first two items
in this column is entered on the second line of column six. The
angle of twist of the length of shaft between the rotors B and C
is then calculated from equation (15.59) and entered on the second
line of column seven. The process is repeated until the table is
completed.
If Za is correct the last line in column six will be zero, since
this represents E(/A) for the complete system, which according
to equation (15.53) should be zero for a free vibration. The
small positive remainder indicates that the elastic line finishes a
little too high at the last rotor F. The correct value of Za must
therefore be somewhat smaller than the assumed value of 24-89
times the cylinder pitch. A second trial value of, say, 24-5 times
the cylinder pitch is next used and the calculations are repeated.
This gives a negative value in the last line of column six, actually
—0-087, thus showing that the correct value of lies between
the two trial values. By interpolation we find that the correct
value is 24-65 times the cylinder pitch.
Hence the fundamental natural frequency of torsional vibration
is identical with that of a rotor of moment of inertia 0-625 ton ft2
on a shaft of length 24-65.46 — 1134 in.
Since the diameter of the shaft is 8-5 in., the frequency of the
fundamental torsional vibrations of the system is given by

30
= 965 per min
77

This agrees with the value found by the first method.

205. Torsional Vibration. Multi-rotor System. Graphical

Method. The following simple graphical method of finding the
frequency of vibration of a multi-rotor system is based on an
article by K. Waimann.1 It is essentially a graphical method of
obtaining, by a process of trial and error, the true shape of the
elastic line of the shaft.
The method will be best explained by considering an actual
example. For this purpose the particulars of Example 10 will be
1
Z.V.D.I., Sept. 15, 1934.
XV] VIBRATIONS 583
used. For a system of this type the node for the fundamental
vibration will lie somewhere between the rotors E and F, Fig. 364.
Its actual position may be guessed, or may be found approxi-
mately by solving the equivalent three-rotor system. Thus,
it follows from Example 9, that the node is approximately 19-88
ft from the rotor F. But, to show more clearly the effect of a
wrongly assumed position for the node, we shall take it at the
point X, 20-5 ft. (246 in.) from F.
The amplitude of vibration of the rotor F may be represented
by any convenient distance mal5 Fig. 364, preferably so as to
give an angle axXm of approximately 45°.
Draw a line py perpendicular to the axis of the shaft, as shown
at the right of the figure. Take any convenient polar distance op.

Through o draw oq parallel to Xax to cut py at q; set off a^

perpendicular to max and equal in length to pq; join kx to m.
Produce a:X to cut the plane of rotation of E at e. Draw a
line through e parallel to the axis of the shaft and let a2k2 be the
intercept on this line between a^ produced and kLm produced.
Set off qr along yp equal in length to a2k2 ./e//f. Note that, since
the amplitude of E is opposite in sign to that of F, qr is set off in
the opposite sense to pq.
Join r to o and draw ed parallel to ro; through d draw a line
parallel to the axis of the shaft; measure the length of the inter-
cept a3k3 and set off rs equal in length to a3k3./d//f.
Repeat the above construction until all the rotors have been
584 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

dealt with and the final point v on the vertical line py has been
obtained.
Then, if the assumed position for the node coincides with its
true position, the point v should coincide with p. If thb point v
lies above p, as in Fig. 364, the distance mX is too large and the
construction must be repeated with a shorter distance, say 230 in.,
in the present example.
To prevent confusion, the elastic line and the construction
lines generally have been inverted for the second trial and the
corresponding letters are marked with a dash.
Note that ma/ = mal5 pq' = pq and q'o' is drawn parallel to
ax'X'.
Repeating the construction it is found that the point v' lies
above p and, bearing in mind that the elastic line has been inverted
for this trial, this shows that the distance mX' is too short. If
ordinates XV = pv and X'V' — pv' (inverted) are set up through
X and X' and the line VV' intersects the axis of the shaft at Y,
then Y is approximately the correct position of the node.
The fundamental frequency then corresponds to that of the
rotor F on the shaft of length mY.
Scaled from the figure mY = 237 in.
11-8.106 7T
. 8-54 = 2-55.107 lb in./rad
237 32
3.2240.122 oii .
also
32-9~i2 — 2-50.10 lb m. sec2
3

2-55.107
2~50~103 = Per 860
°r ^65 per mm

The frequency of the two-node vibrations could be determined in

the same way. It would, however, be found more convenient to
assume the amplitude of the rotor A instead of that of the rotor F.,
and also to determine the point Z at which that part of the elastic
line between the rotors A and B intersects the axis of the shaft.
Apart from these changes, the construction is carried out in
exactly the same way.
The above graphical solution is easily and quickly obtained.
It will be found to be particularly useful as a check on the accuracy
of the frequencies determined by the tabular method.
Proof of the Construction. Assume X, Fig. 364, to be the cor-
rect position of the node. Then en represents the amplitude of
vibration, Ae of the rotor E to the same scale as axm represents
the amplitude of vibration, A{> of the rotor F.
xv] VIBRATIONS 585
But the difference between Af and Ae arises from the twist of
the length l5 of shaft between E and F under the inertia torque
Tf of the rotor F.
/. At ~Ae = Ttl6/CJ
or (Ar-A,)/l5 = Tt/CJ
But (Af—Ae)/l5 = a1a2/ea2 and, from the similar triangles
a^ao, qop, we have a1a2/ea2 = qp/op.
.’. Tf/CJ = qp/op
or qp represents Tf to the same scale as op represents CJ.
Since, by construction, a,lkl = pq, it follows that a^q represents
T{ to the same scale as op represents CJ.
But, from equation (15.52),
T{ = I{co*Af and Te = I^Ae

so that T* = IeAe _ /e jie _ 1^ ma2

Tf IfAf If maL 7f'maj
Also, from the similar triangles ma1k1, ma2k2, we have
ma2/ma1 = a^/a^
and, since a^ = pq, it follows that
Te/Tf — I e//f. a2k2/pq
But, by construction, qr = 7e/7f. a2k2, so that TJT{ = qr/pq,
and, therefore, qr represents Te to the same scale as pq
represents Tf.
In the same way it can be shown that rs represents Td, st
represents T0, tu represents Th and uv represents Ta.
But, when the system is vibrating freely, the algebraic sum of
the inertia torques must be zero. Hence, v must coincide with p.
206. Torsional Oscillation of a Geared System. Fig. 365 (a)
shows diagrammatically a geared system, in which the rotor A
on one shaft is connected through the pinion B and the gear wheel
C to the rotor D on a second shaft. This system may be reduced
to the equivalent single shaft system shown at (b) if it is assumed
(a) that there is no backlash in the gearing, (b) that the teeth are
rigid and do not distort under the tooth loads, and (c) that the
inertia of the shafts and gears is negligible.
If the shafts are not strained beyond the limit of proportionality
each rotor in the geared system will oscillate with simple har-
monic motion and there will be a node either in the length If
or in the length l2. The two rotors A and D will reach their
586 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

extreme positions at the same instant and at this instant the

whole of the energy in the system will be strain energy due to the
twisting of the two shafts. The two rotors will also pass through
their equilibrium positions at the same instant, and at this
instant the whole of the energy in the system will be kinetic
energy of rotation of the rotors. It follows that the single shaft
system will be equivalent to the geared system if, for a given
amplitude of oscillation of the rotor A, the maximum strain

energies stored in the two systems are identical and also the
maximum kinetic energies of the rotors in the two systems are
identical.
Let G be the gear ratio, i.e. the ratio of the speed of the pinion
B to the speed of the gear wheel C.
Then, if a torque T is applied to the rotor A, a corresponding
torque G. T must be applied to the rotor D, and the total angle
through which A twists relative to D is evidently given by

T-G . 6^

where 9l is the angle through which rotor A twists relative to

the pinion B and d2 is the angle through which the gear wheel C
twists relative to the rotor D.
But 6X — Tl1/CJl and d2 — G.T.l2)CJ2, so that

Tli
6„ =
CJl +G2'CJ2 ~CJ1 {llG~G2'l2j}
T T
-CJ^+G2MT
d2) J ~CJ^ll+le)
) } =
xv] VIBRATIONS 587

where le is the length of shaft of diameter dx which is torsionally

equivalent to the shaft of length l2 and diameter d2 when the
gearing is removed.
A k = Ga.J2(d1/d2)4 • • • (15.61)
If le satisfies this equation, the maximum strain energy stored in
the single shaft system will be equal to the maximum strain
energy stored in the geared system for equal amplitudes of oscilla-
tion of the rotor A in the two systems.
Let n be the position of the node and ao the amplitude of the
rotor A, then anc'd' will be the elastic line for the single shaft
system, Fig. 365 (b). The amplitude of the pinion B will be given
by c'p and that of the equivalent rotor D' by d'q. But because
of the gearing the actual amplitudes of the wheel C and the rotor
D will be given by pc and qd, where pc'/pc = qd'/qd — G.
But the maximum angular velocities of the rotors are directly
proportional to their amplitudes of oscillation, so that for the
geared system,
Maximum kinetic energy cc /a. (oa)2+/d. (fid)2
and, for the single shaft system,
Maximum kinetic energy cc Ia.(oa)2+/d'.(qd')2

Since these two expressions must be equal, it follows that

/d'.(qd')2 = /d.(qd)2
Id — -^d-(qd/qd')2 = IJG2 . (15.62)

The single shaft system is therefore equivalent to the geared

system if the additional length of shaft le satisfies equation
(15.61) and if the inertia of the rotor D' satisfies equation (15.62).
Where the inertia of the gearing is not negligible, there must be
an additional rotor B' on the equivalent single shaft system to
allow for the inertia of the pinion and gear wheel. This rotor
will be situated at the point p, as shown dotted in Fig. 365 (b),
and its inertia will be given by Jb' = I^+IJG2.
When the geared system has been reduced to an equivalent
single shaft system with either two or three rotors, the frequency,
or frequencies, of natural vibration may be found by the methods
already given in Articles 202 and 203.
Example 11. A 12-cylinder aero engine and gear drive to the
airscrew is equivalent torsionally to tne system shown in Fig.
365 (a). The shafts lx and l2 are respectively 39| in. and 25| in.
long and 2f in. and 3| in. diameter. The airscrew runs at 0-6
of the speed of the engine crankshaft and the moments of inertia
588 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

of the rotors are: for the combined engine masses A, 1500 lb in2,
for the pinion B, 54 lb in2, for the gear wheel C, 850 lb in2 and
for the airscrew D, 50 000 lb in2. If the modulus of rigidity
of the shaft material is 12.106 lb/m2, find the natural frequencies
of torsional vibration of the system (a) when the inertia of the
gearing is neglected, and (b) when the inertia of the gearing is
taken into account.
(a) In the equivalent two-rotor system on a shaft 2f in. dia.,
we have from equation (15.61),
le = G2 .l2(d1Jd2)i = (l/0-6)2.25|.(2£/3+4 = 27-0 in.
and, from equation (15.62),
Id = IJG2 = 50 000.0-62 = 18 000 lb in2
But the node divides the total length of the shaft inversely
as the inertias of the two rotors, so that its distance from the
rotor A
7 18 000 , 12
= 1
‘ = 18OOO + 15OO-06* = i3-66^ = 61 40 ln
-

The torsional stiffness of this length of shaft

CJ 12.106 7r/ll\ 4
7T /ll\4
5a / ‘ 61-4 *32\"4/ =
1 '10. lb6 lb in./rad
and the frequency of the torsional vibrations
1 /?.
2TTV I&

1 / M0.106.32-2.12
84.8 per sec or 5090 per min
2TTJ 1500
(b) On a shaft 2f in. diameter the gearing is equivalent to
a rotor B', as shown dotted at the point p in Fig. 365 (b),
where
4 h+IJGP ' =

= 54 + 850.0-62 = 54 + 306 = 360 lb in2

Thus the equivalent three-rotor system consists of rotors A
and D' at the ends of a shaft 2| in. diameter and 66\ in. long
with the third rotor B' at a point 39| in. from A and 27 in.
from D'.
If this system is analysed by the method given in Article 203,
the distances of the nodes from the rotor A are found to be
63T5 in. and 3-661 in.
xv] VIBRATIONS 589

The fundamental frequency

— 84-8y/(6T40/63T5) = 83-5 per seo or 5010 per min
and the two-node frequency
= 84-8A/(61-40/3*661) = 347 per sec or 20 800 per min
It will be seen that when the inertia of the gearing is neglected
a close approximation to the fundamental frequency is obtained
in this particular example.

EXAMPLES XV

N.B.—Unless otherwise stated, assume E = 30.106 lb/in2 and C — 12.108

lb/in2.
1. Deduce an expression for the frequency of the free vibrations of a mass of
weight W hung from a spiral spring which extends 1 in. under a load of s lb.
If W is 20 lb and s is 50 lb, find the frequency.
2. A rectangular steel beam, cross-section 1 in. X 2 in., is supported at points
6 ft apart with its 2-in. side vertical. Determine the frequency of the free trans-
verse vibrations.
3. If a concentrated load of 400 lb is placed 2 ft from one of the supports of
the beam in Question 2, find the frequency of the free transverse vibrations
(a) when the inertia of the beam is neglected, (b) when the inertia of the beam is
taken into account.
4. Two parallel floor beams of I-section have a span of 30 ft and support a
vertical engine of weight 3 tons which is situated at mid-span. The beams may
be taken as simply supported. Each beam weighs 54 lb/ft and the second
moment of area of the cross-section is 370 in4 units. Calculate the natural
frequency of vibration of the system. M.U.
5. A beam of I-section has a span of 20 ft, the ends being simply supported.
The weight of the beam is 18 lb/ft rim and second moment of area of the cross-
section 42 in4 units. If a load of 1 ton is carried at a point 8 ft from one support,
calculate the natural frequency of vibration of the system. M.U.
6. A shaft 30 in. long has a diameter of 2 in. for the first 10 in. and a diameter
of 3 in. for the remaining 20 in. If one end of the shaft is fixed and the other end
carries a disc of weight 1500 lb and radius of gyration 20 in., what is the frequency
of the free torsional oscillations ?
7. Two equal masses, of weight 1000 lb and radius of gyration 15 in., are keyed
to opposite ends of a shaft 24 in. long. The shaft is 3 in. dia. for the first 10 in.
of its length, 5 in. dia. for the next 4 in. of its length and 3-5 in. dia. for the
remainder of its length. Find the frequency of the free torsional vibrations of the
system and the position of the node.
8. A steel shaft 4 in. dia. has two flywheels keyed to it at a distance apart of
36 in. The flywheels weigh 3000 and 2500 lb and their radii of gyration are
respectively 30 in. and 27 in. Neglecting the inertia of the shaft determine the
frequency of the free torsional vibrations.
9. A mass of weight 20 lb is hung from a spiral spring of stiffness 50 lb/in.
The vibration is controlled by a dashpot and it is found that the amplitude
of the vibration diminishes to one-tenth of its initial value in two complete
oscillations. Assuming linear damping, find the damping force at 1 ft/s and the
ratio of the frequency of the damped vibration to that of the natural vibration.
590 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

10. If a periodic force of 30 cos 251 lb acts on the mass in Question 9, find the
amplitude of the forced oscillation. What would be the amplitude at resonance ?
What damping would be necessary in order to limit the amplitude at resonance
to 1-0 in. ?
11. A body is held in position by elastic constraints, is subjected to linear
damping and is acted upon by a periodic disturbing force. Explain what is
meant by the dynamic magnifier and deduce the relation between the dynamic
magnifier, the damping force, the frequency of the applied force and the natural
frequency of vibration of the system.

12. A flywheel with a moment of inertia of 500 lb ft2 is fixed to a vertical

shaft 1 in. dia. and 3 ft long. A vibration damper is fitted and it is found by
experiment that the amplitude of torsional oscillation diminishes to one-twentieth
of its initial value in three complete oscillations. Assuming the damping
torque to be directly proportional to the angular velocity, find its magnitude
at 1 rad/s.
13. If a periodic couple of amount 50 cos 15i lb ft acts on the flywheel in
Question 12, find the amplitude of the forced oscillation. What would be the
amplitude at resonance and what damping would be required to limit this
amplitude to I-5°? If the amplitude is not to exceed the static twist under
the 50 lb ft torque, what is the lowest frequency with which the periodic torque
must be applied ?
14. A machine weighs 1 ton and is supported on four spiral springs which deflect
0-75 in. under the load. The reciprocating parts of the machine weigh 40 lb
and move through a vertical stroke of 8 in. with simple harmonic motion. A
dashpot is provided, the resistance of which is proportional to the velocity and
amounts to 200 lb at 1 ft/s. Find the amplitude of the forced vibrations and
the phase difference between the force and the displacement, when (a) the driving
shaft of the machine makes 180 r.p.m., (b) the driving shaft speed coincides with
the frequency of the free vibrations of the system. M.U.

15. A small vertical single-cylinder petrol engine is supported at mid-span on a

steel joist. The static deflection of the joist is 0-1 in. The weight of the engine,
including an allowance for the joist, is 100 lb. The length of the crank is 1-6 in.
and the weight of the reciprocating parts, which may be assumed to move with
simple harmonic motion, is 1 -5 lb. As the speed of rotation of the crankshaft
is increased slowly from 300 to 1000 r.p.m. the amplitude of the transverse
vibrations at mid-span of the joist is observed to pass through a maximum value
of 1-5 in. If it is assumed that damping is directly proportional to velocity, find
the magnitude of the damping force in lb per ft/sec. M.U.

16. An engine running at 600 r.p.m. is coupled to a shaft 12 ft long and 4 in.
dia. At the end of the shaft remote from the engine there is a flywheel, the
moment of inertia of which is 800 lb ft2, while the rotating parts of the engine,
etc., may be considered as equivalent to a flywheel at the engine end with a moment
of inertia of 400 lb ft2. The torque of the engine varies ±500 lb ft. above and
below its mean value with a frequency equal to twice the engine speed, and this
variation may be assumed to be simple harmonic.
(a) Show that the frequency of the forced torsional oscillation is less than the
natural frequency of torsional oscillation of the system.
(b) Deduce the amplitude of oscillation of the flywheel remote from the engine.
The mass of the shaft may be neglected. L.U.A.

17. The shaft shown in Fig. 366 carries two heavy masses at A and B. It is
driven by a light gear situated at CC. The weight of the mass at A is 800 lb
and its radius of gyration is 27 in.; the corresponding values for the mass at B are
1200 lb and 33 in. The shaft diameter between CC and B, marked X, is un-
decided. Assuming it to be 3-5 in., determine the frequency of the free torsional
oscillations of the system. Thereafter determine what X should be if the node of
the vibration is to be in the plane CC of the drive. Deduce any formulae used.
L.U.A.
xv] VIBRATIONS 591
18. A hydraulic dynamometer is fitted with a dashpot to damp out vibrations.
It is observed that with a certain oil in the dashpot the amplitudes of successive
swings are 15 mm and 13 mm. A second oil is substituted for the first, the vis-
cosity of this being three times as great as that of the first.
Given the same amplitude of the first swing, estimate the amplitude of the
second swing with this oil. L.U.A.
19. To reduce vibration an instrument is mounted on a heavy table weighing
100 lb, which is suspended from the roof by three springs each of stiffness 9 lb/in.
A dashpot is fitted to assist in damping the vertical vibrations; experiments on
the dashpot show that, when a force of 15 lb is applied, it moves at a constant rate
of 1 ft/s.
(a) Deduce the time required for the amplitude of any vertical natural vibration
of the table to be reduced to 1% of its initial value.
(b) If the roof from which the table is suspended vibrates vertically with an
amplitude of 0-05 in. at a frequency of 1200 per min, deduce the amplitude of
vibration of the table.
The mass of the springs may be neglected. L.U.A.
20. Deduce an expression for the whirling speed of a shaft which carries a single
wheel or disc at a point along its length.
A pulley of weight 150 lb is fixed to a shaft 20 in. long and 1 in. dia. at a point
8 in. from one of the bearings. If the bearings are spherically seated, calculate
the whirling speed. Neglect the inertia of the shaft.

FIG. 366

21. A. uniformly loaded shaft is 3 in. dia. and 10 ft long and is carried in
bearings wThich provide horizontal constraint. Calculate the whirling speed by
assuming the whirling shaft to bend to the same shape as the static deflection
curve. Compare the result with that obtained by the exact method of Article 196.
Weight of material, 0-28 lb/in3.
22. A shaft 4 in. dia. is supported in bearings 8 ft apart. It carries two
pulleys which weigh 500 lb and 300 lb at distances of 3 ft and 6 ft respectively
from one bearing. Calculate the whirling speed by (a) Dunkerley’s method,
(b) the energy method. Find the value of the constant G in the equation
Nc = C'v'Sm. where Nc is the whirling speed and Sm is the maximum static deflec-
tion of the shaft.
23. A shaft 7 -5 in. dia. is supported in bearings 8 ft apart and carries three discs
which weigh 500, 1000 and 450 lb and are situated respectively 2 ft, 5 ft and
6-5 ft from one of the bearings. Compare the values of the critical speed as
obtained by Dunkerley’s method and by the energy method.
24. A shaft 4 in. dia. is supported in bearings 10 ft apart and carries three
discs which weigh 200, 300 and 150 lb and are situated respectively 3 ft, 6 ft
and 8 ft from one of the bearings. Compare the values of the critical speeds as
obtained by Dunkerley’s method and by the energy method.
25. Fig. 367 shows a stepped shaft which carries two heavy discs and is sup-
ported in spherically seated bearings. Assume that the two concentrated loads
shown include an allowance for the weight of the shaft and find the critical or
whirling speed of the shaft.
 592 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP.

26. Examine the conditions for whirling of a cylindrical shaft of uniform

diameter, which is supported horizontally in two bearings, one of which is of
sufficient length to ensure that the shaft is horizontal at the bearing and the
other is at the end of the shaft and imposes no flexural constraint upon it. Find
the whirling speed of a shaft of 1 in. dia. supported in the above manner, when
there is a clear length of 5 ft between the bearings. The density of the material
is 0'28 lb/in3. L.U.A.

27. Explain briefly why the static deflection curve of a loaded shaft may be
used as a whirling form. Establish the rule for critical speed in terms of loads
and load point deflections.
The shaft of a high-speed motor is as shown in Fig. 368. The rigid coupling
at B, connecting it to a machine, is between the two bearings A and C, which, in
effect, give directional fixture to the shaft at C. The masses on the shaft may be
taken as equivalent to the two concentrated loads at D and E. The bearing at
F is of the swivel type and exercises no bending constraint. Neglecting the
influence of the shaft mass, determine approximately the critical speed. The
shaft is of uniform 3£-in. dia. E = 28.10® lb/in2. L.U.A.

28. The moments of inertia of three rotors A, B and C are respectively 1-5
ton in2, 3 ton in2 and 1 ton in2. The distance between A and B is 5 ft and between
B and C is 3 ft and the shaft is 2 in. dia. If the modulus of rigidity is 5300 ton/in2
find the frequencies of the free torsional vibrations of the system.

;C> -d
- , c>
A 3
=1 k Id \ 1
V --H
1 f>
D
F
r? 21
n,"
' -n"
30 9 ’

FIG. 368

29. A marine engine, shaft and propeller are approximately equivalent to the
following three-rotor system. The combined moment of inertia of the engine
masses is 30-8 ton ft2, that of the flywheel is 98 ton ft2 and that of the propeller
is 56 ton ft2. The equivalent shaft between the engine masses and the flywheel is
15 in. dia. and 17-8 ft long and that between the flywheel and the propeller
is 14 in. dia. and 37-5 ft long. Find the frequencies of the torsional vibrations
of the system and the positions of the nodes.

30. A three-cylinder oil engine is to be rigidly coupled to a generator as shown

in Fig. 369. The crankshaft is equivalent torsionally to a solid shaft 6 in. dia.
and the moments of inertia are as follows: for each engine crank 280 lb ft2, for
the flywheel 7000 lb ft2 and for the generator rotor 1000 lb ft2. In order to
prevent a dangerous resonant condition from arising during the running of the
plant it is necessary for the frequency of the fundamental torsional vibrations of
the system to be adjusted to 3150 per min. Find what diameter X is required
for the shaft which connects the engine to the generator. G — 11-8.10® lb/in2.
Either a tabular or a graphical method of solution may be used.

31. A four-cylinder Diesel engine is directly coupled to a generator and the

torsionally equivalent system is shown in Fig. 370. The moment of inertia of
each engine mass is 0-98 ton ft2, that of the flywheel is 39-5 ton ft2 and that of
the generator rotor is 6-52 ton ft2. Reduce the system to an equivalent three-
rotor system and find the frequencies of the torsional oscillations with one and
with two nodes. Then find the frequencies by the tabular method and by the
graphical method and sketch the shape of the elastic lines for the two modes of
vibration.
XV] VIBRATIONS 593
32. Fig. 371 shows diagrammatically the engine, transmission shaft and pro-
peller for a motor ship. The crankshaft may be assumed equivalent torsionally to a
solid shaft of uniform diameter 14 in. The combined reciprocating and revolving
masses for each crank have a moment of inertia of 5-5 ton ft2. The moments of
inertia of the flywheel and propeller are respectively 70 ton ft2 and 40 ton ft2.
Reduce the arrangement to an equivalent three-mass system on a shaft of
uniform diameter 13 in. and determine the frequencies of the torsional vibrations
of the system. C = 5300 tons/in2. M.U.

33. For the system shown in Fig. 371, find the fundamental and the second
order vibrations by the tabular method and check the results by the graphical
method.
34. A shaft A, of diameter da and length Za, carries at one end a disc of polar
moment of inertia /a; the other end is geared to a second shaft B, carrying at
its end a second disc, the corresponding quantities being db, lb and Ib. The
speed of B is n times that of A and both the inertia and the flexibility of the gears
may be neglected.

Show that, for torsional oscillations, the gears and shaft B may be replaced by
an extension of shaft A, such that the total equivalent length of shaft A becomes
Za + (Zb/n2)(da/db)4 and the disc B being replaced by one having moment of
inertia = n2Ib.
In a particular case in which n = 3, the magnitudes of the various quantities are:

Shaft Disc

Dia., in. Length, in. Dia., in. Length, in.

A 3 18 20 6
B 2 18 15 4

The material has a modulus of rigidity of 12.106 lb/in2 and weighs 0-28 lb/in3.
Determine the frequency of torsional oscillation of the system, neglecting the
inertia of the shafts. L.U.A.
594 THE THEORY OF MACHINES [CHAP, XV]

35. If, in the last question, the polar moment of inertia of the gear on shaft A
is Ic and that of the gear on shaft B is Id, show that the arrangement is torsionally
equivalent to a system consisting of three rotors, of moments of inertia 7a, Ic + n2Jd
and n2Ib, the distance between the first and second rotors being l&, the distance
between the second and third rotors being (Zb/n2)(da/db)4 and the diameter of the
shaft being da.
36. An engine drives a centrifugal pump through gearing. The shaft from the
engine flywheel to the gear wheel is 2 5- in. dia. and 38 in. long, while that from the
pinion to the pump impeller is 1J in. dia. and 12 in. long. The pump runs at
four times the engine speed and the moments of inertia are: for the engine fly-
wheel 19 200 lb ft2, for the gear wheel 320 lb ft2, for the pinion 80 lb ft2 and for
the pump impeller 400 lb ft2. Find the natural frequencies of the torsional
oscillations of the system.
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 595

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES XVI

1. A winding gear consists of two cages operated by a 6 ft diameter drum and

ropes passing over two guide pulleys of 4 ft effective diameter. The drum is
driven by a motor through double-reduction gearing, each reduction being 4-|- to 1
and the loaded cage ascends as the other descends. The frictional resistance of
the whole gear may be taken as equivalent to a torque of 900 lb ft at the drum
shaft. Details are as follows:

Part of gear Weight lb k in.

Motor armature . . 500 3-75
Intermediate shaft and gear . . . 850 9-5
Drum shaft and gear . . 5000 33-0
Guide pulleys, each . . 500 22-0
Loaded cage . . 2000
Empty cage . . 900
Rope (vertical) . . 800
Find the motor starting torque to give an acceleration of 3-5 ft/s2.
L.U. Part II.
2. In order to determine the moment of inertia of a flywheel, of weight
2500 lb, it is suspended with its axis vertical by three parallel equidistant
wires, each 12 ft long and attached at a radius of 2 ft 6 in. When the wheel
is caused to make small angular oscillations the frequency is observed to be
18 per min.
Derive an expression for the frequency of vibration of the suspended flywheel
and hence determine its radius of gyration.
This flywheel is fitted to an engine running at 260 r.p.m. and it is observed
that, when the load is disconnected and the fuel shut off, the speed falls from 260
to 230 r.p.m. in 12-5 sec. Assuming that the inertia of the other revolving
parts is negligible compared with that of the flywheel, find the horse-power
required to overcome the frictional resistances of the engine when running at its
normal speed. L.U.A.

3. The first stage wheel of a marine turbine is, for finding its moment of inertia,
suspended on a pin through a pressure balancing hole in the disc at a radius of
14 in. from the wheel centre. The period of small oscillations is found to be L87
seconds.
The weight of the wheel is 500 lb and the rotor of which it is part is carried in
bearings 6 ft apart. The disc friction effects of the wheel are such as to absorb
5 h.p. at the full speed of 3000 r.p.m. Find (a) the work to be done in speeding
up the wheel from 1200 to 3000 r.p.m. with uniform acceleration in 60 sec, if the
friction torque varies as the square of the speed, (b) the bearing reactions due to
gyroscopic torque of the wheel when the ship takes a turn on a radius of 500 ft
at 15 knots, the turbine speed then being 2500 r.p.m.
Establish any formula used. One knot = 6080 ft/h. L.U. Part II.

4. Two co-axial shafts, A and B, carrying masses of moment of inertia respec-

tively 120 and 20 lb ft2, are coupled together by a hydraulic clutch. Initially
no torque is being transmitted and the shafts revolve at 2000 r.p.m. A steady
torque of 100 lb ft is then applied to A and simultaneously a resisting torque
of the same magnitude acts on B. If the torque transmitted by the clutch is
given by 2(CD — U>1)2 lb ft, in which co and co1 are the instantaneous speeds of A
and B in radians per second, find the final steady speeds of the two shafts and
the power transmitted. L.U.A.
596 THE THEORY OF MACHINES
5. A shaft A carries a rotor at one end and the internal element of a cone clutch
at the other; the total weight is 500 lb and the radius of gyration 6 in. The
clutch has a mean radius of 5 in. and a half cone angle of 12 degrees. It is lined
with material the limiting coefficient of friction for which is 0-3 and the axial
thrust of the operating spring is 120 lb. The external element of the clutch is
fixed to a gear wheel of diameter 24 in., weight 100 lb and radius of gyration 8 in.,
which gears with a pinion 6 in. diameter on a shaft B. The masses on B weigh
60 lb and have a radius of gyration of 3 in.
Initially A is rotating at 300 r.p.m. and the gear wheel and shaft B are at rest.
The gear is then clutched in. Determine the speeds of the shafts when slip ceases
and, during slipping, the time, the energy lost and the tangential force at the
gear teeth. L.U. Part II.

6. The inertia starter for a Diesel engine is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 372.
The small flywheel F has a moment of inertia of 6 lb ft2 and is connected through
epicyclic gearing and a rubber torque member or cushion R to the main shaft.
The epicyclic gearing consists of two trains in series, each train having a fixed
internal wheel or annulus. The planet carrier Cx of the first train is rigidly
attached to the outer circumference of the torque member R, while its sun wheel
S2 is integral with the planet carrier C2 of the second train. The sun wheel S2
of the second train is integral with the flywheel F of the starter. In each train
the sun wheel has 17 teeth and the internal wheel or annulus has 83 teeth. The
inner circumference of the torque member R is rigidly fixed to the main shaft M.
In order to use the starter the main shaft is turned by hand until its speed is
140 r.p.m., when the dog-clutch D on the shaft is engaged with the engine crank-
shaft by means of a trigger release which is not shown in the sketch.

Fia. 373
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 597
If the moment of inertia of the engine parts referred to the crankshaft is
5000 lb ft2, find (a) the maximum speed reached by the engine crankshaft,
(b) the time required to reach this speed, and (c) the maximum twist of the torque
member. The stiffness of the torque member may be assumed to be constant
and to amount to 100 lb ft per degree and all losses may be neglected. M.U.
7. The mechanism of a variable-stroke feed pump is shown in Fig. 373. The
drive is taken from the crank OA to the pin B on the connecting rod CBD. The
end C of the connecting rod carries a die-block which moves along the curved
slotted link EGF. The radius of curvature of the slot is equal to the length of
the connecting rod CD and the stroke of the feed pump may be varied by rotating
the slotted link about the fixed fulcrum G. If the crank OA makes 225 r.p.m.,
find for the given position of the mechanism (a) the velocity and acceleration
of the piston D, (b) the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the links
AB and CD. M.U. (modified).
8. In the mechanism shown, Fig. 374, D is constrained to move on a horizontal
path. Find, for the given configuration, the velocity and acceleration of D
and the angular velocity and acceleration of BD when OC is rotating in a counter-
clockwise direction at a speed of 180 r.p.m., increasing at the rate of 50 rad/s2.
L.U. Part II.

9. The following are particulars of a single-reduction spur gear. The gear

ratio is 10 to 1 and the centre distance is 27£ in. The pinion transmits 500 h.p.
at 1800 r.p.m. The teeth are of involute form with addendum l/(diametral
pitch) and pressure angle 224°. The normal tooth pressure is not to exceed
1000 lb per inch width.
Find (a) the nearest whole number for the diametral pitch if no interference'
is to occur, (b) the number of teeth in each wheel, (c) the width of the pinion, and',
(d) the loads on the bearings due to the power transmitted. L.U.
10. Two non-intersecting shafts are inclined at an angle of 72° and are to be con-
nected by spiral gears. The gear reduction ratio is to be 2£ to 1 and the centre*
distance is to be within the limits 4^002 in. If the minimum number of teeth is*
not to be less than 20, find, for a spiral angle of 40° on the driving wheel, a suitable*
standard normal diametral pitch. Give the exact centre distance and estimate*
the efficiency of transmission when the friction angle is 5°. L.U. Part II..
11. Fig. 375 shows diagrammatically the arrangement of the two-speed drive
for the supercharger of an aeroplane engine. The wheel A is driven directly from
the engine crankshaft; it gears with the pinion B, which in turn gears with the'
internal wheel C. Wheel D is compound with B and gears with the pinion E
on the supercharger shaft. The compound wheel B-D revolves freely on a stud
fixed to the carrier F. In top gear the carrier F is prevented from rotating by
engaging the clutch G, while the internal wheel C can revolve freely about the
axis OO. In low gear C is prevented from rotating by engaging the clutch H,
598 THE THEORY OF MACHINES
while F is free to revolve about the axis 00. If the number of teeth on the wheels
are A 84, B 30, D 86 E 28, find the two gear ratios provided by the arrangement.
M.U.
12. Fig 376 shows a small flywheel F coupled to a shaft A through three trains
of epicyclic gears in series. The internal wheels Ij, I2 and I3 are all fixed to the
casing. The planet carrier B is keyed to the driving shaft A, the sum wheels
Sj and S2 are respectively integral with the planet carriers C and D, and the sun
wheel S3 is integral with the flywheel F. The numbers of teeth are: Sx 19,
Ii 89, S2 19, 12 65, S3 25 and I3 65. If the shaft A makes 130 r.p.m. find the speed
of the flywheel.
13. In a six-cylinder petrol engine the accelerating torque in lb ft. on the
crank is given by (a) A ,r( 12 sin 30 — 6-25 cos 30) due to explosion, and (b)
6-3A sin 30 due to inertia, where A is the total piston area in square inches and
r is the crank radius in feet. If A is 65 in2 and r is 2 in., find the fluctuation in
speed of the flywheel when its mean speed is 1200 r.p.m. and its moment of inertia
is 32 lb ft2. Find also the maximum angle which the flywheel is in advance of
an imaginary wheel assumed rotating at constant speed. L.U. Part II.

FIG. 376

14. A gas engine is governed on the hit-and-miss principle and develops

30 i.h.p. at 270 r.p.m. with 125 explosions per minute. The flywheel weighs
2000 lb and has a radius of gyration of 2 ft. Assuming the indicated work done
to be identical for each working cycle, the work done by the gases on the explosion
stroke to be 2-4 times the work done on the gases during the compression stroke,
and the work done on the other two strokes to be negligible, find the maximum
percentage fluctuation of speed. M.U.
15. A single-cylinder, four-stroke cycle, oil engine develops 20 i.h.p. at 360
r.p.m. and drives a machine through gearing at 750 r.p.m. The maximum
fluctuation of energy is 85% of the indicated energy per cycle. The rotating
masses on the engine shaft have a moment of inertia of 2700 lb ft2 and the
machine shaft masses are equivalent to 400 lb at a radius of gyration of 9 in.
Calculate the speed fluctuation of the engine and determine the weight of an
additional flywheel, of radius of gyration 18 in., to be fitted to the machine shaft
to keep the overall range of speed variation to f% of the mean speed. L.U.
16. The effective tinning moment exerted at the crankshaft of an engine is
represented by
T = 4-0 +1-6 sin 20 — 2-2 cos 20 ton ft
where 0 is the crank angle. The weight of the flywheel is 5 tons and its radius
of gyration is 3 ft. The engine speed is 120 r.p.m. and the external resistance is
constant.
Find (a) the h.p. developed, (b) the maximum fluctuation of energy, (c) the
percentage speed fluctuation. L.U.A.
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 599
17. A twin-cylinder V-engine has the cylinders set at an angle of 45°, with
both pistons connected to the single crank. The crank radius is 2\ in. and the
connecting rods are 11 in. long. The reciprocating weight is 3 lb per line and
the total rotating weight is equivalent to 4 lb at the crank radius. A balance
weight is fitted opposite the crank equivalent to 4 b lb at a radius of 3£ in. Deter-
mine, for an engine speed of 1800 r.p.m., the maximum and minimum values of the
primary and secondary frame forces, due to inertia of the reciprocating and
rotating masses. L.U. Part II.
18. A seven-cylinder vertical engine has reciprocating masses of 400 lb per
cylinder, the pitch of the cylinders is 22 in. and the crank order is 1—6—3—4— 5-2-7
at equal angular spacing. The stroke is 16 in., the length of each connecting rod
is 36 in. and the r.p.m. are 420. Find the magnitudes of any unbalanced primary
and secondary effects on the frame.
19. The six cylinders of a single-acting, two-stroke cycle Diesel engine are
pitched 40 in. apart and the cranks are spaced at 60° intervals. The crank length
is 12 in. and the ratio of connecting rod to crank is 4.5. The reciprocating weight
per line is 3000 lb and the rotating weight is 2200 lb. The speed is 200 r.p.m.
Show, with regard to primary and secondary balance, that the firing order
1-5-3-6-2-4 gives unbalance in primary moment only, and the order 1-4-5—2—3-6
gives secondary moment unbalance only. Compare the maximum values of
these moments, evaluating with respect to the central plane of the engine.
L.U. Part II.
20. A mass weighing 3000 lb is supported symmetrically on four helical springs
and its c.g. is subjected to a vertical disturbing force of 1000 cos lOOf lb, t being
measured in seconds and the angle in radians. Each spring has six free coils,
diameter of wire f in., mean diameter of coil 5 in. and modulus of the material
12-5.106 lb/in2.
Starting with the appropriate differential equation and assuming that there
are no damping actions present, develop the equation for the complete vibration
and find: (a) the maximum value of the periodic force transmitted to the founda-
tion, (b) the maximum stress in the spring material.
If the angular frequency of the disturbing force is altered from 100 to 25 rad/s,
discuss now the suitability of these springs to reduce the transmission of the
periodic forces to the foundation. L.U.A.
21. A four-cylinder Diesel engine drives an electric generator. For the funda-
mental frequency of torsional vibration, the system may be assumed equivalent
to a straight shaft 8 in. diameter and 92 in. long with a rotor at each end. The
moments of inertia of the rotors are 4 ton ft2 and 45 ton ft2. The smaller rotor,
which represents the inertia of the engine masses, is subjected to a sinusoidal
torque fluctuation of ±3000 lb ft which occurs four times per revolution of the
crankshaft. Assuming that there is linear damping which amounts to 1000 lb ft
at an angular velocity of one radian per second, find the stress due to torsional
vibration when the engine speed is 270 r.p.m. What would the stress be under
conditions of resonance ? M.U.
22. An extension spindle, 1J in. diameter, is rigidly held in a bracket attached
to an engine frame and protrudes horizontally therefrom by 24 in. It carries a
wheel of weight 40 lb at the free end. The engine when running at 420 r.p.m.
sets up a transverse vibration at the wheel of twice this frequency and of ampli-
tude 0-3 in. Determine the amplitude of vibration of the bracket and estimate
the reduction of overhang necessary to reduce the wheel vibration to one-tenth
of its observed value. E = 30.106 lb/in2. L.U. Part II.
23. A beam section is formed of two channels with flange plates, the moment
of inertia of the section being 55 in4. The beam of total weight 600 lb is freely
supported at the ends of a span of 15 ft and carries at the centre of the span a
motor of total weight 3000 lb and rotor weight 1000 lb. The rotor is slightly
out of balance and at a speed of 370 r.p.m. a forced vibration of 0T in. is measured
at the motor position. Neglecting damping, estimate the amount by which the
rotor is out of balance. To allow for the effect of the mass of the beam one-half
of its weight may be added to the motor weight. L.U. Part II.
600 THE THEORY OF MACHINES
24. A vibration indicator comprises a light steel cantilever of section 1 in.
broad by £ in. thick firmly clamped to the frame at one end and carrying a weight
of 5 lb at a distance of 18 in. from the fixed end. A light recording gear gives a
magnification of 10 times the movement relative to the frame. When the canti-
lever is set freely vibrating the damping is such that successive swings in the
same direction are in the ratio of 1 to 0-8. Establish the probable amplitude of
the recording pointer when the frame of the instrument is placed on a body vibrat-
ing according to the law x = 0-05 cos 100f in., where x is the displacement from the
mean position and t is in seconds. Assume that the mass effects of the cantilever
and recording gear are equivalent to 0-5 lb at the weight position. E = 30.10®
lb/in2. L.U. Part II.

25. The shaft of a small impulse turbine is shown in Fig. 377. The loading
given includes an allowance for the weight of the shaft. If E = 30.106 lb/in2
find the first whirling speed of the shaft.
26. A shaft is simply supported on bearings 10 ft apart and carries five equal
concentrated loads equally spaced with the end loads 1 ft from each bearing.
If the maximum deflection is 0-1 in., estimate the whirling speed of the shaft
when the static deflection curve is assumed to be (a) a sine curve, (b) a parabola.
L.U. Part II.
27. A shaft with similar wheels at the ends is supported in two bearings as
shown in Fig. 378. Each wheel has a weight of 600 lb and a radius of gyration

FIG. 378

of 7£ in. The shaft is to run at 1200 r.p.m. and is so driven that there are two
torsional impulses per revolution. Determine the diameter d so that the torsional
critical speed may be 20% above the running speed. With the diameter so
fixed, calculate the whirling speed. Neglect the effect of the shaft mass in both
cases. E = 30.106 and C = 12.106 lb/in2. L.U. Part II.
28. Establish an expression for the frequency of free torsional vibration of a
shaft with concentrated masses of known moments of inertia at the ends, neg-
lecting the effect of the shaft mass.
A motor, connected to one end of a shaft of 2| in. diameter and 7 ft 6 in. long,
has rotating masses of moment of inertia 800 lb ft2. At the other end a flywheel
 MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES 601
and pinion are fitted, the two together having a moment of inertia of 3000 lb ft*.
The pinion drives a pump at one-quarter of the shaft speed through a gear wheel
of moment of inertia 1000 lb ft2. The observed frequency of torsional vibration
of the system is 7-32 per sec. Determine the effective moment of inertia of
the pump impeller and entrained water. C = 12.106 lb/in2. L.U. Part II.
29. A four-cylinder oil engine drives a generator and the system is torsionally
equivalent to a straight shaft 11 in. diameter and 165 in. long. The cylinder
pitch is 40 in. and the moment of inertia of each engine rotor is 2 ton ft2. The
combined flywheel-generator rotor is 45 in. from the adjacent cylinder. If G is
5300 tons/in2 and the frequency of the fundamental torsional vibrations is to be
1750 per min, find the required moment of inertia of the combined flywheel-
generator. Find also the frequency of the two-node vibrations.
30. A three-cylinder oil engine is coupled to the propeller of a motor yacht.
The equivalent shaft is 5J in. diameter and 185 in. long, with the three engine'
rotors pitched at 20 in. intervals at one end, the flywheel 25 in. from the nearest
cylinder rotor and the propeller at the other end. The moment of inertia of
each engine rotor is 200 lb ft2, that of the flywheel is 1500 lb ft2 and that of the
propeller is 500 lb ft2. Find the frequencies of the fundamental and the two-node
vibrations. M.U.
31. A six-cylinder oil-engine generator set is torsionally equivalent to a system
of seven rotors on a shaft of diameter 8J in. Each rotor has a moment of inertia
of 550 lb ft2 and the cylinder pitch is 27 in. The flywheel-generator has a moment
of inertia of 28 ton ft2 and its distance from the adjacent cylinder is 32 in. If
C is 12.106 lb/in2, find the lowest two frequencies of free torsional vibration.
32. A three-throw compressor is gear-driven by an electric motor, the gear
reduction being 7-5 to 1. The motor armature, moment of inertia 540 lb ft2,
is connected to the pinion, moment of inertia 2-5 lb ft2, through a shaft 3£ in.
diameter and 32 in. long. The compressor shaft is equivalent to a shaft 6 in.
diameter, and 100 in. long, with the gear wheel, moment of inertia 7200 lb ft2,
at one end and three rotors each of moment of inertia 400 lb ft2, pitched at 23 in.
from the other end. In addition there is a flywheel on the compressor shaft of
moment of inertia 8000 lb ft2 and situated 34 in. from the gear wheel. If G'
is 12.106 lb/in2, find the frequencies of the fundamental and the two-node
torsional vibrations.
 ANSWERS TO EXAMPLES

EXAMPLES I (p. 13)

8. 1-87 to 1. 9. 2-62 ft/s.

EXAMPLES II (pp. 62-67)

3. (a) 2-83 lb; (b) 3-14 lb.
4. 12-39 ft/s; 6-20 ft/s2; 0-578 lb. All 23° 48' N. of W.
5. Acceleration of c.g. 8-05 ft/s2; angular acceleration 8-95 rad/s2.
6. 24.8 sec; 478 lb ft. 7. 34-1 lb in2.
2
8. 85-6 lb ft . 9. 146-7 lb ft2; 23-2 in.
10. 0-578 lb and 1-622 lb at 6-6 in. and 2-35 in. resp. from c.g.; 31-0 lb ft.
11. 31-3 lb ft2. 12. 319 lb ft.
13. 164 100 lb ft; 35 900 lb ft. 14. 61; 0-4188/.
15. 2-62 ft/s2. 16. 15-22 m.p.h.; 5-09 ft/s2.
17. 4 to 1; aa 21-48, ab 5-37 rad/s2. 18. 21-7 to 1; 6-37 ft/s2.
19. 374 lb ft. 20. 3212 lb ft; 29-2 h.p.
21. (a) 2-67 ft/s; (b) -0-667 ft/s and 5-333 ft/s.; 9-45 tons.
24. 548 lb; 18-1 lb. 25. 9.
26. (a) 5-97 m.p.h.; (b) 7-54 m.p.h. 27. cop = 0-385 rad/s.
28. 48-1 lb ft tending to overturn the cycle outwards.
29. 11 580 lb ft tending to turn aeroplane to the left.
30. 4070 lb ft. When the bow is rising it tends to turn the yacht to the right
or starboard.
31. 1950 lb ft tending to turn the aeroplane to the left for three-bladed airscrews.
32. 1-8 ton ft; left (port); 0-00503 rad/s2.
33. (a) 0-539 rad/s; (b) 24-0 ton ft; (c) 583 ton ft.

EXAMPLES III (pp. 113-120)

1. Maximum speed ~ 5-0 ft/s; maximum acceleration 90 ft/s2.
2. Maximmn speed ~ 7-8 ft/s; maximum acceleration t 3300 ft/s2; maximum
retardation ~ 1100 ft/s2.
3. Cutting stroke, 0-80 and 0-61 ft/s2; return stroke, 6-8 and 7-4 ft/s2
4. Total displacement 6-49 miles. 5. 29-8 sec; 1890 ft.
6. 148-5 sec; 2034 ft. 7. a 52-2; b 0-0480.
8. 9-55 ft/s; 2-4 rad/s. 9. 0-616 ft/s; 0-284 ton ft.
10. 52-5 cm/s. 11. 4-87 ft/s; 3-69 rad/s; 3-52 rad/s.
12. 0-413 rad/s; 0-26 ft/s. 13. 2-08; 96-4%.
14. 2-472 in.; 0-618 ft/s; 1-170 ft/s; 0-554 ft/s; 0-957 ft/s
15. (a) 1-65; (b) 3-11 and 6-84 ft/s; (c) 2-79, 2-86, 5-81, 5-68 ft/s.
16. BC = CD = AB-P4; 0-5 cot 9. 17. 0-186.
18. 5-64 ft/s; 27-6 ft,/s2. 19. CE = 4-36 in.
20. (a) 69-6 ft/s2; 130, 131 rad/s2; (b) 64-2 ft/s2; 81-9, 163 rad/s2.
21. 7-8 ft/s along AF, where /_ BAF = 169-5° and /_ CAF = 109-5°, or
16-1 ft/s along AF', where /. BAF' = 118-5° and /_ CAF' = 178-5°; 1-95 rad/s,
4-88 rad/s2.
25. 9 = 30°, 7-17 ft/s, 184 ft/s2 3-43 rad/s, 29-7 rad/s2; 9 = 120°, 8-92 ft/s,
— 115-6 ft/s2; 2-01 rad/s, 54-0 rad/s2.
26. 35-6 ft/s, 4960 ft/s2; 36-6 ft/s, 5330 ft/s2.
602
 ANSWERS TO EXAMPLES 603
27. 4-48 ft/s, 73-7 ft/s2; 7-04 rad/s, 93-4 rad/s2; 6-64 ft/s, 172 ft/s2; 7-79 rad/s,
56-2 rad/s2. 28. 140 ft/s2; 300 rad/s2.
2 2
29. 54-4 ft/s ; 4-49 rad/s . 30. 26-8, 30-5 and 42-3 rad/s2.
2 2
31. 122 rad/s ; 30-8 ft/s .
32. (a) 56-8 ft/s2, 30-5 rad/s2; (b) 58-6 ft/s2, 6-9 rad/s2.
33. Cutting stroke 0-97 ft/s2; return stroke 5-14 ft/s2.
34. 11-9 ft/s2; 20-6 ft/s2. 35. 5-37 ft/s, 67-4 ft/s2; 62-4 ft/s2.
36. 1560 and 3880 ft/s2; 2120 rad/s2. 37. (a) 0; (b) 368 lb.
38. 5-05 ft/s; 14-2 ft/s2.

EXAMPLES IV (pp. 139-141)

4. AP-f-AB. 5. BP, 7-25 in.

6. Distance of G from CD 1-29 ft. 7. AP = 1-2 in.
11. OP = 9 in. 13. 11° 38'.
14. 18-9 ft. 15. 22-0 ft.
16. 17° 45'; 571-4 r.p.m. 17. 16° 6'.
18. 136-1 lb ft. 19. 118 lb ft.

EXAMPLES V (pp. 173-176)

4. Cover end: s = 1-30 in., e = 0-23 in., I = 0-13 in. Crank end: s = 0-84 in.,
e = 0-53 in., I = 0-59 in. 5. Crank ends = 0-98 in., e = 0-49 in.
6. 4-88 in., s = 1-31 in. (cover), 0-87 in. (crank).
7. 2-92 in., 42-5°, l = 0-54 in., s = 0-46 in.
8. 1-316 in., 0-773, 0-24 in.
9. 39°; cover, 1-38 in., 1-62 in.; crank, 1-83 in., 1-17 in.
10. 2-5 in., 37°, 1-25 in., 0-64.
11. 38°, 3-41 in., 1-91 in. (cover), 1-34 in. (crank).
12. 6-5 in., 38°, 1-75 in.
13. Lead 0-25 in., 33°, 1-10 in. (cover), 0-65 in. (crank).
16. 1-39 in. (cover), 1-80 in. (crank). 17. 1-86 in (cover), 2-17 in. (crank).
18. 1-0 in. and 2-57 in. (cover), 1-40 in. and 2-71 in. (crank).
19. 1-44 in. (cover), 1-75 in. (crank).
20. Steam lap of main valve 1-19 in.; exhaust lap, TL in. (cover), in. (crank)
Steam lap of expansion valve, 1-36 in. (cover), 1-77 in. (crank).
21. Difference = 0-28 in. 22. 0-993, 0-974, 0-875; 1-77 in.
23. Cut-off 0-925 (cover), 0-875 (crank); difference = 0-35 in.; 3-19 in.
24. (1) 1-07 in., 1-34 in., 0-39 in. (2) 0-22 in., and 2-36 in. (oht); 0-57 in. and
2-36 in. (in). (3) 0-233. (4) 0-26 in. (out); 0-53 in. (in).
25. 0-654, 0-54 in., 0-75 in. 27. 1-97 in., 42-5°.
28. 2-83 in., 50°, 0-62. 29. (a) 1-47 in., 90°; (b) 1-97 in., 44°.
31. 4-26 in., 23° 4'; 356°, 138°, 164°, 330°.
32. (a) 2-97 in., 39°; (b) 2-36 in., 51°.
33. 2-65 in., 28°. 34. 1-27 in., 51-5°.

EXAMPLES VI (pp. 219-222)

3. 21-7 lb. 4. (a) 697-2 lb in.; (b) 209-1 lb in.

5. (a) 228 lb ft., 16-3%, (b) 151-3 lb ft. 6. 56-7 lb ft.
7. 20. 0 I-M/A/3
9. 0-2679, 3-92 lb, 10 lb. ». - 1+/xv/3*
10. 0-48. 11. 31-5.
12. 8-0. 13. 61-9.
14. External dia. 10-5 in., internal dia. 7-5 in.
15. rx = 5-67 in., r2 = 1-89 in.; 2-42. 16. 1-94 in., 633 lb.
17. Mean radius = 7-78 in. 18. 103-3, 453 lb.
20. 710 lb ft.
21. (a) 7-19 lb ft; (b) 4-12 lb ft.; (c) 4-35 lb ft.
22. 1-55 in., 4-0W ft lb/s. 27. Minimum = 0-0046.
604 THE THEORY OF MACHINES
EXAMPLES VII (PP . 245-247)

2. (a) 0-715; (b) 0-862. 3. 5565 lb.

4. Yes. 5. 2255 lb, 14
6. 2-72 ft, 0- 155 ft/s. 7. 409 lb/in2.
8. 8-33 in. 9. 51-3,
10. 4-64 in. 11. 178-7, 63-3
12. 407-7 lb. 13. 39.
14. 176 lb/in2 at zero speed, max h.p. 7-0 at 56-5 ft/s.
17. H.p. 9-9, Tt 125 lb at 120 ft/s. 18. 0-57 r.p.m.
22. 3-62%.
EXAMPLES VIII (pp. 277-280)
2. 96-5 lb. 3. 98-2 lb, 90-9 lb; 107 lb, 111-7 lb,
4. 4770 lb, 87 700 lb, 82 400 lb, 42 900 lb.
5, 0-342 ton.
6. 0-346 ton; 5-31, 11-1, 6-98, 6-98, 7 •28, 10-66 and 5-75 tons.
7. 136 lb ft. 8. 289 lb ft.
9. 696 lb ft. 10. 9650 1b.
11. 147 1b. 12. 36-1 lb.
13. 43-8 ft, 0-492, 0-508. 14. 151 ft, 72-2 ft.
15. 121 ft, 95-9 ft, 167 ft. 16. 6-21, 10-56 ft/s2; 2-7, 3-81 ft/s2.
18. 12-45. 19. 186 lb.
20. 60.
EXAMPLES IX (pp. 311-314)
8. (a) 948, (b) 768, (c) 37-7, 48-0.
11. Max. vel. = 16-44 rad/s; max. acc. = 1033 rad/s2.
12. 42-5 ft/s2, 1-63 ft/s. 13. 894 rad/s2.
2
14. 334, 259-5, -288, -356 ft/s .
15. 3-04 in., 4-51 ft/s, 1766 and 645 ft/s2.
16. Inlet: 13-56 ft/s, 14 180 and 4020 ft/s2. Exhaust: 12-87 ft/s, 8760 and
4020 ft/s2; 49-9 lb. 17. 59-3 lb.
18. Inlet: 360 cm/s, 3600 and 1336 m/s2; exhaust 341 cm/s, 2400 and 1336 m/s2
19. (a) 0-237 in.; (b) 84° 56' after b.d.c.; (c) 4-51 ft/s; (d) 2443 ft/s2.
20. 12-9 ft/s, 3610 ft/s2.
21. Max. vel. 3-35 ft/s. Acc. at the beginning of the lift 74-1 ft/s2. Acc. and
ret. at the point of maximum velocity, 122 and 78-5 ft/s2. Ret. at the end of the
lift 89-3 ft/s2.
22. 64-2, -90-9 ft/s2, 2-56 ft/s, 123-5, -83-6 ft/s2.
23. (a) Out: 1895, —3530 rad/s2; (b) 27-0, 18-9 rad/s2; (c) Out: 5190, —5300
rad/s2; In: 1789, —1815 rad/s2.
24. Counter-clockwise rotation of the cam: Valve opening: (a) 4-75 ft/s; (b) 500,
— 1110 ft/s2; (c) 610, —1050 ft/s2. Valve closing: (a) 4-80 ft/s; (b) 1110, —500
ft/s2; (c) 1070, -570 ft/s2.

EXAMPLES X (pp. 362-365)

4. (i) 0-0903w ft/s; (ii) 0-122OJ ft/s. 10. 23, l-844p.
11. (a) 11, l-178p; (b) 14, l-319p; (c) 15, l-434p.
12. 0-397p. 13. (a) 0-703 in.; (b) 1-872; (c) 21-1°.
14. (a) 32; (b) 18.
15. 1 -857m, 0-874m, 2-731-bpd, 5-824-bpd, 0-912.
16. (a) 1-026 in.; (b) 1-633; (c) 30-95°.
17. 18, 63, 0-376p. 18. l-628p.
19. l-208p. 22. 20-84m, 21° 45', 1-743TO.
23. (a) 21, 42; (b) 50°, 40°; (c) 0-778 in., 0-653 in.; (d) 5-199 in., 8-724 in.,
6-962 in., 83-9%.
24. (a) 24, 48; (b) 40°; (c) 0-778 in., 0-653 in.; (d) 7-96 in.
25. 8-48 in.
26. 26° 34', 63° 26', 3-913 in., 28, 14, 24-60 in., 6-15 in.
28. (a) 1-009 in., 0-405 in.; (b) 68° 12', 21° 48'; (c) 18, 45; (d) 5-79 in., 75-86%.
 ANSWERS TO EXAMPLES 605
29. (a) 0-56 in., 0-505 in.; (b) 48°, 42°; (c) 20, 50; (d) 5-801 in., 3-568 in.,
8-032 in.; (e) 81-08%.
30. Two solutions are possible. The better one is: (a) 0-514 in., 0-548 in.;
(b) 43° 10', 46° 50'; (c) 20, 50; (d) 3-274 in.; 8-726 in.; (e) 80-8%.
31. (a) and (c) 20, 40; 60°, 0°; 84-6%; (b) 23, 46; 33°, 27°; 88-59%.

EXAMPLES XI (pp. 407-411)

1. 14, 56, 8-75 in.; 3-857. 2. 20, 54, 7-40 in.; 2-684.
3. 10-1 in., 15-0 in., 20-6 in., 33-0 in.
4. Low-speed 19, 59; high-speed 27, 103; centre distance 13-0 in.
5. G = 6-20 in.; 21, 41; 11, 51; 1-95, 4-64.
6. 25, 45; 16, 54; 1-8, 3-375.
7. A 14, B 30, C 18, D 26, E 24, F 20, G 29, H 15.
8. A 18, B 42, C 26, D 34, E 32, F 28, G 41, H 19.
9. 268, Mb 10-3 lb ft, Me 9-7 lb ft. 10. -648.
11. 80, Ma 1-796 lb ft, Me 33-20 lb ft.
12. +38-6, Mi-829 lb ft, Mc + 789 lb ft.
13. 5-21 to 1; C 27, E 30; 4-26.
14. 923, Ma —227 lb ft, Mh 143 lb ft, M1 61%, M2 39% of input torque.
15. (a) -294-5, (b) Mb 305-3 lb ft, Mh -365-3 lb ft; (c) Mo-0-738Mb,
Mal-738Mh; (d) 1st train 300 lb, 2nd train 707 lb.
16. 3-91 to 1; 2-24 to 1; 1-467 to 1; —5-11 to 1.
17. 2-75 to 1; —4-0 to 1. 18. 10-53 to 1.
19. 124-2 to 1; -142-3 to 1. 20. 178-6 to 1.
21. 150 (clockwise); 300 (clockwise); 300 (clockwise); 300 (counter-clockwise).
22. 384 lb ft; 6-6.
23. 4-45 and 5-36 r.p.s. counter-clockwise.
24. 314-7 r.p.m. in opposite sense.

EXAMPLES XII (pp. 446-453)

1. 4180 lb ft. 2. 10 400 lb ft.
3. 1200 lb ft. 4. 4-11 rad/s2
5. 10 740 lb ft
6. Compression —1950 lb ft; expansion 9380 lb ft.
7. 204, 272, 358, 490 lb. 8. 35-9 lb.
9. (a) 1-68, 0-595; (b) 0-72, 1-40.
10. 0-333F, 0, 0-866F; 0-333Q, 0, 0-866Q; 0-667Q, 0, 1-732Q.
12. 3195 lb, 2170 lb ft; 1496 lb ft.
13. (a) -476 lb ft; (b) 153 lb ft; (c) 378 lb ft.
14. 166-9 lb ft (clockwise).
15. l-03w2r, 0-237w2; (b) 0-69McoV2 (counter-clockwise), l-12Ma> r. 0-216
Ma>2r.
16. (a) 32 700 lb; (b) 4050 lb; (c) 30 800 lb; (d) 20 700 lb ft.
17. (a) 95-1 lb ft; (b) 64-2 lb ft.
18. (a) 3-47 rad/s, 142 ft lb; (b) 212-8 lb ft.
19. (a) 44-5 ft/s2, 156 rad/s2; (b) 12-8 lb ft.
20. Neglecting gravity, 18-6 lb in.
21. Neglecting gravity, 18-8 lb in.; allowing for gravity, 10-8 lb in.
22. 2-05 tons. 23. 6-59 tons.
24. 0-83%. 25. 15-8 ft, 20-9 tons.
26. 34-4 lb. 27. 2-03%.
28. 0-0086. 29. 562 lb.
30. 6-12 ft, 1-10 tons. 31. 0-176, 5-22 tons.
32. 1-84 tons. 33. 266-5 r.p.m.
34. 1-97 tons. 35. 4-07%, 66-6.
36. 0-0199. 37. 2-66 tons.
38. 1-54 tons. 39. 48 400 lb ft2, 7-5 r.p.m.
40. 1-78%, 1-88%.
41. (a) 114-2; (b) 4-55 tong, .(c) Nil and 1-36 rad/s2.
42. 25.1-5 ton ft2. 43, (a) 17-14; (b) 6-92 lb; (c) 180°.
606 THE THEORY OF MACHINES

EXAMPLES XIII (pp. 484-488)

2 . 160-2, 181-3 r.p.m. 3. 181-2 r.p.m.
4. 216-4 r.p.m. 5. 166-0, 166-6, 168-5, 171-7 r.p.m.
6. 49-0 lb, 23-5 lb/in. 7. 58-2 lb/in., 307-5 r.p.m.
8 . 50-1 lb, 99-7 lb/in. 9. 170-3 lb 320 r.p.m.
10 . 0-534 in. 11. 79-7 lb, 122-3 lb/in.
12 . 34-4 lb, 78-4 lb/in. 13. 365-4, 391 r.p.m.
14. 5-85 in. Stable. 15. 2-24 lb/in., 0-5 in.
16. 66-0 lb/in. 17. (a) 159-3 lb; (b) 70-2 lb/in.
21 . (a) 220-4 r.p.m.; (b) 225-3 r.p.m.; (c) 4-8 lb.
22 . (a) 227-5 r.p.m.; (b) 1-29%. 23. 151-1, 178-4 r.p.m.
25. 51-7 lb/in., 2-88 lb.
26. (a) 200, 215 r.p.m.; (b) 210-6 r.p.m., 0-0074.
27. 200, 215 r.p.m., 0-022, 0-0109.

EXAMPLES XIV (pp. 526-531)

1. 24-5 lb, 237-5° from A. 2. 7-47 lb, 272° 35' from A.
3. 7-90, 6-04 lb.
4. (a) J3, 56-25 lb, Bm 18-75 lb; (b) B\ 112-5 lb, Bm 37-5 lb.
5. Bi 27-95 lb, 187° from A; Bm 22-41 lb, 310° 8' from A.
6. Bx 2-23 lb, 204° 45' from A; Bm 2-20 lb, 19° 33' from A.
7. B 301-6 lb, 200° 58' from A; C 73° 42' from A; D 269° 11' from A.
8. B] 153-8 lb, 232° 16' from A; Bm 133-9 lb, 354° 21' from A.
9. B 96-88 lb, 189° 17' from A; E 119-2 lb, 24° 9' from A.
10. Bx 138-6 lb, 210° from A; Bm 138-6 lb, 30° from A.
11. A 10-9 lb, 203° 25' from B; C 12-99 lb, D 10-00 lb.
12. 106-7 lb.
13. B\ 16-42 lb., 233° 16'; Bm 10-64 lb, 350° 32.
14. 222 lb, 1212 lb revolving at the same speed as the crank, but in the oppo-
site sense. 15. 3-36, 3-62 tons.
16. (a) 269 lb, 22° 37' from bisecting line; (b) 2-62, 2-41 tons.
17. 0-672; 433 lb, 50° 21' from bisecting line.
18. 0-721.
19. 52-5 in. Outside-cylinder twice that of inside-cylinder.
20. Hammer-blow of O.C. = 0-787 that of I.C. Variation of tractive effort of
O.C. = 0-535 that of I.C. 21. 2-3 tons.
22. (a) Driving wheels: 138-4 lb, 4° 46' to bisecting line; trailing wheels:
53-4 lb, 6° 10' to bisecting line; (b) 1-70 tons, 3-14 tons.
23. Hammer-blow: (a) 13-43 tons; (b) 3-36 tons.
24. 4-66 tons when plane of cranks horizontal or vertical.
25. 7-96 lb; 199 lb maximum; direction constant and perpendicular to the line
bisecting the angle between the cylinder centre lines.
26. 1, 4, 2, 3; 14-1 ton ft.
27. 729-0 lb; C, A and D respectively 90°, 210° 58' and 239° 2' from B; 1575 lb,
5820 lb ft about central plane.
28. Ra 5-028 tons; C, B and D respectively 97° 54', 220° 45' and 292° 3' from
A; 4-14 tons when A makes 87° 15' with i.d.c. and at 90° intervals.
29. No. 2 pump 45° and No. 1 pump 225° from No. 1 engine. Unbalanced
primary force = 0, couple 54-6 lb ft; secondary force 414 lb, couple 1458 lb ft.
30. 23-3, 9-82 ton ft; 115-5 ton ft when crank No 1 has turned through 15°,
105°, etc., from t.d.c.
32. 4-62 tons, D, B and C respectively 61° 50', 156° 34' and 265° 16' from A;
312 ton ft.
33. D, B and C respectively 60°, 155° 16' and 264° 44' from A. 2-45 to 1.
34. 2 -5 W opposite the crank.
35. (a) 5-63 lb; (b) constant magnitude 564 lb and revolves in opposite sense
to the crank at twice crank speed; (c) 4th harmonic unbalanced, 6th balanced.
36. (a) 1945 lb when the crank bisects the angle between the cylinders, 498 lb
when the crank has turned through 90° from the above positions; (b) secondary
 ANSWERS TO EXAMPLES 607
force constant, 243 lb. It revolves in the same sense as the crank, but at twice
crank speed.
37. Maximum 1130 lb, minimum 469 lb.
38. 4610 lb, 1503 lb. Maximum occurs when the plane of the cranks makes 45°
to the vertical, and minimum when the plane of the cranks is vertical or horizontal.

EXAMPLES XY (pp. 589-594)

1. 297 v.p.m. 2. 2125 v.p.m.
3. (a) 535 v.p.m.; (b) 518 v.p.m. 4. 311 v.p.m.
5. 262 v.p.m. 6. 282 v.p.m.
7. 1370 v.p.m. 8. 521 v.p.m.
9. 6-95 lb per ft/s; 0*984.
.
10 1*314 in.; 1*668 in.; 11*58 lb per ft/s.
.
12 64*7 lb ft.
13. 2*31°, 3*35°; 144 lb ft. per rad/s, 2*98 per sec (co 18*7).
14. (a) 0*150 in., 18° 47'; (b) 0*563 in., 90°.
15. 3*08.
16. (a) Natural frequency = 1387 per min; (b) 0*195
17. 725 v.p.m.; 4*48 in. 18. 9*75 mm,
19. (a) 1*9 sec; (b) 0*00033 in. 20. 1500 r.p.m.
.
21 2270 r.p.m. 22. (a) 964 r.p.m.; (b) 980 r.p.m. 203*2.
23. 2156, 2210 r.p.m. 24. 732, 743, r.p.m.
25. 2680 r.p.m. 26. 2082 r.p.m.
27. 1600 r.p.m. 28. 2060 v.p.m.; 3410 v.p.m.
29. 521, 1150 v.p.m. One node: 26*8 ft from propeller. Two node: engme
side of flywheel, 4*6 ft from flywheel and propeller side of flywheel, 5*5 ft from
propeller. All distances measured on the actual shaft.
30. 5*01 in.
31. Three-rotor system: 1280, 1930 v.p.m. Tabular method: 1384, 1930 v.p.m.
32. 387, 1362 v.p.m. 33. 387*5, 1466 v.p.m.
34. 2630 v.p.m. 36. 180, 1277 v.p.m.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES XVI (p. 595-601)

1. 522 lb ft 2. 2*17 ft, 4*55 h.p.
3. (a) 1 337 000 ft lb, (b) 67*5 lb.
4. Na = 2009*65, Nb = 1942*12 r.p.m., h.p. = 37.
5. N& = 163*4, Nb = 653*6 r.p.m., 0*769 sec, 872 ft lb, 41*5 lb.
6. (a) 165*3 r.p.m.; (b) 0*40 sec; 106 deg.
7. (a) vd — 2*78 ft/s, /d = 52 ft/s2; (b) coab = 3*28 rad/s (clockwise), cjod = 4-0
rad/s (counter-clockwise), aab = 81*3, aC(j = 80*5 rad/s2 (both clockwise).
8. Vi = 5*6 ft/s, /<j = 38*5 ft/s2, o>bd = 4*43 rad/s (clockwise), abd = 71 rad/s2
(counter-clockwise).
9. (a) pi = 3; (b) 15, 150; (c) 7*58 in.; (d) 2900 lb.
.
10 Pi = 16, 3*988 in., 88*0 %. 11. 8*60 to 1, 5*80 to 1.
.
12 11 770 r.p.m. 13. 2*31%, 0*22 deg.
14. 9*83%. 15. 1*93%, 1332 lb ft2.
ie! (a) 205 h.p.; (b) 2*72 ft tons; (c) 1*23%.
17. Maximum and minimum primary force = 650 lb, 326 lb. Maximum and
minimum secondary force = 205 lb, 85 lb.
18. Forces balanced; maximum primary couple = 3*52 ton ft, maximum
secondary couple = 2*94 ton ft.
19. 365 ton ft, 93*3 ton ft.
20. (a) 35*1 lb; (b) 22 900 lb/in2. Unsuitable, force transmitted = 1190 lb.
21. 1290 lb/in2, 10 970 lb/in2. 22. 0*0086 in., 21*3 in.
23. 19*8 lb in. 24. 0*0822 in.
25. 3570 r.p.m. 26. (a) 675*6 r.p.m.; (b) 670*2 r.p.m.
27. 3*22 in., 3180 r.p.m. 28. 6040 lb ft2.
2
29. 48*8 ton ft , 4770 per min. 30. 2300, 4030 per min.
31. 2260, 6560 per min. 32. 1145, 3150 per min.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

GENERAL

Text-books on Applied Mechanics and Theory of Machines

Dictionary of Applied Physics. Vol. I. Edited by Sir R. T. Glazebrook.
Macmillan.
Applied Mechanics for Engineers. J. Duncan. Macmillan.
Mechanics Applied to Engineering ( 2 vols.). J. Goodman. Longmans,
Green.
Applied Mechanics. D. A. Low. Longmans, Green.
Physical Principles of Mechanics and Acoustics. R. W. Pohl. Blackie.
Mechanics of Particles and Rigid Bodies. J. Prescott. Longmans, Green.
Engineering Mechanics. C. E. Inglis. Oxford University Press.
Mechanism. S. Dunkerley. Longmans, Green.
The Principles of Mechanism. F. Dyson. Oxford University Press.
Kinematics of Machinery. C. D. Albert and F. S. Rogers. Chapman &
Hah.
Kinematics and Kinetics of Machinery. J. E. Dent and A. C. Harper.
Chapman & Hall.
Kinematics of Machines. G. L. Guillet. Chapman & Hall.
Kinematics of Mechanisms. Rosenhauer and Willis. Associated General
Publications.
Mechanics of Machinery. C. W. Ham and E. J. Crane. McGraw-Hill.
Mechanics of Machinery (2 vols.). R. C. H. Heck. McGraw-Hill.
The Mechanics of Machinery. A. B. W. Kennedy. Macmillan.
Kinematics of Machinery. A. W. Klein. McGraw-Hill.
Theory of Machines. R. W. Angus. McGraw-Hill.
The Theory of Machines. R. F. McKay. Arnold.
Theory of Machines. L. Toft and A. T. J. Kersey. Pitman.
Theory of Machines. W. G. Green. Blackie.
Mechanism and the Kinematics of Machines. W. Steeds. Longmans
Green.
Advanced Dynamics. S. Timoshenko and D. H. Young. McGraw-Hill.

CHAPTER I

Kinematic Design in Engineering. A. F. C. Pollard. Proc. I.M.E., 1933.

Power Transmission by Oil. H. S. Hele-Shaw. Proc. I.M.E., 1921.

CHAPTER II
An Elementary Treatment of the Theory of Spinning Tops and Gyro-
scopic Motion. H. Crabtree. Longmans Green.
The Automatic Stabilisation of Ships. T. W. Chalmers. Chapman &
Hall.
Mechanics of the Gyroscope. R. F. Deimel. Macmillan.
Gyrostatics and Rotational Motion. A. Gray. Macmillan.
Spinning Tops. J. Perry. S.P.C.K.
The Gyroscopic Stabilisation of Land Vehicles. J. F. S. Ross. Arnold.
20—T.M. 609
610 BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Gyroscope. F. P. Schilovsky. Spon.
Dynamics of Rotation. A. M. Worthington. Longmans, Green.
The Gyroscope Applied. K. I. T. Richardson. Hutchinson’s Technical
Press.
The Stability of Gyroscopic Single-Track Vehicles. H. Cousins. Engineer-
ing, 1913.
The Brennan Mono-rail. Engineering, Nov., 1914.
Large Gyroscope for Stabilising a Liner. Engineer, Jan., 1932.
Rolling of the S.S. Conte de Savoie. Dr.-Ing. R. de Santis and Dr.-lng.
M. Russo. Engineer, Sept., 1936.
Gyroscopic Principles and Applications. C. E. Inglis. Proc. I.M.E.,
Vol. 151, 1944.

CHAPTER V

Heat Engines. D. A. Low. Longmans, Green.

The Steam Engine—Theory and Practice. W. Ripper and J. Goudie.
Longmans, Green.
Elements of Machine Design. Pt. II. W. C. Unwin and A. L. Mellanby.
Longmans, Green.
Valves and Valve Gear Mechanisms. W. E. Dalby. Arnold.
Valves and Valve Gearing. C. Hurst. Griffin.

CHAPTER VI

Reports of the Research Committee on Friction. Beauchamp Tower.

Proc. I.M.E., 1883, 4, 5, 8 and 1891.
Friction. Sir T. E. Stanton. Longmans, Green.
Mechanical Testing. Vol. II. R. G. Batson and J. H. Hyde. Chapman
& Hall.
Rolling Friction. O. Reynolds. Trans. Royal Society, Vol. 166.
The Theory of Lubrication and its Application to Beauchamp Tower’s
Experiments. O. Reynolds. Trans. Royal Society, 1886, Series A.
The Theory of Film Lubrication. R. O. Boswall. Longmans, Green.
Theory of Lubrication. M. D. Hersey. Chapman & Hall.
Mechanical Properties of Fluids—Chapter III—Viscosity and Lubrication.
A. G. M. Michell. Blackie.
Lubrication and Lubricants. L. Archbutt and R. M. Deeley. Griffin.
Lubrication and Lubricants. J. H. Hyde. Pitman.
The Principles and Practice of Lubrication. A. W. Nash and A. R. Bowen,
Chapman & Hall.
Lubrication. Its Principles and Practice. A. G. M. Michell. Blackie.
Friction and Lubrication of Solids. F. P. Bowden and D. Tabor. Oxford
University Press.
The Film Lubrication of the Journal Bearing. R. O. Boswall and J. C.
Brierley. Proc. I.M.E., 1932.
Hydrodynamic Principles of Journal Bearing Design. H. W. Swift.
Proc. I.M.E., 1935.
Relation between Theory, Experiment and Practice in Journal Bearing
Design. H. L. Hazlegrave. Proc. I.M.E., 1935.
The Measurement of Attitude and Eccentricity in Complete Clearance
Bearings. D. Clayton and C. Jakeman. Proc. I.M.E., 1936.
Investigations in Film Lubrication. A. S. T. Thomson. Proc. I.M.E.,
1936.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 611
General Discussion on Lubrication and Lubricants. Proc. I.M.E., 1937.
Ball Bearings. J. Goodman. Proc. I.C.E., 1912.
Ball Bearings. H. Hess. Trans. A.S.M.E., 1907.
Handbook of Ball and Roller Bearings. A. W. Macaulay. Pitman.
Needle Roller Bearings. C. H. Smith. Proc. I.A.E., 1935-6.
Rolling Bearings. R. K. Allan. Pitman.

CHAPTER VII

The Mechanical Transmission of Power. G. F. Charnock. Technical

Press, Ltd.
Belting and Its Application. J. Dawson. Chapman & Hall.
Belts for Power Transmission. W. G. Dunkley. Pitman.
The Transmission of Power by Leather Belting. C. G. Barth. Trans.
A.S.M.E., Vol. 31, 1909.
Power Transmission by Belts: An Investigation of Fundamentals. H. W.
Swift. Proc. I.M.E., 1928.
Cambers for Belt Pulleys. H. W. Swift. Proc. I.M.E., 1932.
Short-centre Belt Drives. H. W. Swift. Proc. I.M.E., 1937.
Transmission of Power by Chains. H. T. Hildage. Trans. Man. Assoc,
of Engrs.. 1914.
CHAPTER VIII

Mechanical Testing. Vol. II. R. G. Batson and J. H. Hyde. Chapman

& Hall.
Engineering Instruments and Meters. E. A. Griffiths. Routledge.
The Testing of Engines, Boilers and Auxiliary Machinery. W. W. F.
Pullen. Scientific Publishing Co.
The Testing of Motive Power Engines. R. Royds. Longmans, Green.
Mechanical Braking and Its Influence on Winding Equipment. J. F.
Perry and D. M. Smith. Proc. I.M.E., 1932.
Coupled Brakes. Automobile Engineer, Jan., 1926.
Dynamometer and Friction Brake. W. Froude. Proc. I.M.E., 1858,
1877.
The Measurement of Torque in Shafts. H. Ford and A. Douglas.
Engineering, May, 1949.
Torquemeter for Industrial Applications. R. B. Sims and A. D. Morley.
Engineering, July, 1952.

CHAPTER IX

Cams. Elementary and Advanced. F. D. Furman. Chapman & Hall.

Analytical Approach to Automobile Valve Gear Design. J. L. H. Bishop.
A.D. Proc., 1950-51, p. 150.

CHAPTER X

Mechanical Testing. Vol. II. R. G. Batson and J. H. Hyde. Chapman

& Hall.
The Mechanical Transmission of Power. G. F. Charnock. Technical
Press, Ltd.
Spur Gears. E. Buckingham. McGraw-Hill.
Gears and Gear Cutting. P. Gates. Technical Press, Ltd.
612 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Steam Turbines. J. Goudie. Longmans, Green.
Elements of Machine Design. Pt. I. W. C. Unwin and A. L. Mellanby.
Longmans, Green.
The Art of Gear Design. H. E. Merritt. The Engineer, July-Dee., 1936.
Worm Gearing. J. J. Guest. The Automobile Engineer, 1931.
Worm Gear Contacts. W. Abbott. Proc. I.M.E., 1936.
Worm Gear Performance. H. E. Merritt. Proc. I.M.E., 1935.
A Treatise on Screws and Worm Gears. P. Cormac. Chapman & Hall.
Gears. H. E. Merritt. Pitman.
Analytical Mechanics of Gears. E. Buckingham. McGraw-Hill.

CHAPTER XI

Variable-Speed Gears for Motor Road-Vehicles. R. E. Phillips. Proc.

I.M.E., 1917.
Planetary Gearing. F. D. Furman. Machinery, Vol. 24, 25, 26 and 27.
Epicyclic Gears. F. W. Lanchester and G. H. Lanchester. Proc. I.M.E.,
1924.
Epicyclic Gearing. W. G. Wilson. Proc. I.A.E., 1931-2.
Epicyclic Gearing. P. P. Love. Proc. I.M.E., 1936.
Gear Trains. H. E. Merritt. Pitman.

CHAPTER XII

Inertia Torque in Crankshafts. F. A. S. Acres. Proc. I.A.E., 1919-20.

Graphical Method of Finding Inertia Forces. W. J. Duncan. Proc.
I.M.E., 1915.
Dynamics of Mechanisms. E. Eksergian. Journal of the Franklin
Institute, 1930, 31.
CHAPTER XIV

A Treatise on Engine Balance. P. Cormac. Chapman & Hall.

The Balancing of Engines. W. E. Dalby. Arnold.
The Balancing of Engines. A. Sharp. Longmans, Green.
The Balancing of Oil Engines. W. Ker Wilson. Griffin.
Mechanical Testing. Vol. II. R. G. Batson and J. H. Hyde. Chapman
& Hah.
The Balancing of Machinery. C. N. Fletcher. Emmott.
Engineering Dynamics, Vol. IV. Biezeno and Grammel. Blackie.
Balance and Inertia Torque of Multicylinder Engines. Feam. Journal
of Royal Aer. Soc., Sept., 1928.
The Design of Dynamically-Balanced Crankshafts for Two-Stroke Cycle
Engines. P. Cormac. Engineering, Oct., 1929.
Static Balancing Machine. Engineering, Feb., 1935.
Schenk Direct-Measurement Dynamic Balancing Machine. Engineering,
July, 1937.

CHAPTER XV

Steam Turbines. J. Goudie. Longmans, Green.

Balancing of Engines. W. E. Dalby. Arnold.
Theory of Vibration for Engineers. E. B. Cole. Crosby Lockwood.
The Prevention of Vibration and Noise. A. B. Eason. Oxford University
Press.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 613

Mechanical Vibrations. J. P. D. Hartog. McGraw-Hill.

The Strength of Shafts in Vibration. J. Morris. Technical Press, Ltd.
Dynamics of Engine and Shaft. R. E. Root. Chapman & Hall.
Rayleigh’s Principle and its Application to Engineering. G. lemple and
- W. G. Bickley. Oxford University Press.
Mechanics Applied to Vibrations and Balancing. D. L. Thornton.
Chapman & Hall.
Vibration Problems in Engineering. S. Timoshenko and D. H. Young.
Macmillan.
Torsional Vibration. W. A. Tuplin. Chapman & Hall.
1 ' ' W. Ker Wilson.
Practical Solution of Torsional Vibration Problems.
Chapman & Hall. 0 TT n
Fundamentals of Vibration Study. R. G. Manley. Chapman & Hall.
Vibration and Shock Isolation. Creda. Chapman & Hall.
Mechanics of Vibrations. Hansen and Chenea. Chapman & rla .
Theory of Oscillations. Andronow and Chaikin. Princeton.
Engineering Dynamics, Vol. Ill and IV. Biezeno and Grammeh Blackie.
Vector Methods of Studying Mechanical Vibrations. D. Robertson.
The Enqineer, 1931. . _ TT . , ,
The Possible Vibration of a Ship’s Hull under the Action of an Unbalanced
Engine. W. E. Dalby. Proc. I.M.E., 1928.
An Empirical Formula for Crankshaft Stiffness in Torsion. B. C. Carter.
Engineering, July, 1928. . . , noft
The Stiffness of Multi-Throw Crankshafts. Engineering Nov., 1929-
On the Stiffness of Crankshafts. H. Constant. H. M. Stationery Office.
Graphical Method of Determining the Frequency of Torsional Vibration.
K. Waimann. Z.V.D.I., Sept., 1934.
Elastic Hysteresis in Crankshaft Steels. S. F. Dorey. Proc. I.M. .,
1932.
Damping Influences in Torsional Oscillation. J. F. Shannon. Proc.
I. M.E., 1935.
The Cambridge Vibrograph. Engineering, Feb., 1925.
Der Torsiograph, Ein neues Instrument zur Untersuchung von Wellen.
J. Geiger. Z.V.D.I., 1916. , .. . „
The R.A.E. Optical Torsiograph. B. C. Carter. Journal of the Aero. .,

Eliminating Crankshaft Torsional Vibration in Radial Aircraft Engines.

E. S. Taylor. Journal S.A.E., 1936.
J. Dick. The Engineer.
The Pendulum Torsional Vibration Damper.
Dec., 1936.
Sulzer Technical Review,
A Dynamic Damper for Torsional Vibrations.
No. 1, 1938.
 INDEX

Absorption dynamometers, 265 Balancing of multi-cylinder in-line en-

Acceleration, 14 gine, 505, 513
— along circular path, 15 — of reciprocating masses, partial,
straight line, 16 499
—, angular, 16 — of revolving masses, 489
— centre, 90 —, primary, 505
—, centripetal, 16 —, secondary, 506
—, Coriolis component, 102 Band and block brake, 257
— diagram for link, 89 — brake, 256
for four-bar chain, 97 Base circle of involute wheel, 326, 330
— — for reciprocating engine, 91 — pitch, 328
—- -displacement curve, 70 Basic rack, 330
—, gyroscopic, 18 Beam engine, 8, 122
■— image, 89 Bearing, ball, 216
— of geared system, 47 —, horse-shoe thrust, 192
— of piston, analytical, 100 —, journal, 210
, Fourier series for, 101 —, Michell thrust, 209
— , Klein’s construction, 94 —, needle roller, 218
—- of rolling body, 45 —, roller, 217
—- -speed crave, 73 Belt creep, 230
—, tangential, 16 — drive, centrifugal stress, 226
— -time curve, 71 — -—, effect of centrifugal stress on
for cam, 283 power transmitted, 231
Ackermann steering gear, 8, 134 , — of gravity idler, 235
Addendum of tooth, 321 , materials, 237
, modified to avoid inter- , power transmitted, 227
ference, 340 , ratio of tensions, 223
tightening effect of catenary, 229
—, standard, 328 1

Adsorption, 204 — transmission dynamometer, 271

Advance, angle of, for eccentric, 144 Bennett’s construction for acceleration
Amplitude of vibration, 533 of piston, Q. 24, p. 118
, damped vibration, 550 Bevel gearing, 315, 346
—, forced vibration, 554 — wheels, methods of cutting, 360
at resonance, 559 Bevis-Gibson torsion dynamometer,
Andreau differential-stroke engine, 274
86 Bilgram valve diagram, 149
Angle of advance of eccentric, 144 Body centrode, 80
— of friction, limiting, 178 Boswall and Brierley, experiments on
— of obliquity, 321 journal bearings, 213
Angular acceleration, displacement, Boundary friction, 204
velocity, 17 Brake, band, 256
— momentum, 22 —, — and block, 257
— velocity of precession, 18 —, internal expanding, 255
Arc, idle, in belt drive, 230 —, shoe, 248
— of approach, 322 Braking of a vehicle, 260
— of contact, length of, 337 Brass, bedded and clearance, 213
— of recess, 322 Broad-arrow engine, balance of, 519
Axis, friction, 197 Buckingham, E., 345
Buffer, action of, 29
Bull engine, 10
Back gear, lathe, 373
Balancing head, 524
—, locomotive, 501, 504 Cam, circular arc, 298
— machine, dynamic, 523 — t , with oscillating roller fol-
static, 521 lower, 307
615
616 INDEX
Cam, cylindrical, 282 Coriolis component acceleration, 53,
—, displacement, velocity and accelera- 102
tion-time curves of, 283 Correction couple for inertia of con-
—, radial, 282 necting rod, 41
—, tangent, 302 Couple, 22, 42
— with flat-faced follower, 296 —, gyroscopic, 51
knife-edged follower, 290 —, representation by a vector, 495
roller oscillating follower, 293 —, swaying, 504
reciprocating follower, 292 Crank and slotted lever quick-return
Cams, types of, 281 motion, 10
Catenary, tightening effect of, in belt , acceleration of ram,
drive, 229 107
Centre, acceleration, 90 , velocity of ram, 88
—, instantaneous, 78, 79 Cranks, direct and reverse, 515
— method, instantaneous, 79 Crankshaft speed, coefficient of fluctua-
— of percussion, 40 tion of, 441
Centrifugal force, 21 -, fluctuation of, 437
— governors, 454 Creep of belt, 230
— stress in belt or rope, 226 Critical damping, 552
— , effect of, on h.p. — speed, 565
transmitted, 231 Cut-off, alteration of, with Meyer
Centripetal acceleration, 16 expansion valve, 157
— force, 20 —, , — simple slide valve, 156
Centrode, body, 80 —, point of, 144
—, space, 80 Cutting wheel teeth, methods of, 356
Chain, compound, 12 Cycloid, 323
—, double-slider crank, 11 Cycloidal teeth, 323
—, four-bar, 5, 7, 78, 97, 134, 426 Cyclometer mechanism, 397
—, inverted tooth, 244
—, kinematic, 4
—, roller, 241 Dalby’s method of balancing, 494
—, slider-crank, 8 D’Alembert’s principle, 21, 42, 419
Chain drive, 239 Damped vibration, 550
, fluctuation of velocity ratio, 240 Damping, critical, 552
Circle, friction, 197 Davis steering gear, 132
—, rolling, 323 Dedendum of wheel tooth, 319
Circular path, motion along, 15, 20 Diametral pitch, 320
— pitch, 319 Differential mechanism, 400
Clearance in wheel teeth, 321 — stroke engine, Andreau, 86
Clutch, disc or plate, 193 Direct and reverse cranks, 515
Co-axial gear drives, 373 Disc clutch, 193
Coefficient of fluctuation of energy, 439 Displacement, 14
of speed, 441 time curve, 68, 71, 73
— of friction, 178 for cam, 283
, worm gearing, 356 Dobbie Mclnnes indicator mechanism,
— of insensitiveness, 483 130
— of restitution, 27 Double slider-crank chain, 11
Collar friction, 189 Dunkerley’s method of finding fre-
Complete constraint, 3 quency of transverse vibrations,
Compound gear train, 367, 370 545
— kinematic chain, 12 Dynamic balancing machine, 523
— pendulum, 36 — magnifier, 556
— steam engine, turning moment dia- at resonance, 559
gram, 435 Dynamical system, equivalent, 39, 418
Conical pivot, 189 Dynamics, 1
Conjugate teeth, 322 Dynamometer, absorption, 265
Conservation of energy, 23 —, Belt, 272
— of momentum, 23 —, Bevis-Gibson, 274
Constraint, 3 —, Epicyclic train, 270
Contact, arc of, 337 —, Fottinger, 275
—, path of, 321, 337 —, Heenan and Froude, 267
Controlling force, 476 ——, Hopkinson-Thring, 275
 INDEX 617
Dynamometer, Moullin, 276 Fly-press, 7
—, Rope-brake, 266 Flywheel, size of, 442
-—, Swinging-field, 269 Followers, types of cam, 282
—, Torsion, 273 Force, 18
—, Transmission, 270 —, centrifugal, 21
—, centripetal, 20
—, closure, 4
Eccentric, equivalent or virtual, 159 —, controlling, 476
Effective force, 44, 416 —, effective, 44, 416
— tension, 225 —, impulsive, 24
Efficiency of inclined plane, 181 —, inertia, of a link, 416
— of machine, 412 Forced vibrations, 554
— of screw and nut, 187 Formed cutters for wheel teeth, 356
— of spiral gearing, 349 Fottinger torsion dynamometer, 275
— of worm gearing, 356 Four-bar chain, 5, 7
Effort and resistance, relation between, — -—, acceleration diagram for, 97
413 , inertia forces in, 426
—, governor, 472 , velocity diagram for, 78
Elastic constraint, 532 —- -speed gear box, 375
— impact, 25 Fourier series for velocity and accelera-
— line of shaft in torsional vibration, tion of piston, 101
570, 576, 579, 582, 587 Free vibrations, 532
— suspension, 561 Frequency of vibration, longitudinal,
Element, 2 533
Ellipse trammel, 12 —, simple harmonic, 34
Energy, conservation of, 23 , torsional 535, 570, 585
—, kinetic, 23 , transverse, 534, 538, 544
-— method of finding frequency of Friction, angle of, 178
transverse vibrations, 546 — axis, 197
—, potential, 23 —, boundary, 204
—, strain, 23 — circle, 197
Engine, Andreau differential stroke, 86 — of dry surfaces, 177
—, Atkinson cycle, Q. 11, p. 115 — of governor, 481
—, beam, 8, 122 — of inclined plane, 179
—, broad arrow, balance of, 519 — of lubricated surfaces, 202
—, opposed-piston, balance of, 508 — of screw-and-nut, 187
—, rotary, acceleration diagram, 110 —, rolling, 214
—, single-cylinder, balance of, 499, 516 Froude dynamometer, 267
—, symmetrical, balance of, 511
Epicyclic gear, Ford, Q. 17, p. 409
, Humpage, 398 Gear box, motor car, 375
trains, speed ratio of, 378, 381 — train, compound, 367, 370, 373
, tooth loads and torques, 387 , epicyclic, 366, 378
, Trojan, 401 , simple, 366
1 Wilson, 402 — wheels, methods of manufacture,
— train dynamometer, 270 356
Epicycloid, 323 Geared system, acceleration of, 47
Equivalent dynamical system, 39 , torsional vibration of, 585
for link, 39, 418 Gearing, bevel, 315, 346, 360
— eccentric, 59, 162 —, definitions, 319
— mass for geared system, 47 —, epicyclic, 378
for rolling body, 45 —, helical, 315, 345
Exhaust lap, 142 —, hyperboloidal, 316
Expansion gear, Meyer, 157 —, skew, 315
— plate, minimum width of, 159 —, spiral, 315, 347
—, spur, 315
—, worm, 353
Film lubrication, 205 Generating pitch line, 341
of plane surfaces, 207 — wheel teeth, 357
of the journal bearing, 210 Gooch link motion, 167
Fluctuation of crankshaft speed, 437 Governor, centrifugal, 454
— of energy, 440 —, definitions, 471
618 INDEX
Governor effort, 472 Initial tension in belt drive, 227
— friction, 481 Inside lap, see lap, exhaust
—, Hartnell, 465 Instantaneous centre, 78, 79
—, isochronous, 472, 480 — — method, 79
—, Porter, 457 of acceleration, 90
— power, 472 Interference in involute wheels, 329
—, Proell, 461 —, methods of eliminating, 339
—, spring-loaded, 464 —, minimum number of teeth to avoid
—, stability of, 480 332
—, Watt, 456 Internal expanding brake, 255
Grasshopper straight-line motion, 126 Inversion, 6
Gravity idler, effect of, on belt drives, Inversions of double-slider-crank chain,
235 11
Grooved pulley, ratio of tensions, 223 — of slider-crank chain, 8
Gyration, radius of, 21 Inverted tooth chain, 243
Gyroscope, 51 Involute teeth, 328
Gyroscopic acceleration, 18 —, the, 326
— couple, 51 Isochronous governor, 472, 481
— stabilisation, 59
Joint, Hooke’s, 135
Hackworth valve gear, 170 Joints and links, relation between
Hammer blow, 503 numbers of, 5
Harmonic motion, simple, 33 Journal bearing, friction of, 210
Harmonics, higher, balance of, 513 Joy valve gear, 171
Hart straight-line mechanism, 124
Hartnell governor, 465
Heenan and Froude dynamometer, 267 Kinematic chain, 4
Helical gearing, 315, 345 — pair, 2
Higher pair, 4 Kinematics, 1
Hobbing wheel teeth, 358 Kinetic energy, 23
Hooke’s joint, 135 , loss of, during impact, 26
Hopkinson-Thring torsion dynamo- Kinetics, 1
meter, 275 Kingsbury thrust bearing, 209
Horse-power transmitted by belt or Klein’s construction for acceleration of
rope, 227, 231 piston, 94
Humpage gear, 398 applied to the four-bar chain, 97
Hunting of governor, 472
Hyatt roller bearing, 217
Lap, exhaust, 142
Hyperboloidal gearing, 316
—, steam, 142
Hypocycloid, 323
—, —, of expansion valve, 158
Lathe back gear, 373
Idle arc in belt drive, 230 Lead angle, 346, 349
Image, acceleration, 89 — of slide valve, 142
—, velocity, 77 Lenix drive, 236
Impact, 24 Limiting angle of friction, 178
■—, loss of kinetic energy during, 26 — ratio of the tensions, 223
Impulse, 24 Line of contact, 4, 281, 316, 353
Impulsive force, 24 Linear momentum, 18
Inclined plane, efficiency of, 181 Link, 2
, friction of, 179 — motion, Gooch, 167
with guide friction, 183 — -—, Stephenson, 164
Indicator diagram, gas or oil engine, Links and pairs, relation between
433 numbers of, 5
, steam engine, 142 Locomotive balancing, 501
— pencil mechanisms, 128 Longitudinal vibration, 533
Inelastic impact, 25 Lower pair, 4
Inertia force of a link, 416 Lubricated surfaces, friction at, 202
-—- forces in the four-bar chain, 426 — —, Tower’s experiments on, 205
-— — in the reciprocating engine, 421 Lubrication, film, 205
—, moment of, 21 — of journal bearings, 210
— torque, 423, 426, 431 — of plane surfaces, 207
 INDEX 619
Machine, 1, 6 Pendulum, simple, 35
Magnifier, dynamic, 556 —, torsion, 37
Marshall valve gear, 171 Percussion, centre of, 40
Mass, 18 Periodic time, 551
—, unit of, 19 Phase lag, 556, 558
Materials, belt and rope, 237 Piston valve, 143
Mechanism, 6 Pitch, base, 328
Meyer expansion gear, 157 — circle, 319
Michell thrust bearing, 209 -—•, circular, 319
Minimum width of expansion plate, 159 — cone, 316, 346, 360
Mode of vibration, 570, 574 —, diametral, 320
Module pitch, 320 — line, 319
Moment, friction, of collar or pivot, 189 — module, 320
Momentum, angular, 22 —, normal, 345
—, conservation of, 23 — point, 319
—, linear, 18 — surface, 316, 319
—, moment of, 22 Pivot friction, 189
Morse silent chain, 243 Plane surfaces, lubrication of, 207
Motion along a circular path, 15, 20 Plate clutch, 193
—, processional, 18, 52 Poise, 203
-—, simple harmonic, 33 Porter governor, 457
—, straight line, 16,122 Potential energy, 23
Motor car gear box, 375 Pound weight, 19
— -— steering gear, 8, 134 Poundal, 19
Moullin torsion dynamometer, 276 Power, 22
— of governor, 472
— transmitted by belt or rope, 227
Needle roller bearing, 218 Precession, velocity of, 18
Newton’s laws of motion, 18, 21, 24 Pressure angle, 321
Node, 547, 569, 574 Proell Governor, 461
Normal mode of vibration, 570, 574 Profile of wheel teeth, 319
— pitch, 345 Prony brake, 265
Number of links in kinematic chain, 5 Pump, pendulum, 10

Obliquity, angle of, 321 Quick-return motion, crank and slotted

Oiliness, 203 lever, 10
Oldham shaft coupling, 11, 12 , —, acceleration dia-
Opposed piston engine, imbalanced gram, 107
forces in, 508 , —- — —, instantaneous cen-
Oscillating-cylinder engine, 8 tres, 88
Outside lap, see lap, steam , Whitworth, 9
Oval valve diagram, 154

Rack, basic, 330

Pair, higher, 4 —, involute, 329
—•, kinematic, 2 Radial cam, 282
—, lower, 4 -— valve gears, 168. See reversing
—, screw, 3 gears, link motions
•—, sliding, 3 Radius of gyration, 21
—, turning, 3 Rayleigh, Lord, 539
Pairs, links and, relation between Recess, arc of, 322
numbers of, 5 Reciprocating engine mechanism, 1, 81,
Pantograph, 121, 129 85, 91
Parallel motion, 126 — —, single-cylinder, imbalanced
Partial balance of reciprocating masses, forces, 499
499 — mass, inertia of, 497, 516
Peaucellier straight-line mechanism, , partial balance of, 499
123 Rectangular valve diagram, 153
Pencil mechanisms, indicator, 128 Relative velocity, 75
Pendulum, compound, 36 method, 75
— pump, 10 Resistance, effort and, 413
620 INDEX
Resistant body, 2 Spiral bevel gear, 361
Resonance, 522, 558 — gearing, 317, 347
—, amplitude at, 559 , design of, 350
Restitution, coefficient of, 27 , efficiency of, 349
Reuleaux valve diagram, 147 , graphical solution of, 352
Reversing gear, Gooch, 167 Spring-controlled governors, 464
, Hackworth, 170 Spur gearing, 315
— —, Joy, 172 definitions, 319
, Marshall, 171 , methods of manufacture, 356
, Stephenson, 164 -—- —, standard proportions for, 328
— —, Walschaert, 169 Stabilisation, gyroscopic, 59
Revolving mass, balance of, 489 Stability of governor, 472, 480
Ritterhaus’s construction for accelera- Static balancing machine, 521
tion of piston, Q. 24, p. 118 — friction, 178
Robert’s straight-line motion, 128 Statics, 1
Roller bearing, 217 Steam lap, 142
— chain, 241 Steering, condition for correct, 132
Rolling body, acceleration of, 45 — gear, Ackermann, 8, 134
— circle, 323 , Davis, 132
— friction, 214 Stephenson link motion, 164
Rope brake dynamometer, 266 Stiffness, torsional, 534
— drive, see belt drives Stodola’s method, transverse vibration,
Ropes, cotton, 238 546
—, wire, 239 Stone-crusher mechanism, 79
Rotary engine, 11 Straight-line motions, approximate,
— —, acceleration diagram, 110 125
, exact, 122
Strain energy, 23
Scotch yoke, 12 Successful constraint, 3
Scott-Russell straight-line motion, 125 Surface contact, 4
Screw and nut, friction of, 187 Swaying couple, 504
— cutting, change wheels for, 369 Swift, H. W., 230
— pair, 3 Swinging-field dynamometer, 269
Sensitiveness of governor, 471
Shaft angle of spiral gears, 347
—, torsional stiffness of, 534 Tangent cam, 302
—, torsionally equivalent, 569 Tangential acceleration, 16
—. uniform, transverse vibration of, — velocity, 15
538 Taper roller bearing, 217
-—•, whirling of, 567 Tchebicheff straight-line motion, 127
— with several loads, vibration of, 544 Teeth, conjugate, 322
-— with single load, whirling of, 565 -—-, cycloidal, 323
Shaping of wheel teeth, 356 —, interference between, 329
Shoe brake, 248 —, involute, 328
Silent chain, 243 — of chain wheels, 242, 245
Simple harmonic motion, 33 Tension, centrifugal, 226
vibration, 532 —, initial, 277
-— pendulum, 35 —, total, 232
Skew gear, 315 Tensions, limiting ratio of, 225
Slide valve, 143 Thompson indicator mechanism, 130
Slider-crank chain, 8 Three centres in line theorem, 84
Sliding pair, 3 , applications of, 85
— velocity of wheel teeth, 319 Thrust bearing, ball, 217
of worm gear, 355 , horse-shoe, 192
Slip of belt or rope, 230 — —-, Kingsbury, 209
Slug, unit of mass, 20 , Michell, 209
Space centrode, 80 Torque, gas, 434
Speed, 15 —, inertia, 431
—, coefficient of fluctuation of, 441 —, —, of connecting rod, 423
— -displacement curve, 70 —, —, four-bar chain, 426
— -time curve, 68, 71, 73 —, —, reciprocating engine, 421, 431
Spiral angle, 349 —, steam, 430
 INDEX 621

Torsion dynamometers, 273 Vehicle, braking of, 260

Torsional stiffness of shaft, 534 Velocity, 14
— vibration, 534, 568 —, angular, 16
, damped, 553 — image, 77
of geared system, 585 — of piston, Fourier series for, 101
multi-rotor system, 574 — of sliding, wheel teeth, 319
—. - —, graphical method of — ratio in chain drive, 240
solving, 582 —, relative, 75
Tower, Beauchamp, 205 time curve for cam, 283
Tractive effort, variation of, in loco- Vibration, amplitude of forced, 554
motives, 504 —, damped, 550
Trammel, ellipse, 12 —, forced, 554
Transmissibility, 562 —, free, 532
Transmission dynamometers, 270 —, frequency of, longitudinal, 533
Transverse vibration, 533 —, — of, torsional, 534, 568
, several loads on shaft, 544 —, — of, transverse, 533, 538, 544
, uniformly-loaded shaft, 538 Virtual eccentric, link motion, 162,
Tredgold’s approximation, 347 165
Trojan epicyclic gear box, 401 , Meyer expansion gear, 159
Turning moment diagram, compound — —, offset line of stroke, 162
steam engine, 435 , radial valve gear, 168
, multi-cylinder gas engine, Viscosity, 203
436 Von-Hefner Alteneck transmission
, single-cylinder gas engine, dynamometer, 272
433
—, — steam engine, 431
— pair, 3 Waimann, K., Graphical solution of
torsional vibration, 582
Walschaert valve gear, 169
Universal joint, 135 Watt governor, 456
— straight-line motion, 122, 126
Valve, piston, 143 Weight, 18
-— diagram, Bilgram, 149 Wheel teeth, 315
, oval, 154 —- trains, 366
, rectangular, 153 Whirling of shaft, several loads, 567
— -—, Reuleaux, 147 , single concentrated load, 565
—, slide, 143 Whitworth quick-return motion, 9
Variation of tractive effort in loco- Wilson epicyclic gear box, 402
motive, 504 Work, 22
Vector representation of a couple, 51, —, rate of doing, 413
495 Worm and wheel, 353
— solution, epicyclic gear trains, 385 , efficiency of, 356
, vibration problems, 556 Wrapping machine mechanism, 83
Vee-belt, materials, 238
, ratio of tensions, 223
Vee-thread, friction of, 187 Yoke, Scotch, 12