M.Tech.

I Semester (Soil Mechanics)

Advanced Soil Mechanics

Unit III
Consolidation

Note: This material is subject to

copy right law and cannot be
used outside ANITS without
permission.
1
Dr. B.N.D.Narasinga Rao
ME, PhD, FIE, FIGS
Professor & Head, Department of Civil Engineering
Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology & Sciences
Sangivalasa, Visakhapatnam district
1
 Consolidation
 Compressibility: The property of soil to undergo decrease in volume when
subjected to increase in stress.

 Consolidation: The delayed compression of saturated clays during expulsion

of pore water, decrease in pore water pressure, increase in effective stress due
to poor permeability of clays.

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Distinguish Compaction & Consolidation
S. Item Compaction Consolidation
No.
1 Cause Compaction caused by mechanical Consolidation is a natural process caused
means using rollers. by increased stresses due to loads from
the foundations / superstructure.

2 decrease in volume In Compaction, Decrease in In consolidation, Decrease in volume

volume of soil occurs by expulsion occurs by expulsion of pore water from
of air from the voids. the voids.

3 Degree of saturation Compaction is effective for partially Consolidation takes place in fully
saturated soils. saturated Clays.

4 Time for completion Compaction is completed within Consolidation takes several months to
minutes and hence is a short-term years and hence is a long-term process.
process.

5 Duration of loads Compaction is caused by short- Consolidation is caused by long-term

term dynamic load, which are static loads, which continue to exist after
removed after compaction. the completion of consolidation.

6 Applicable soils Compaction is effective in well- Consolidation in principle occurs in all

graded soils and less effective in soils but significant for clayey soils due to
clays. consequent long-term settlements.

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 Mechanism of Consolidation
 Terzaghi’s Soil-Spring Analogy:

 Spring-dashpot Model

 Spring ~ Soil grains

 Cylinder ~ Soil mass

 Water ~ Pore water

 Control Valve ~ Permeability of soil

 Piston with load  ~ Foundation with

load from the Building
Spring – Dashpot Model

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 Mechanism of Consolidation
 Initial Stage ~ Valve in Closed position

∆𝝇 = ∆𝝇′ + 𝒖
’= 0, u = 
 Intermediate Stage ~ Valve partially open
∆𝝇 = ∆𝝇′ + 𝒖

 > ’> 0,  > u > 0

 Final Stage

∆𝝇 = ∆𝝇′ + 𝒖

’= , u=0 Spring – Dashpot Model

5/3/2023 3:56 AM 5
 Mechanism of Consolidation
 Initial Stage ~ Immediately after
construction of the Building

∆𝝇 = ∆𝝇′ + 𝒖
’= 0, u = 
 Intermediate Stage ~ After a given time
 > ’> 0,  > u > 0

 Final Stage ~ End of Consolidation

’= , u=0
 =Applied stress increment
Building Foundation
’= Effective stress in soil over Saturated clay deposit
u = Pore water pressure
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 Mechanism of Consolidation
 Consolidation is u and ’ , while  remains constant

5/3/2023 3:56 AM 7
 Measurement of Compressibility
 Coefficient of Compressibility, av

𝑒2 − 𝑒1 −∆𝑒
𝑎𝑣 = =
𝜎2 ′ − 𝜎1 ′ ∆𝜎′
 Units of av are m2/kN

 Coefficient of Volume Compressibility,

mv
−∆𝑉 1
𝑚𝑣 = .
𝑉1 ∆𝜎′

 Units of mv are m2/kN

 Coefficient of volume compressibility

is also called Coefficient of volume
change
5/3/2023 3:56 AM 8
 Measurement of Compressibility

 In a laboratory consolidation test, the

soil specimen is laterally enclosed
(confined) in a specimen ring and a
consolidation cell.
 Hence compression occurs by decrease
in thickness, while plan area of the
soil specimen remains constant.
5/3/2023 3:56 AM 9
 Measurement of Compressibility
 Even in the field, Terzaghi assumed that decrease in volume occurs only
by decrease in thickness of clay layer (z-axis), neglecting the compression
in x and y directions i.e., consolidation is assumed to be 1-dimensional

−∆𝑉 1 𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑣
𝑚𝑣 = . 𝑒= 1+𝑒 =1+
𝑉1 ∆𝜎′ 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠

∆𝑉 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑣 𝑉
= 1+𝑒 = = 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 (1 + 𝑒)
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠

∆𝑉 𝐴 × 𝐻2 − 𝐴 × 𝐻1 ∆𝑉 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉𝑠 1 + 𝑒2 − 𝑉𝑠 (1 + 𝑒1 )
= = =
𝑉1 𝐴 × 𝐻1 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉𝑠 (1 + 𝑒1 )

∆𝑉 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 ∆𝐻 ∆𝑉 𝑒2 − 𝑒1 ∆𝑒
= = = =
𝑉1 𝐻1 𝐻1 𝑉1 (1 + 𝑒1 ) (1 + 𝑒1 )

−∆𝑽 𝟏 −∆𝑯 𝟏 −∆𝒆 𝟏

𝒎𝒗 = . = . = .
𝑽𝟏 ∆𝝇′ 𝑯𝟏 ∆𝝇′ (𝟏 + 𝒆𝟏 ) ∆𝝇′
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 Measurement of Compressibility
 Compression Index, Cc

 Slope of pressure-void ratio Curve

∆𝑦 𝑒2 − 𝑒1
𝐶𝑐 = =−
∆𝑥 log10 𝜎2 ′ − log10 𝜎1 ′

 Units

∆𝑒 ∆𝑒
𝐶𝑐 = − =−
𝜎2 ′ 𝜎1′ + ∆𝜎′
log10 log10
𝜎1 ′ 𝜎1 ′

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 Consolidation Settlement

∆𝑽 ∆𝒆
∆𝑯 = 𝒎𝒗 𝑯𝟏 ∆𝝇′ = 𝑯𝟏 = .𝑯
𝑽𝟏 (𝟏 + 𝒆𝟏 ) 𝟏

𝐶𝑐 𝑯𝟏 𝜎1′ + ∆𝜎′
∆𝑯 = . log10
(𝟏 + 𝒆𝟏 ) 𝜎1 ′

5/3/2023 3:56 AM 12
 Terzaghi’s Theory of consolidation
 Assumptions in derivation of Terzaghi’s 1-dimensional consolidation
equation:
1. The soil is homogeneous and fully saturated.
2. Soil particles and pore water are incompressible.
3. The flow of water during expulsion of pore water occurs only in the
vertical direction, that is, consolidation is one-dimensional (1D).
4. The change in the volume of soil due to consolidation is negligible
compared to the initial volume of soil.
5. Flow is laminar and Darcy’s law is valid.
6. Permeability is the same throughout the thickness of the compressible
soil layer.

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 Terzaghi’s Theory of consolidation
 Assumptions in derivation of Terzaghi’s 1-dimensional consolidation
equation:
7. The coefficient of volume compressibility, mv, remains constant with
time.
8. Compression takes place only due to expulsion of pore water, that is,
the initial and secondary consolidation is neglected.
9. The coefficient of consolidation for a given soil and site conditions is
assumed to be constant.

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 Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation
 Velocity of pore water

h
u 1  u 
vz  k   
w  w  z 
h
i  vz  
 k 
1  u  
z  
z z   w  z  

  u 
i  
z   w  vz k  2u
  2
z  w z
1  u 
i
 w  z 
15
 Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation
 Discharge of pore water

qi = vzdxdy

vz
vzo= vz   dz
z
  vz 
qo  vz    dz    dx  dy
  z 

  vz  
q  qo  qi   vz    dz    dx  dy   (vz  dx  dy )
  z  
vz
q   dx  dy  dz
z
16
 Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation
 Discharge of pore water
vz
q   V1
z
k  2u
q   2  V1
 w z

17
 Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation
 Change in the Volume of Soil Due to Consolidation

V 1
mv        u
V1  
  u
V mv V1        
t t t
 
(V )  (mv V1   ) 
t t   0
t
   u
(V )  mv  V1  ( ) 0   
t t t t
  u   u
(V )  mv  V1     ( )  
t  t  t t
18
 Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation
 Change in the Volume of Soil Due to Consolidation

 u
(V )  mv  V1  u k  2u
t t   2
t mv   w z

(V )  q k
t Cv 
mv   w
k  2u
q   2  V1
 w z u  2u
 Cv  2
t z
u k  2u
mv  V1    2  V1
t  w z

19
 Terzaghi’s Theory of consolidation
 Solution of this partial differential equation gives two equations
𝑪𝒗 𝒕
𝑻= 𝟐
𝒅

𝝅 𝟐
𝑻= 𝑼 𝒊𝒇 𝑼 ≤ 𝟔𝟎%
𝟒

𝑻 = −𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟑𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟏 − 𝑼 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟓𝟏 𝒊𝒇 𝑼 > 𝟔𝟎%

𝝆𝒕
𝑼= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒊𝒇 𝑼 ≤ 𝟔𝟎%
𝝆𝒇

 T = Time factor; Cv = Coefficient of consolidation; t = time interval ;

d = Length of drainage path; U = Degree of consolidation;
t = Consolidation settlement at time t; f = Final or Ultimate
Consolidation settlement

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 Terzaghi’s Theory of consolidation
 Length of drainage path, d

Sand Sand Clay

Clay Clay
Sand
Sand Impervious Rock

Double drainage Single drainage Single drainage

𝑯
𝒅= 𝒅=𝑯 𝒅=𝑯
𝟐

 H = Thickness of clay layer

5/3/2023 3:56 AM 21
 Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation
 Three Dimensional Consolidation Equation

u  2u
 Cv  2
t z

22
 Terzaghi’s theory of consolidation
 Three Dimensional Consolidation Equation

u  2u
 Cv  2
t z

u   2u  2u  2u 
  Cvx  2  Cvy  2  Cvz  2 
t  x y z 

23
 Coefficient of Consolidation
Square root of Time fitting method

24
 Coefficient of Consolidation
Logarithm ot of Time fitting method

25
 Coefficient of Consolidation
Improved Rectangular Hyperbola Method

26
 Coefficient of Consolidation
Improved Rectangular Hyperbola Method

 A graph is plotted with time on the x-axis and time/displacement (t/d)

on the y-axis (see Fig. 11.21).

 After an initial curved portion, the graph gives straight line portion in
the range of U = 60%–90%.

 The straight line portion in the range of U = 60%–90% is extended

backward on to the y-axis.

 The slope (m) and the intercept on the y-axis (c) of this extended straight
line are determined.

27
 Coefficient of Consolidation
Improved Rectangular Hyperbola Method

 The coefficient of consolidation is determined from the relation

28
 Types of consolidation
 The deformation of soil under loads occurs due to two distinct
mechanisms

 First component is the volume change due to extrusion of pore air and
pore water

 This component dominates the deformation mechanism, when the stresses

in soils due to foundation loads do not exceed the yield strength of the
material.

29
 Types of consolidation
 The second component is shear distortion causing displacement of
particles and/or fabric units, with or without measurable pore water
extrusion.

 This component dominates the deformation mechanism when the stresses

in soils due to foundation loads exceed the yield strength of the material.

30
 Types of consolidation
 Consolidation is the compression that is completed after the pore
pressures are fully dissipated.

 Fig. shows that consolidation is not the full extent of the compression of
the clay under load since further compression with time is recorded under
the same load

31
Types of consolidation

32
 Types of consolidation
 When the stresses in soil are less than the yield strength, the deformation
in fine grained soils consists of three components.

 Initial Compression: This occurs in a relatively short duration, due to

disturbance and incomplete saturation of the soil.

 Deformation during this phase occurs primarily due to particle

readjustment and extrusion of air from the voids.

33
 Types of consolidation
 Primary Compression: This occurs in a relatively long duration, in the
saturated portion of the soil.

 Deformation during this phase occurs primarily due to particle

readjustment and extrusion of water from the voids.

 The rate of discharge (expulsion) of pore water controls the rate of

volume change and the dissipation of the pore water pressure.

 The rate of discharge (expulsion) of pore water depends on the soil

structure and permeability.

34
 Types of consolidation
 Secondary Compression: This occurs essentially as a function of time.

 Deformation during this phase occurs primarily due to particle

readjustment with or without very limited extrusion of water from the
voids at constant effective stress.

35
 Types of Consolidation
 Initial Compression: R0 to Rc

 Primary consolidation: Rc to R100

 Secondary consolidation: R100 to Rf

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 Secondary Compression
 Magnitude of Secondary compression:

5/3/2023 3:56 AM 37
 Soil Structure in Consolidation and
Compression
 Consolidation is the process of volume change that occurs due to
expulsion of pore water, dissipation of pore water pressure and increase
of effective stress and consequent decrease in volume.

 The rate of expulsion of pore water (discharge) and dissipation of pore

water pressure depends on the soil structure and permeability.

 With increase in Volume change during consolidation, the density of soil

increases and associated changes in soil structure and permeability occur.

38
 Soil Structure in Consolidation and
Compression
 Investigations indicate that the soil structural matrix may not be
composed totally of solid particles in intimate contact.

 But it could be composed of solid particles surrounded by adsorbed water

and contacting through the thin adsorbed water layers.

39
 Soil Structure in Consolidation and
Compression
 The study of SEM of soil specimens in laboratory consolidation test
shows that

1) Single particles are rarely seen. The fabric units are essentially peds

2) Both large and small pore spaces exist between peds and these pore
spaces are quite continuous in vertical direction

3) The pore spaces within peds (intra-ped) and between the peds (inter-
ped) will provide different fluid flow characteristics

40
 Soil Structure in Consolidation and
Compression
 As time progresses during consolidation, two kinds of flow are
simultaneously possible in the extrusion of pore water.

 The decrease in soil volume results from the decrease in inter-fabric and
intra-fabric unit pores which result in different extrusion and flow
characteristics.

41
 Soil Structure in Consolidation and
Compression
 The extrusion of pore water occurs from individual fabric units

 Flow occurs from between the fabric units

 Flow of extruded water occurs subsequently

 These two actions occur simultaneously and continuously throughout the

test sample.

42
Soil Structure in Consolidation and
Compression

43
 Soil Structure in Consolidation and
Compression
 For successful predictions of consolidation, fluid flow characteristics
appear to be governed by inter-fabric unit pores.

 The values for hydraulic conductivity k must necessarily take into

account flow characterization through inter-fabric and intra-fabric unit
pores.

 The measured value of k is a lumped or an average value for these two

flows together.

44
 Soil Structure in Consolidation and
Compression
 In view of this, it is difficult to classify the compression behaviour into
primary and secondary consolidation components.

 When secondary consolidation occurs, without measurable pore pressures

or fluid flow, it is likely that intra-fabric unit flow occurs, thus
providing not only the longer-term deformation but also the insignificant
quantities of water discharged.

45
 Fabric changes in compression
 The total fabric changes in compression will follow a sequential pattern
shown below

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. (a) Initial orientation of fabric units (b) Rearrangement of fabric units only – some
preferred orientation of particles (c) Orientation of fabric units and particles in the
fabric units
46
 Fabric changes in compression
 The total fabric changes in compression will follow a sequential pattern
shown below

1) Rearrangement and orientation of fabric units without any

significant distortion of the units.

2) Increase in stress would cause a greater degree of orientation of

fabric units. At this stage, some particle rearrangement within
fabric units can occur. Pseudo anisotropy, i.e., fabric unit anisotropy
effects may be observed.

47
 Fabric changes in compression
 The total fabric changes in compression will follow a sequential pattern
shown below

3) Further loading will cause more orientation of the fabric units and
particles within the fabric units. Volume decrease in fabric units
will also occur, leading to secondary compression effects with no
measurable pore water pressure

48
 Fabric changes in compression
 The X-ray peak registration is low if particles are not oriented.

 The more nearly parallel the particles are, the higher is the X-ray peak
intensity.

 Thus flocculated clays show low peak registration until breakdown and
reorientation of fabric units and particles into an oriented fabric occurs.

49
 Fabric changes in compression
 Thus for a flocculated undisturbed clay, the X-ray peak intensity shows
increasing parallel orientation of particles with increasing load after
collapse of initial structures.

 In fact, the X-ray peak intensity versus effective stress curves appears to
be a mirror image of the e-log p curve.

 The collapse of the flocculated structure with increasing load, causes a

break in both the X-ray peak and the e-log p curves.

50
Fabric changes in compression

51
 Fabric changes in compression
 In case of remoulded clay specimen, X-ray peak curve begins with a
higher intensity due to orientation from remoulding and there is a
gradual reorientation of fabric units and particles in the soil.

 As more load is applied, the soil fabric becomes more oriented, which is
reflected in higher X-ray peak intensity.

 The absence of structural collapse (compared with flocculated structure)

provides the basis for the relatively smooth curve obtained.

52
 Fabric changes in compression
 Silt inclusions in clay soil will lead to create clay balls.

 These are clay coated silt particles. Under compressive load, the sequence
of fabric change is not dissimilar to that in pure clays except that stages
two and three are combined.

 Clay particle reorientation around the silt inclusions will now be

confined to a tighter

53
 Precompression
 Soil is a plastic material.

 Major part of the compression (deformation) of the soil, caused by the

stresses, is permanent and is not recovered if the stresses are removed due
to some reason.

 Only a small part of the compression may be recovered when the stresses
are removed.

 A soil deposit on which a structure is proposed to be constructed that

was subjected to at least one cycle of stress application in its stress
history, followed by stress release is said to have undergone pre-
compression.

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 Causes of Precompression
1) Demolition of existing or old structures for construction of a new
structure at the same site.

2) Sustained downward seepage that causes additional seepage forces which

become absent after the seepage stops.

3) Capillarity in soil causing additional stresses that may be destroyed later

due to rise of GWT.

4) Overburden that has been later removed by erosion.

5) Desiccation of clay deposit.

6) Melting of glaciers covering a soil deposit.

7) Movement of earth’s crust due to tectonic forces.

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 Pre-Consolidation Pressure
 The maximum pressure under which a soil has been consolidated in its
past stress history due to pre-compression is known as pre-consolidation
pressure.

 The pre-consolidation pressure of a soil deposit can be estimated from the

e–log curve using the procedure suggested by Casagrande.

5/3/2023 3:56 AM 56
 Pre-Consolidation Pressure

5/3/2023 3:56 AM 57
 Normally consolidated clays:
 Normally consolidated clays:

 If the effective stress acting on a clay deposit is more than the pre-
consolidation pressure, such a clay is called normally consolidated clay.

 Normally consolidated clays

undergo virgin compression and
their compressibility behavior is
represented by the curves AB,
DE, or GH shown in Fig.

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 Normally consolidated clays:
 Normally consolidated clays:

5/3/2023 3:56 AM 59
 Over-consolidated clays
 Over-consolidated clays: If the effective stress, acting on a clay deposit, is
less than the pre-consolidation pressure, such a clay is called over-
consolidated clay. Over-consolidated clays undergo re-compression and
their compressibility behavior is represented by the curves CD or FG
shown in Fig.

 For over-consolidated clays, the

degree of over-consolidation is
expressed by the over-
consolidation ratio (OCR),
defined as follows

5/3/2023 3:56 AM 60
Q?

61