The Modified Regime Approach

General

The r e g i m e t h e o r y a p p r o a c h t o e v a l u a t i n g c h a n n e l s t a b i l i t y i s based on
o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e r e s u l t s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e world of n a t u r a l
p r o c e s s e s c a u s i n g c o n t i n u o u s a d j u s t m e n t s of c h a n n e l s . The p r e d i c t i v e
e q u a t i o n s a r e l a r g e l y e m p i r i c a l . T h i s method o f a n a l y s i s i s l i m i t e d t o
flow i n a l l u v i a l channels.

hie&/ d e f i n e s a n a l l u v i a l c h a n n e l a s one t h a t c o n t a i n s a bed of l o o s e

sediment of t h e same t y p e t h a t i s moved a l o n g t h e bed. Such a c h a n n e l
bed seldom r e m a i n s f l a t and even. B a r s and r i p p l e s a r e developed a t t h e
bed s u r f a c e s a t low s t a g e s . They become l o n g e r when t h e d i s c h a r g e i n c r e a s e s
and e v e n t u a l l y may d i s a p p e a r a t h i g h f l o w s . A t u n u s u a l l y h i g h f l o w s , l a r g e ,
n e a r l y s y m m e t r i c a l , sand b a r s may a p p e a r a g a i n , accompanied by s u r f a c e waves
i n p h a s e w i t h t h e bottom u n d u l a t i o n s . The sand b a r s and r i p p l e s r e p r e s e n t
a n o t h e r t y p e o f r o u g h n e s s , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r o u g h n e s s of t h e g r a i n s which
compose t h e c h a n n e l bed. The problem of d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between s l o p e , d e p t h , v e l o c i t y , and boundary r o u g h n e s s i s c o m p l i c a t e d
by t h i s phenomenon b e c a u s e t h e r o u g h n e s s n o t o n l y d e f i n e s t h e f l o w , b u t
t h e f l o w i t s e l f a l s o molds t h e r o u g h n e s s .

~ l e n c e 'r e f e r s t o a l l u v i a l c h a n n e l s a s t h o s e w i t h m o b i l e b o u n d a r i e s .
They are t h e c h a n n e l s t h a t are c a p a b l e of s e l f - a d j u s t m e n t and h a v e formed
t h e i r g e o m e t r i c s h a p e by moving boundary m a t e r i a l . M a t e r i a l s of a t l e a s t
p a r t o f t h e boundary a r e moved a t some s t a g e of f l o w . They make a t l e a s t
p a r t of t h e i r b o u n d a r i e s from t h e i r t r a n s p o r t e d l o a d , and p a r t of t h e i r
t r a n s p o r t e d l o a d comes from t h e i r b o u n d a r i e s .

The e q u a t i o n s u s e d i n t h e regime a p p r o a c h have been developed by s t u d y i n g

s t a t i s t i c s o b t a i n e d by p h y s i c a l , o b s e r v a t i o n s of c a n a l s y s t e m s . Those
o b s e r v a t i o n s i n c l u d e d c h a n n e l dimension and geometry, and t h e d i s c h a r g e s
of s t r e a m s t h a t were " s i l t s t a b l e , " t h a t i s , c a n a l s t h a t t h r o u g h a
s u c c e s s i o n of y e a r s remained f r e e of e x c e s s i v e s e d i m e n t d e p o s i t s and d i d
n o t s c o u r e x c e s s i v e l y . These e q u a t i o n s e m p i r i c a l l y c o r r e l a t e t h e c a p a c i t y
of t h e stream t o t r a n s p o r t s e d i m e n t w i t h i t s main h y d r a u l i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
A " s i l t s t a b l e " o r regime stream i s known t o d e p o s i t sediment t h r o u g h o u t
some s t a g e of f l o w and t o s c o u r d u r i n g o t h e r s t a g e s . The p r o p o n e n t s of
t h e regime t h e o r y apprbach a r e s a t i s f i e d i f t h e n e t r e s u l t of d e p o s i t and
s c o u r i s z e r o a t t h e end of e v e r y f l o w c y c l e .

When n a t u r e o r man imposes r i g i d b o u n d a r i e s i n a c h a n n e l s y s t e m , t h e

n a t u r a l laws o f a l l u v i a l f l o w a r e p a r t i a l l y o r t o t a l l y n e g a t e d . Conse-
q u e n t l y t h e r e g i m e approach c a n n o t b e u s e d t o a n a l y z e r i g i d boundary c h a n n e l
s y s t e m s . However, t h e y can be u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e c h a n n e l p r o p o r t i o n s s u c h
t h a t t h e c h a n n e l c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o remain r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e .
The procedure and equations presented here are to a large extent from
Simons and Albertson.

Three types of mobile boundary materials encompass most, alluvial channels

encountered in SCS work. These are: (Note- for this approach a soil is
classed as cohesive if the PI is greater 'than 7.)

Type Description
A Sand bed and sand banks

B Sand bed and cohesive banks

C Cohesive bed and cohesive banks

A relationship exists between sediment load, Froude number, and channel

stability. The Froude number is determined by:

F =
v (Eq. 6-12)
Jga.
According to Simons and ~lbertso&' the Froude number has to be less than
0.3 in type A, B, or C channels to avoid excessive scour.

The relationships between channel geometry and slope are determined by the
following regime equations as modified by Simons and Albertson:

d = 1.23 R (For R from 1 to 7) (Eq. 6-13)

d = 2.11 + 0.934 R (For R from 7 to 12) (Eq. 6-14)

W = 0.9 P (Eq. 6-15)

Equations 6-13, 6-14, 6-15, and 6-16 apply to all Type A, B, and C alluvial
channels.

Equations 6-17, 6-18, 6-19, 6-20, and 6-21 were derived from data in the Simons
and Albertson paper.
 Equation C o e f f i c i e n t s by Channel Type

A B C

R = C 2 Q 0.361 0.37 0.43 0.51 (Eq. 6-18)

where a l l symbols a r e a s d e f i n e d i n t h e g l o s s a r y .

These e q u a t i o n s r e s u l t i n some g e n e r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , approximate width-

d e p t h r a t i o s and v e l o c i t y l i m i t a t i o n s t h a t i f followed w i l l r e s u l t i n
11
s i l t s t a b l e " c h a n n e l s under t h e c o n d i t i o n s d e s c r i b e d .

Determination of an a c c e p t a b l e s a f e s l o p e f o r a channel i s about t h e most

d i f f i c u l t d e c i s i o n i n channel d e s i g n . Values of t h e s l o p e determined from
Manning's e q u a t i o n w i t h a r e a s o n a b l e v a l u e of n , c r o s s s e c t i o n geometry
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e modified regime e q u a t i o n s , and a v e l o c i t y r e s u l t i n g
i n a Froude number of l e s s t h a n 0.3. should b e compared w i t h t h e s l o p e
determined from e q u a t i o n 6-20.

Procedure - Modified Regime Approach

The use of t h e modified regime t h e o r y t o e v a l u a t e t h e s t a b i l i t y of e a r t h

channels i n v o l v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p s :

1. Determine t h e h y d r a u l i c s of t h e system. T h i s i n c l u d e s h y d r o l o g i c
determinations a s well a s t h e stage-discharge r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r t h e
channel c o n s i d e r e d . The p r o c e d u r e s t o be used i n t h i s s t e p are
included i n c h a p t e r 4 and c h a p t e r 5 of t h i s T e c h n i c a l Release.

2. Determine t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e e a r t h m a t e r i a l s forming t h e banks and

bed of t h e d e s i g n r e a c h and t h e r e a c h upstream.

3. Evaluate t h e sediment t r a n s p o r t c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y i n t h e d e s i g n r e a c h
t o ( a ) determine t h e sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n and (b) t e s t t h e p o s s i -
b i l i t y f o r aggradation.

4. Check t o s e e i f t h e modified regime approach i s a p p l i c a b l e .

(Use F i g u r e 6-1)

5. Determine t h e channel geometry and a c c e p t a b l e s a f e s l o p e u s i n g

e q u a t i o n s 6-12 through 6-20 w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n s t a n t s .
6. Check the slope determined using Manning's equation with a realistic
value of n, cross section geometry consistent with that determined
in step 5 and a velocity resulting in a Froude number of less than 0.3.

Example 6-8 - Modified Regime Approach

Given: A type B channel to convey 600 cfs at bank full stage. Use 2:l
side slopes and assume that n = 0.022.

Determine: Design the channel.

Solution: Step 1 - compu'teP = 2.51~O.~~~ . . . . . . . . . . Eq. 6-17

P = (2.51)(600)~*~~~
= 66.4 ft.

Step 2 - Compute R = 0.43~O.'~~ . . . . . . . . . . . Eq.6-18

R = (0.43)(600)~*~~~= 4.33 ft.

Step 3 - Compute A = PR o r use Eq. 6-19

A = (66.4)(4.33) = 288 sq. ft.

Step 4 - Compute V = Q + A = 600 + 288 = 2.08 fps

Step 5 - Compute d - Since R is less than 7

Use d = 1.23R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eq. 6-13

d = 1.23. (4.33) = 5.3 ft.

Step 6 - Compute the Froude Number.

F =
v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eq. 6-12
6-

F < 0.3 - Design meets this requirement for stability

Step 7 - Compute bottom width

W = 0.9 P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eq. 6-15

W = 0.9(66.4) = 59.76 ft.

WT = 6 7 . 1 f t .

For 2 : l s i d e s l o p e s -

b = 67.1 - ( 4 ) ( 5 . 3 ) = 45.9 f t .

Use b = 45 f t .

Step 8 - Find t h e s l o p e of t h e c h a n n e l bottom which i s

needed t o c a u s e t h e c h a n n e l t o be i n regime.

V = C, ( R ~ S ~ ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eq. 6-20

2.08 = 1 6 . 1 ((4.33)2s0)113

S t e ~9
I
- Find t h e s l o p e o f t h e c h a n n e l which is needed t o
p r o v i d e c a p a c i t y assuming u n i f o r m f l o w and Manning's
e q u a t i o n . Compute NI2l3 u s i n g t h e above v a l u e s f o r
d e p t h , s i d e s l o p e , and bottom w i d t h .

P = b + 2d = 45 + 2(5.3) = 68.7 f t .

R = - A = 2 9 4 * 7 = 4.29 ft.
P 68.7

Compute so

Q = -
1.486 AR2/3
So
n
 Step 1 0 - S e l e c t slope t o be used,

Since two values f o r t h e slope have been determined i t is

necessary t o choose a s l o p e t h a t f a l l s between t h e two values.
I f a s l o p e f l a t t e r than 0.00013 i s s e l e c t e d e i t h e r t h e width o r
depth must be increased t o provide t h e needed capacity. I n any
c a s e t h e channel w i l l not match t h e regime r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x a c t l y
but t h e two slope v a l u e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e s o t h a t t h e design
should be s a t i s f a c t o r y . Use t h e following parameters:

d = 5.3 f t *

b = 45.0 f t .

Equation 6-21 could have been used t o g e t an i d e a of what a

reasonable width t o depth r e l a t i o n s h i p would be from regime
methods.

The same r a t i o would be obtained by d i v i d i n g t h e v a l u e f o r W

obtained i n Step 7 by t h e depth obtained i n Step 5.

Channel S t a b i l i t y With Respect t o Sediment Transport

A channel t r a n s p o r t i n g sediment during flow i s considered t o be s t a b l e i f

t h e r a t e of sediment t r a n s p o r t i s such t h a t t h e o v e r a l l equilibrium of t h e
channel i s maintained. This r e q u i r e s t h a t scour and aggradation a r e main-
tained between prescribed l i m i t s . Bedload t r a n s p o r t equations have been
developed for p r e d i c t i n g t h e r a t e of t r a n s p o r t under equilibrium conditions.
I n these equations t r a n s p o r t i s r e l a t e d t o stream discharge per f o o t of
channel width. A procedure i s presented i n t h i s s e c t i o n f o r determiningn
r e l a t i v e r a t e s of scour o r deposition using v a r i a t i o n s i n mean v e l o c i t y .

Application of Bedload Transport Equations

A number of equations have been developed t o compute r a t e s of bedload s e b e n t

t r a n s p o r t . The more widely used i n c ude t h e E i n s t e i n Bedload Function--277 ,
t h e Meyer-Peter and Muller formul- 2 8 f , and t h e ~cholclitsc@/ equations. A
comparison of t h e measured and computed sediment l o a d s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e
most r e l i a b l e involves depth-integrated samples of suspended load and compu-
t a t i o n s employing t h e E i n s t e i n bedload function. This is known a s t h e
 / .
Modified E i n s t e i n ~ r o c e d u r a However, t h e f i e l d d a t a r e q u i r e d i n u s e
of t h i s p r o c e d u r e a r e n o t o r d i n a r i l y a v a i l a b l e .

The E i n s t e i n b e d l o a d f u n c t i o n and t h e Meyer-Peter and M u l l e r f o r m u l a f o r

computing b e d l o a d t r a n s p o r t have been d e t e r m i n e d t o b e a b o u t e q u a l l y
a d a p t e d f o r t h i s p u r p o s e i n t h e r a n g e from medium-size sand t o g r a v e l .
The e q u a t i o n s f o r c o m p u t a t i o n of e q u i l i b r i u m b e d l o a d t r a n s p o r t a r e g i v e n
i n the references cited.

Sediment T r a n s p o r t i n Sand Bed Streams Not i n E q u i l i b r i u m

The p r o c e d u r e s d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n a r e recommended f o r d e t e r m i n i n g
t h e e f f e c t o f c h a n n e l changes on s t a b i l i t y . They a r e based on r e s e a r c h
which shows t h a t t h e r a t e of b e d l o a d sediment t r a n s p o r t i s s t r o n g l y
r e l a t e d t o mean v e l o c i t y . F i g u r e 6-16 shows t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r f i n e
and medium sand s i z e s . F a c t o r s which c r e a t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n mean v e l o c i t y
from one r e a c h t o a n o t h e r c a u s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n r a t e s of b e d l o a d t r a n s n o r t .
I f t h e changes i n r a t e s a r e s u b s t a n t i a l i n amount and i n d u r a t i o n , a n
u n s t a b l e c o n d i t i o n is e s t a b l i s h e d .

Bedload s e d i m e n t t r a n s p o r t i n s a n d bed s t r e a m s w i t h v a r i a b l e r o u g h n e s s .
Numerous s t u d i e s have i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r o u g h n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t n v q r i e s
i n a sandbed s t r e a m a s t h e bed form changes i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e f o r m a t i o n
of r i p p l e s , dunes and a n t i - d u n e s . No g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d method h a s been
developed f o r p r e d i c t i n g what t h e n v a l u e w i l l b e a t any g i v e n d i s c h a r g e
o r velocity. I n t h e approach used h e r e , mean v e l o c i t y i s r e l a t e d t o a n
approximation of t r a c t i v e f o r c e f o r broad, shallow flow - - t h e product
o f d e p t h , s l o p e and u n i t w e i g h t of w a t e r . The r e l a t i o n s h i p i s e s t a b l i s h e d
by a d a p t a t i o n of d a t a p r e s e n t e d by Dawdy-31 / . I n h i s paper, t h e hydraulic
r a d i i a s r e l a t e d t o mean v e l o c i t y a r e shown f o r a number of sand bed
streams. F i g u r e 6-17 shows a p l o t t i n g of mean v e l o c i t y r e l a t e d t o t h e
p r o d u c t of s l o p e , h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s and u n i t w e i g h t of w a t e r f o r f i v e of
t h e streams. I t i s assumed t h a t h y d r a u l i c r a d i i i n t h e s e r e l a t i v e l y
b r o a d , f l a t - b e d d e d s t r e a m s a r e e q u i v a l e n t t o d e p t h f o r p u r p o s e s o f corn-
p u t i n g t r a c t i v e f o r c e i n t h i s p r o c e d u r e . More d a t a are needed t o d e f i n e
t h e c u r v e of F i g u r e 6-17 f o r s e d i m e n t w i t h t h e median s k z e c o a r s e r t h a n
0.5 mm. Data from one s t r e a m w i t h a median sand s i z e of 0.8 nun. i n d i c a t e s
a d e v i a t i o n from t h i s c u r v e .

Procedure- Channel S t a b i l i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o Sediment T r a n s p o r t

The f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e may b e used t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r u n s t a b l e condi-

t i o n s w i l l o c c u r under p r o j e c t e d c h a n n e l c o n d i t i o n s where v a r i a b l e bed
roughness occurs:
 O.nO rnrn SAND PIGEON ROOST CR. , MISS.
cD 0 . 3 2 rnrn SAND REPUBLICAN R., NEB. FIGURE 6-17
0.26 rnm SAND MIDDLE LOUP R . , NEB.
O 0 . 3 0 mrn SAND R10 GRANDE R . , N.M. R E L A T t O N OF MEAN VELOCITY TO PRODUCT O F SLOPE
0.50mm SAND SOUTH FK. POWDER R.,WYO. HYRAULIC RADIUS AND U N I T WEIGHT OF WATER
FINE AND MEDIUM S I Z E SAND BED STREAMS DATA ADOPTED FROM
6
U.S. GEOL. SURVEY WATER SUPPLY PAPER 1 4 9 8 C , FIG. 5 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 1 0 I
E-
W
 Determine whether a f u l l supply of bedload w i l l be introduced i n t o t h e
reach by methods described i n Chapter 3, NEH Section 3 Chapter 4 and -
Geologic Note 2.
Compute mean v e l o c i t i e s f o r v a r i o u s s t a g e s of flow f o r a'hydrograph o r
s e r i e s of hydrographs a t c r o s s s e c t i o n s t y p i c a l of stream r e a c h e s . t o be
compared. The recommended method of determining t h e influence of v a r i a b l e
bed roughness and bank roughness on mean v e l o c i t y i s explained i n t h e
example of t h e procedure given below.

S e l e c t one c h a r a c t e r i s t i c velocity-bedload t r a n s p o r t curve from Figure

6-16 o r c o n s t r u c t a new one from a v a i l a b l e data.

Compute r a t e s of bedload t r a n s p o r t f o r each reach.

Where scour o r aggradation may occur, r e v i s e design, such a s changing

projected channel slope, width and depth. The design may have t o provide
s u f f i c i e n t channel freeboard f o r iow flow aggradation t o i n s u r e capacity
during l a r g e flows. Reliance on t h e removal of t h e low flow d e p b s i t s
p r i o r t o peaking of higher flows should be approached with caution s i n c e
t h e sequence of flows o r t h e condition of t h e channel a t t h e time of any'
flood occurrence cannot be predicted.

Example 6-9

Assume t h a t a flood detention r e s e r v o i r w i l l be b u i l t on a sand bed stream

with a median s i z e of bed m a t e r i a l of 0.15 mm. With t h e r e s e r v o i r i n s t a l l e d ,
improvement of t h e channel two m i l e s downstream w i l l be required t o allow
c o n t r o l l e d runoff without erosion of t h e banks. The d i s t a n c e from t h e dam +
t o t h e beginning of t h e reach t o be improved i s g r e a t enough t o enable t h e
flow t o become f u l l y loaded with bed m a t e r i a l . The energy gradient i n t h e
unimproved reach i s 0.003 f e e t p e r foot. The stream banks a r e n e a r l y
v e r t i c a l and f r e e of vegetation.

Rights-of-way l i m i t a t i o n s show t h a t a 60-foot bottom width improved channel

meets requirements. It i s proposed t o p r o t e c t e r o d i b l e banks with r i p r a p
on a s l o p e of 2-1/2:1. The energy g r a d i e n t i n t h i s reach i s computed t o be
0.0025.

The riprapped slopes and t h e narrower and lower g r a d i e n t s e c t i o n r e s u l t i n

a change i n v e l o c i t y over t h a t of t h e upstream s e c t i o n . Table 6-1 and i t s
supplement, Table 6-2, show t h e procedure used i n computing t e s e v e l o c i t i e s .
.
The formula i n Table 6-2 was o r i g i n a l l y presented by H o r t3 2o7 ~ The compu-
t a t i o n of t h e v a l u e s i n each of t h e columns i s a s follows.

Column 1 - Depths a r e chosen t o provide a range of flows within t h e two

channel s e c t i o n s up t o t h e maximum proposed r e s e r v o i r r e l e a s e r a t e .

Columns 2 and 3 (80-foot s e c t i o n ) , and Columns 6 and 7 (60-foot s e c t i o n )

g i v e t h e cross-sectional a r e a a t t h e s p e c i f i e d depths and s i d e slopes.
These d a t a were obtained from hydraulic t a b l e s such a s those prepared by
t h e Corps of Engineers.
Columns 4 and 8 a r e approximations of t r a c t i v e f o r c e u s i n g t h e energy
g r a d i e n t s e q u a l t o 0.003 o r 0.0025, r e s p e c t i v e l y ; d e p t h (column I ) , and
t h e u n i t weight of w a t e r , 62.4 pounds p e r c u b i c f o o t .

Columns 5 and 9 a r e o b t a i n e d from F i g u r e 6-17, t h e mean v e l o c i t i e s being

r e a d from t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e product v a l u e s i n columns 4 and 8
w i t h t h e curve.

The remaining c a l c u l a t i o n s determine t h e c o r r e c t i o n of v e l o c i t y of t h e

60-foot s e c t i o n due t o r i p r a p . V e l o c i t i e s t h a t a r e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e
d e p t h , energy g r a d i e n t and bed roughness only a r e r e f l e c t e d i n t h e
v e l o c i t i e s i n Columns 5 and 9. Column 1 0 shows t h e n v a l u e s r e l a t e d t o
t h e v e l o c i t i e s i n Column 9. I n t h i s example t h e n f o r t h e v e l o c i t i e s i n
Column 9 were o b t a i n e d from t h e Table of Values of nv Corresponding t o
D i f f e r e n t Values of R ( r a d i u s ) an s ( s l o p e ) i n Manning's Formula i n
Kings "Handbook of Hydraulics."%~ These n v a l u e s a r e used i n t h e formula
g i v e n a t t h e head of Table 6-2 f o r computing roughness of t h e improved
channel, a c c o u n t i n g f o r both r i p r a p and bottom roughness.

The method of o b t a i n i n g t h e n i n Column 11, c o r r e c t e d f o r roughness due

t o t h e r i p r a p p e d s i d e s l o p e s , i s g i v e n i n Table 6-2.

The c o r r e c t e d mean v e l o c i t y of Column 12 i s determined from Manning's

formula, u s i n g c o r r e c t e d n of Column 11, an energy g r a d i e n t of 0.0025
and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e R i n Column 6.

The a v a i l a b l e r e s e r v o i r s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y and t h e hydrology of t h e s i t e

i n d i c a t e s t h a t 500 c f s i s t h e maximum d e s i r e d c a p a c i t y of t h e p r i n c i p a l
s p i l l w a y . F i g u r e 6-18 g i v e s t h e d e s i g n r e l e a s e r a t e f o r t h e proposed
r e s e r v o i r . It i s assumed t h a t t h e r e a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t u n c o n t r o l l e d
flows e n t e r i n g t h e stream between t h e r e s e r v o i r and improved channel.

I n d e s i g n of t h e improved channel and i n programming r e s e r v o i r r e l e a s e s ,

i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o determine (1) i f t h e proposed r e s e r v o i r r e l e a s e s w i l l
provide e q u i l i b r i u m bedload t r a n s p o r t through t h e improved channel; and
( 2 ) i f scour o r a g g r a d a t i o n w i l l o c c u r and t h e r e l a t i v e r a t e of i t s occur-
ence.

The f o r e g o i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s have provided d a t a on v e l o c i t i e s f o r a range

of d e p t h s through t h e r e a c h e s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e two channel s e c t i o n s .
The f o l l o w i n g s t e p s a r e n e c e s s a r y t o determine how t h e changes i n v e l o c i t y
f o r t h e sanie d i s c h a r g e p a s s i n g through t h e two r e a c h e s a f f e c t t h e i r
c a p a c i t y t o t r a n s p o r t bedload sediment.

Velocity-area c u r v e s f o r t h e two s t r e a m r e a c h e s were prepared from t h e

d a t a i n Columns 3 and 5 ( f o r t h e 80-foot wide c h a n n e l ) , and Columns 7
and 12 (60-foot wide c h a n n e l ) . The c u r v e s i n F i g u r e 6-19 p r o v i d e informa-
t i o n t h a t e n a b l e s c a l c u l a t i o n s and p l o t t i n g of d i s c h a r g e s a s r e l a t e d t o
velocities. I n t h e v e l o c i t y - d i s c h a r g e c u r v e s , F i g u r e 6-20 d i s c h a r g e s
 T a b l e 6-2 - C a l c u l a t i o n of n a d j u s t e d f o r 2 1 1 2 t o 1
s i d e slopes (riprapped)

The f o r m u l a u s e d f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e c o r r e c t e d n i n Column 11 is:

n =

where n l = roughness c o e f f i c i e n t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l l i n i n g m a t e r i a l

n2 = r o u g h n e s s c o e f f i c i e n t o f r i p r a p p e d banks

P I ' = wetted perimeter a s s o c i a t e d w i t h roughness c o e f f i c i e n t n

(bottom w i d t h )

d = depth

z = s l o p e o f banks

P2 = ( 1 -t z 2 ) 1 / 2 (2d) ( w e t t e d p e r i m e t e r o f t h e banks)

P
- = t o t a l wetted perimeter (PI + P2 e t c . )
were o b t a i n e d f o r each 0.5 f p s i n c r e a s e i n v e l o c i t y from t h e product
of t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a and e q u i v a l e n t v e l o c i t y f o r t h e two s t r e a m
s e c t i o n s shown on F i g u r e 6-20.

The n e x t s t e p r e q u i r e d s e l e c t i o n of a mean v e l o c i t y - b e d l o a d sediment

t r a n s p o r t r a t i n g c u r v e from F i g u r e 6-16 because of s i m i l a r i t y i n median
g r a i n s i z e . Curve number 7 was chosen a s t h e more a p p l i c a b l e t o t h i s
problem. S e l e c t i o n of a n o t h e r c u r v e would r e s u l t i n r e l a t i v e l y comparable
q u a l i t a t i v e r e s u l t s b u t they would d i f f e r q u a n t i t a t i v e l y . However,
q u a l i t a t i v e r e s u l t s p r o v i d e u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n f o r s o l u t i o n of t h i s
problem.

The discharge-bedload sediment t r a n s p o r t c u r v e s of F i g u r e 6-21 were

d e r i v e d from F i g u r e 6-16 and F i g u r e 6-20, i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manner:
V e l o c i t i e s f o r t h e same d i s c h a r g e s i n b o t h s t r e a m r e a c h e s were read
from t h e c u r v e of F i g u r e 6-20. I n t h e example, t h e d i s c h a r g e s s e l e c t e d
were spaced s u f f i c i e n t l y c l o s e ( e v e r y 50-75 c f s . change) t o p r o v i d e
a d e q u a t e p l o t t i n g p o i n t s f o r drawing a curve. The sediment t r a n s p o r t
f o r t h e v e l o c i t i e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e d i s c h a r g e s were r e a d from Curve 7 ,
F i g u r e 6-16. The r e s u l t i n g d a t a enabled p l o t t i n g of t h e d i s c h a r g e -
bedload sediment t r a n s p o r t c u r v e s of F i g u r e 6-21.

The remainder o f t h e s t e p s i n t h i s problem a r e i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 6-3,

which shows bedload sediment t r a n s p o r t d e t e r m i n a t i o n s f o r t h e 80-foot
bottom width and 60-foot bottom w i d t h s t r e a m r e a c h e s . Column 1 g i v e s
t h e range i n d i s c h a r g e f o r a number of segments of t h e r e s e r v o i r r e l e a s e
hydrograph of F i g u r e 6-18. The segments a r e s o s e l e c t e d a s t o f a c i l i t a t e
l o c a t i o n of a p o i n t (Column 2) r e f l e c t i n g a mean v a l u e f o r t h e range.
The e l a p s e d t i m e covered on t h e hydrograph by t h e d i s c h a r g e range i n
Column 1 i s g i v e n i n Column 3. S i n c e sediment t r a n s p o r t i s i n t o n s
p e r day p e r f o o t of width on F i g u r e 6-16 and F i g u r e 6-21 t h e e l a p s e d
time i s c o n v e r t e d t o p e r c e n t of 24 h o u r s i n Column 4. Bedload sediment
t r a n s p o r t i n t o n s p e r day p e r f o o t of width i n Column 5 i s t h e i n t e r -
s e c t i o n of t h e mid-point v a l u e i n Column 2 w i t h t h e c u r v e on F i g u r e
6-21 f o r t h e a p p r o p r i a t e channel r e a c h . Bedload sediment t r a n s p o r t
i s t h e p r o d u c t of t h e d a t a i n Columns 4 and 5 and t h e bottom width of
t h e r e s p e c t i v e reach.

The r e s u l t s of t h e procedure a p p l i e d t o t h e example show t h a t e q u i l i -

brium t r a n s p o r t could be maintained i f t h e maximum r e s e r v o i r r e l e a s e
were about 150 c f s . Beyond t h a t d i s c h a r g e , t h e improved s e c t i o n would
aggrade w i t h a b o u t 57 p e r c e n t of t h e incoming bedload sediment moving
through. A t a maximum r e l e a s e r a t e of 500 c f s . a g g r a d a t i o n could soon
f i l l t h e c h a n n e l , depending on t h e frequency of r e s e r v o i r r e l e a s e and
l e n g t h of r e a c h o v e r which t h e d e p o s i t would accumulate. Presuming
t h e r e l e a s e r a t e could n o t b e reduced t o 150 c f s . , a g r e a t r e d u c t i o n
i n a g g r a d a t i o n could be achieved by a change t o a b o u t 300 c f s . maximum
r e s e r v o i r release. T h i s i s e v i d e n t from t h e d a t a on T a b l e 6-3 and t h e
i n c r e a s e d d i f f e r e n c e i n t r a n s p o r t between t h e two r e a c h e s a t t h e
higher release r a t e s .
 Table 6-3
Bedload Sediment T r a n s p o r t
80-foot c h a n n e l , energy g r a d i e n t 0.003 f t . / f t . , 1/4:1 side slopes

Range I n Mid-Point Elapsed Time Sediment Bedload Sediment

Discharge of Range Time % of Transport T r a n s p o r t Col. 4
cf s cfs Hrs. 24 H r s . per ft.width x 5 x Bottom Width
t o n s /day Tons

240 - 0 155 6 25 18 720

T o t a l bedload sediment t r a n s p o r t 67,367

60-foot c h a n n e l , energy g r a d i e n t 0.0025 f t . / f t . , 2-1/2:1 side slopes

6 25 21
T o t a l bedload sediment t r a n s p o r t
The e f f e c t of widening t h e improved r e a c h t o t h a t of t h e upstream
r e a c h would need t o b e re-evaluated because t h e n a t t r i b u t a b l e t o
t h e channel would b e changed. Determination of t h e most e f f i c i e n t
channel dimension and r e s e r v o i r r e l e a s e commensurate w i t h t h e s i t e
l i m i t a t i o n may r e q u i r e s e v e r a l t r i a l and e r r o r computations.

Bedload sediment t r a n s p o r t i n sand bed s t r e a m s w i t h c o n s t a n t rough-

n e s s . - - The f o l l o w i n g procedure may b e used i n sand bed s t r e a m s
w i t h a median s i z e l a r g e r t h a n 0.5 mm. and w i t h c o n s t a n t bed rough-
n e s s . The s t e p s t o be t a k e n a r e t h e same a & t h o s e g i v e n i n t h e
example 6-9 except f o r t h e v a r i a b l e roughness computations.

Example 6-10

Assume t h a t s t a b i l i z a t i o n r e q u i r e s c o n s t r u c r i o n of a c o n c r e t e - l i n e d
channel from t h e edge of t h e f o o t h i l l s of a t r i b u t a r y a c r o s s t h e
f l o o d p l a i n t o i t s j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e main stream. The n a t u r a l channel
w i t h i n t h e f o o t h i l l s c o n t a i n s a f u l l supply of c o a r s e sand w i t h a
median s i z e of 1 . 0 mm. The width of t h e s t r e a m a v e r a g e s 28 f e e t and
has a g r a d i e n t of 0.0195 f e e t p e r f o o t . The s l o p e of a n a l l u v i a l f a n
j u s t downstream from t h e f o o t h i l l zone i s 0.014 f e e t p e r f o o t . The
t r i b u t a r y j o i n s a n o t h e r t r i b u t a r y which h a s a g r a d e o f ' 0 . 0 0 6 f e e t p e r
f o o t . a t the junction.

The hydrology and h y d r a u l i c s of t h e proposed improvements show t h a t

a n 8 f o o t wide r e c t a n g u l a r s e c t i o n w i l l be r e q u i r e d t o handle t h e
t r i b u t a r y flow on a g r a d e of 0.014 f e e t p e r f o o t , whereas a r e c t a n -
g u l a r s e c t i o n 14 f e e t wide w i l l b e r e q u i r e d below t h e j u n c t i o n of
t h e two s t r e a m s . Determination of r e l a t i v e r a t e s of bedload t r a n s -
p o r t i n t h e n a t u r a l channel, t r i b u t a r y s e c t i o n and a t t h e j u n c t i o n
of t h e t r i b u t a r i e s i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r e d i c t whether t h e l i n e d s e c t i o n s
w i l l c a r r y t h e i n t r o d u c e d bedload o r whether a d e b r i s b a s i n may b e
required.

The e s t i m a t e d c o n s t a n t n f o r t h e 3 stream s e c t i o n s i s 0.027 f o r t h e

28' bottom-width sand bed s t r e a m above t h e c o n c r e t e l i n i n g and 0.014
f o r the lined sections.

F i g u r e 6-22 shows a s y n t h e t i c hydrograph f o r a r e l a t i v e l y f r e q u e n t

e v e n t and Table 6-4 p r e s e n t s t h e mean v e l o c i t y and d i s c h a r g e f o r
s t a g e s of flow t h a t would b e experienced d u r i n g t h e r u n o f f . These
correspond t o F i g u r e 6-18 and T a b l e 6-1 i n t h e P r o c e d u r a l Guide.
The d e r i v a t i o n of F i g u r e 6-23 (Velocity-Area Curve) and F i g u r e 6-24
(Velocity-Discharge Curve) a r e d e s c r i b e d f o r t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s ,
F i g u r e s 6-19 and 6-20 i n t h e Guide. Curve 9, F i g u r e 1 6 of t h e l a t t e r
was extended beyond t h e d a t a r a n g e i n o r d e r t o e s t i m a t e sediment
t r a n s p o r t a t h i g h e r v e l o c i t i e s . R a t e s of sediment t r a n s p o r t p e r
f o o t of w i d t h on F i g u r e 6-18 f o r t h e 3 d e s c r i b e d channel s e c t i o n s
i s e q u i v a l e n t t o Figure 6-21 of Guide.
 Table 6-4 - Mean Vel-ocity Computations - Three Channel Sections m
I
in
00
Natural Channel - 28' bottom width Channel 8' Rectangular Lined Rectangular Channel
Slope - 0.0195 ft./ft. Slope -0.014 ft./ft. 14 ' width
1/2:1 Side Slopes n -0.027 n -0.014 Slope -0.006 ft./ft.

Hyd. Mean Mean

Depth ~ a h i u s Area Velocity Discharge Area Velocity Discharge Area Velocity Discharge
ft. ft. sq.ft. f PS cf s sq.ft. fps cfs sq.ft. fps cfs
T a b l e 6-5 g i v e s t h e r e s u l t s of Bedload Sediment T r a n s p o r t c a l c u l a t i o n s
i n t h e 3 s e c t i o n s . The r e s u l t s show t h a t t h e s t e e p e r c o n c r e t e l i n e d
s e c t i o n between t h e t r i b u t a r y j u n c t i o n and t h e n a t u r a l c h a n n e l c a n c a r r y
more t h a n 3 t i m e s t h e bedload s e d i m e n t i n t r o d u c e d by t h e storm. However,
t h e c h a n n e l below t h e j u n c t i o n c a n c a r r y l i t t l e more t h a n h a l f t h e
amount i n t r o d u c e d from t h e n a t u r a l c h a n n e l . The r e s u l t would be a
p l u g g i n g a t t h e j u n c t i o n and b a c k f i l l i n g of s e d i m e n t i n t o t h e c o n t r i -
b u t i n g c h a n n e l . About 50 p e r c e n t a d d i t i o n a l i n f l o w o f r e l a t i v e l y
sediment f r e e w a t e r from t h e o t h e r t r i b u t a r y would be n e c e s s a r y f o r
p r e v e n t i o n of a p l u g forming a t t h e j u n c t i o n . A basic reason f o r t h i s
problem d e v e l o p i n g i s i n d i c a t e d by i n s p e c t i o n of F i g u r e 6-25. The
sediment t r a n s p o r t c u r v e s f o r t h e 1 4 ' l i n e d c h a n n e l a t g r a d e of 0.006
f e e t p e r f o o t shows r a t e s of t r a n s p o r t s l i g h t l y i n e x c e s s of t h a t f o r
t h e 28' incoming c h a n n e l s e c t i o n p e r f o o t w i d t h . Since the l a t t e r is
t w i c e a s wide, t r a n s p o r t o v e r t h e whole w i d t h s u b s t a n t i a l l y exceeds
t h a t of t h e l i n e d s e c t i o n . The need f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n of a d e b r i s b a s i n
t o t r a p t h e b e d l o a d sediment i s i n d i c a t e d i n t h i s example.

S l c p e (Bank) S t a b i l i t y A n a l y s i s

General

A s l o p e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of s t r e n g t h w i l l n o t be
r e q u i r e d f o r a l l c h a n n e l banks - - i n f a c t , i t may n o t b e r e q u i r e d
f o r t h e m a j o r i t y of c h a n n e l s . However, s o i l c o n d i t i o n s and a l l of
t h e f o r c e s t h a t may a c t on a s l o p e shou1.d b e c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d i n
d e c i d i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t an a n a l y s i s i s needed. I n some c a s e s , i t may
n o t b e e c o n o m i c a l l y f e a s i b l e t o i n i t i a l l y c o n s t r u c t c h a n n e l banks i n
a c c o r d a n c e w i t h d e s i g n r e q u i r e m e n t s imposed by h i g h w a t e r t a b l e ,
quicksand o r "soupy" c o n d i t i o n s , o r o t h e r a d v e r s e s o i l and s e e p a g e
pressure conditions.

It s h o u l d a l s o be r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i t may be i m p r a c t i c a l t o p r o v i d e
a b s o l u t e l y s a f e c h a n n e l s l o p e d e s i g n s f o r e v e r y f o o t of many c h a n n e l
sections. S u r f a c e and s u b s u r f a c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , sampling and t e s t i n g
of s o i l s a t c h a n n e l s i t e s may n o t b e a s i n t e n s i v e a s a t dam s i t e s .
S t a b i l i t y a n a l y s e s and s l o p e d e s i g n w i l l g e n e r a l l y have t o be based
on dominant c o n d i t i o n s w i t h a d e q u a t e p r o v i s i o n f o r maintenance of
t r o u b l e s p o t s t h a t may show up d u r i n g o r a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n o r t h a t
may n o t be l a r g e enough t o w a r r a n t v a r i a t i o n i n t h e d e s i g n of t h e
o v e r a l l p r o j e c t . However, i n some s i t u a t i o n s where s e e p a g e c o n d i t i o n s
may be l i m i t e d i n e x t e n t and i n c r i t i c a l a r e a s , t h e d e s i g n based on
dominant c o n d i t i o n s may be m o d i f i e d by d r a i n a g e a p p u r t e n a n c e s o r by
a change i n s l o p e i n c l i n a t i o n .

The banks of e x i s t i n g c h a n n e l s i n s i m i l a r s o i l s and u n d e r s i m i l a r

c o n d i t i o n s s h o u l d be s t u d i e d . P a s t e x p e r i e n c e w i t h c h a n n e l banks
under s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s s h o u l d b e reviewed.
 T a b l e 6-5 - Redload Sediment T r a n s p o r t - 3 S t r e a m S e c t i o n s 7'

Hydrograph D a t a 28' Bottom Width-

(From F i g . 1) N a t u r a l Channel 8 ' Rectangular 1 4 ' Rectangular
Slope-0.0195 f t / f t L i n e d Channel Lined Channel
1/2:1 Side Slopes Slope-0.014 f t / f t Slope-0.006 f t / f t

Range I n Mid-Point Elapsed Time Sediment Bedload Sediment Bedload Sediment Bedload
Discharge of Range Time % of Transport Sediment Transport Sediment Transport Sediment
cf s cfs Hrs. 24 Hrs. P e r ft. Transport Per f t . Transport Per f t. Transport
wid t h Col. 4 x width Col. 4 x width Col. 4 x
tons/day Col. 5 x tons/day Col. 7 x tonslday Col. 9 x
width width width
tons tons tons
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The d e s i g n of most c h a n n e l banks from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of s t r e n g t h w i l l
p r o b a b l y depend l a r g e l y upon l o c a l e x p e r i e n c e and p a s t performance;
d e t a i l e d a n a l y s e s g e n e r a l l y w i l l be l l m i t e d :

1. t o t h o s e s e c t i o n s where c r i t i c a l s o i l o r s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s a r e
anticipated,

2. t o new a r e a s i n which e x p e r i e n c e i s l a c k i n g ,

3. t o h i g h h a z a r d a r e a s where f a i l u r e would c a u s e s e v e r e damage.

Too o f t e n i n s t a b i l i t y of c h a n n e l s i s blamed o n e r o s i o n a l a c t i v i t y o r
on bank s l o u g h i n g . A c t u a l l y , many c h a n n e l bank f a i l u r e s i n v o l v e a
c o m b i n a t i o n of e r o s i o n and s h e a r f a i l u r e , s u c h a s :

1. d e g r a d a t i o n of t h e c h a n n e l bottom,

2. u n d e r c u t t i n g of a bank b e c a u s e of c h a n n e l o b s t r u c t i o n s , improper
c u r v a t u r c , o r o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t d i r e c t c h a n n e l c u r r e n t s toward
t h e bank,

3. l o s s of t o e s u p p o r t f o r a s l o p e from i n t e r n a l e r o s i o n ( p i p i n g ) .

I n t h e s e c a s e s , t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o s l i d i n g i s r e d u c e d , and t h e p o s s i -
b i l i t y o f s l o p e f a i l u r e i s i n c r e a s e d , even though t h e o r i g i n a l s l o p e
was s t a b l e b e f o r e e r o s i o n o c c u r r e d . These f a c t o r s s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y ;

c o n s i d e r e d i n e v a l u a t i n g p a s t performance o f c h a n n e l s .

The o b j e c t of a s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y
f o r t h e most c r i t i c a l c o m b i n a t l o n of stresses and boundary c o n d i t i o n s
a n t i c i p a t e d . A good e s t i m a t e of t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e c r i t i c a l s u r f a c e
can u s u a l l y be made by c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e w i l l t e n d
t o f o l l o w t h e p a t h of l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e , e . g . , t h r o u g h o r a l o n g m a t e r i a l
with t h e lowest shear s t r e n g t h .

Types of S l i d e s and Methods of A n a l y s i s

No one method o f s l o p e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s i s a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l c o n d i -
t i o n s . The t y p e of p o t e n t i a l s l o p e f a i l u r e and t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e
c r i t i c a l zone o r p l a n e of weakness g e n e r a l l y d i c t a t e t h e method o f
a n a l y s i s t o b e used.

R o t a t i o n a l s l i d e s . - - R o t a t i o n a l s l i d e s a r e t h o s e i n which t h e s l i d i n g
s o i l mass moves on a c i r c u l a r a r c f a i l u r e s u r f a c e t h r o u g h any s e c t i o n
of t h e s l o p e o r t h e c h a n n e l bottom.
 Failure Surface

'Failure Surface

This type of f a i l u r e g e n e r a l l y occurs i n p l a s t i c s o i l s .

A Swedish s l i c e method*/ i s u s e d t o a n a l y z e r o t a t i o n a l s l i d e s on
c i r c u l a r f a i l u r e arcs t h r o u g h l e v e e s , n a t u r a l b a n k s , o r c o m b i n a t i o n s
t h e r e o f . T h i s method i s most a p p l i c a b l e t o s o i l s t h a t e x h i b i t
c o h e s i o n ; i t may b e used i n t h e no s e e p a g e , s t e a d y s e e p a g e and
r a p i d drawdown c o n d i t i o n s .

Although ~ a y l o r ' c h a r t s of s t a b i l i t y numbers do n o t c o n s i d e r

s e e p a g e , t h e s e c h a r t s may b e u s e d f o r rough d e t e r m i n a t i o n s and p r e -
l i m i n a r y s o l u t i o n s i n homogeneous c o h e s i v e s o i l s , p r o v i d e d a c o n s e r v a -
t i v e f a c t o r of s a f e t y i s u s e d . I f a c h a n n e l i s s t a b l e from a n e r o s i o n a l
s t a n d p o i n t and deep d r y i n g c r a c k s a r e n o t l i k e l y t o o c c u r , bank s t a b i l i t y
i n homogeneous c o h e s i v e s o i l s i s g e n e r a l l y n o t a problem f o r c h a n n e l
depths l e s s t h a n about e i g h t f e e t .

~ a n b & ' h a s dpveloped a n a n a l y t i c a l method f o r c o h e s i v e m a t e r i a l s f o r

c a s e s of 0 = 0 and $?J $ 0. C h a r t s and g r a p h s a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r wet
s l o p e s i n which submergence and drawdown a r e c o n s i d e r e d and f o r d r y
s l o p e s . E f f e c t s of s u r c h a r g e and t e n s i o n c r a c k s a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d .
T h i s method i s l i m i t e d t o homogeneous l e v e e s , w i t h s i n g l e l a y e r
f o u n d a t i o n s o r b a s e m a t e r i a l s , and n o s e e p a i e .

T r a n s l a t o r y s l i d e s . - - T r a n s l a t o r y s l i d e s a r e t h o s e i n which t h e s o i l
mass moves on a zone of weakness t h a t c a n be i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e b a s e
for sliding.
 Surface

T h i s t y p e g e n e r a l l y o c c u r s a s a s l i d e i n a weak c l a y seam ( s t r a t u m ) o r
where u p l i f t p r e s s u r e i s e x c e s s i v e .

1. The s l i d i n g wedge metho&/ is applicable t o translatory s l i d e s

a l o n g weak p l a n e s a t o r above t h e bottom of t h e channel and
roughly p a r a l l e l t o t h e ground s u r f a c e . T h i s method i s used i n
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h e i t h e r t h e no seepage o r t h e s t e a d y seepage con-
d i t i o n s ; i t is d i f f i c u l t t o e v a l u a t e t h e pore water e f f e c t s i n
t h i s method. .

2. The i n f i n i t e s l o p e method of a n a l y s i s is a p p l i c a b l e t o s l o p e s of
non-cohesive m a t e r i a l s t h a t a r e s u b j e c t t o e i t h e r s t e a d y seepage
o r r a p i d drawdown c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s method of a n a l y s i s assumes
t h e s o i l mass s l i d e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e s l o p e .

Boundary C o n d i t i o n s and Parameters A f f e c t i n g Slope S t a b i l i t y

E f f e c t s of Water

The s t a b i l i t y of channel banks i s a f f e c t e d by t h e amount of water i n

t h e s o i l mass, t h e p r e s s u r e head on t h e ' w a t e r , and t h e d i r e c t i o n a l
movement of w a t e r i n t h e p o r e s of t h e s o i l . The weight of t h e s o i l
v a r i e s w i t h m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t which i n t u r n a f f e c t s t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g
on t h e s o i l mass. The e f f e c t o f m o i s t u r e i n terms of pore p r e s s u r e
a l t e r s t h e r e s i s t a n c e of s o i l t o s l i d i n g f a i l u r e , i . e . , seepage
p r e s s u r e w i l l lower s t r e n g t h whereas s u r f a c e t e n s i o n i n m o i s t s o i l
w i l l increase the strength i n relation t o the saturated strength.

Steady seepage. - - When g r a v i t a t i o n a l water moves through s a t u r a t e d

s o i l s , s e e p a g e f o r c e s a r e s e t up by t h e f r i c t i o n a l d r a g e x e r t e d on
the s o i l p a r t i c l e s . These f o r c e s a r e f u n c t i o n s of t h e head l o s s e s o r
h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t through t h e s o i l mass. When f l o w moves from t h e
bank i n t o t h e c h a n n e l , t h e r e s u l t a n t seepage f o r c e s d e c r e a s e t h e
s t a b i l i t y of t h e bank.
The maximum a n t i c i p a t e d e l e v a t i o n t o which ground water may develop
o r t h e maximum p r e s s u r e t h a t may develop i n s h a l l o w a q u i f e r s should
b e considered. The water l e v e l and p r e s s u r e c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e time
of i n v e s t i g a t i o n may n o t be t h e most c r i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n . For example,
downstream from a s t o r a g e dam t h e ground water l e v e l i n t h e v a l l e y
may r i s e c o n s i d e r a b l y a f t e r t h e dam i s c o n s t r u c t e d . When water
t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s a r e involved i n channel bank s t a b i l i t y s t u d i e s ,
w a t e r movement should g e n e r a l l y b e considered i n a h o r i z o n t a l di.r-
e c t i o n . Banks c o n s i s t i n g of f i n e sands and non-cohesive s i l t s a r e
e s p e c i a l l y prone t o slough under h i g h water t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s ;
s t a b i l i t y of banks i n t h e s e m a t e r i a l s may n o t b e achieved u n t i l
t h e ground w a t e r has been lowered.

Under c o n d i t i o n s of permanent low ground water where no seepage

flow i s assumed o u t of t h e bank, seepage f o r c e s can b e n e g l e c t e d
i n t h e s l o p e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s . However, prolonged heavy r a i n s
can s a t u r a t e a p o r t i o n of t h e s o i l p r o f i l e , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e
p r o f i l e i s s t r a t i f i e d , and b r i n g water f o r c e s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n .

Drawdown. - - Drawdown i s t h e lowering of t h e water l e v e l a g a i n s t

a channel bank. When t h e w a t e r s t a n d s f o r some time a g a i n s t an
e a r t h s l o p e , such as an i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l , t h e s o i l becomes s a t u -
r a t e d . Rapid drawdown presupposes a s u f f i c i e n t l y quick withdrawal
of t h e w a t e r i n t h e channel s o t h a t t h e s o i l i n t h e banks remains
s a t u r a t e d . Outflow from t h e banks i s considered t o move h o r i -
zontally.

Shear S t r e n g t h

The r e s u l t s of d r a i n e d s h e a r t e s t s produce t h e b e s t s t r e n g t h para-

m e t e r s f o r s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s of channel banks when a l l seepage f o r c e s
a r e c o n s i d e r e d . Shear s t r e n g t h s from s a t u r a t e d unconfined compression
t e s t s o r vane s h e a r tests may b e used f o r h i g h l y p l a s t i c s o i l s .
R e s u l t s from c o n s o l i d a t e d , undrained s h e a r t e s t s may be used i n l i e u
of r e s u l t s from d r a i n e d s h e a r t e s t s when t h e former a r e c o n s i d e r e d
adequate and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o r when p o r e water p r e s s u r e s a r e measured.

Unloading by e x c a v a t i o n and t h e subsequent weathering of some bank

m a t e r i a l s may l e a d t o s w e l l i n g , c r a c k i n g , d e c r e a s e i n d e n s i t y , and
l o s s of s h e a r s t r e n g t h . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h
o b t a i n e d from t e s t s on unweathered samples must be a d j u s t e d down-
ward on t h e b a s i of knowledge of t h e m a t e r i a l , p a s t e x p e r i e n c e ,
and judgement 3 7 7 .-
Unless s h e a r t e s t s have been made on m a t e r i a l s i n s p o i l banks o r
l e v e e s , t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s should be ignored i n
t h e r e s i s t i n g f o r c e s . The weight of such m a t e r i a l s must be con-
s i d e r e d i n t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e s , however.
Seismic Forces

The e f f e c t of e a r t h q u a k e s h o c k s c a n b e i g n o r e d i n t h e s t a b i l i t y
a n a l y s e s o f c h a n n e l banks i n a l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
However, i n some a r e a s ( t h e W e s t e r n S t a t e s i n p a r t i c u l a r ) s e i s m i c
e f f e c t s s h o u l d b e e v a l u a t e d a s a d e s i g n f a c t o r , when a s l i d e would
r e s u l t i n c o s t l y p r o p e r t y damage o r l o s s o f l i f e .

The d e s i g n e r s h o u l d r e v i e w t h e f o l l o w i n g r e f e r e n c e s f o r i n f o r m a t i o n
o n e a r t h q u a k e h i s t o r y and s e i s m i c e f f e c t s on dams:

"Earthquake H i s t o r y of t h e United S t a t e s , "

U. S . Department o f Commerce, C o a s t and
G e o d e t i c Survey B u l l e t i n No. 41-1.

" S e i s m i c S t a b i l i t y of E a r t h Dams" by
E . E. Esmiol, U . S . B . R . T e c h n i c a l Memorandum
No. 641.

It i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t s e i s m i c l o a d i n g s b e o b t a i n e d from F i g u r e 1 7 o f
T e c h n i c a l Memorandum No. 641. T h e s e l o a d s a r e assumed t o a c t h o r i z o n -
t a l l y i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of i n s t a b i l i t y and s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d t o t h e
w o r s t c o n d i t i o n o t h e r t h a n r a p i d drawdown.

I n l i e u o f v a l u e s from F i g u r e 1 7 , e a r t h q u a k e e f f e c t s may b e i n c l u d e d
by t h e a d d i t i o n of a h o r i z o n t a l l y d i r e c t e d i n e r t i a l f o r c e of 0 . 1 g ,
i . e . , t h e s t r e s s i n c r e a s e i s 0 . 1 o f t h e w e i g h t o f m a t e r i a l above t h e
s l i p surf ace.

Surcharge

S u r c h a r g e l o a d s , s u c h a s l e v e e s , s p o i l b a n k s and roadways n e a r t h e
t o p o f c h a n n e l b a n k s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d o r minimized when p o s s i b l e ,
e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s shown i n t h e f i g u r e below. In this
s i t u a t i o n , t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e s a r e i n c r e a s e d by t h e w e i g h t o f t h e
e x c a v a t e d m a t e r i a l p l a c e d a t t h e t o p o f t h e bank. I n addition, free
r u n o f f of s u r f a c e w a t e r i s p r e v e n t e d . The s e e p i n g water from t h e
l a n d s i d e o f t h e s p o i l bank weakens t h e s o i l i n t h e zone o f p o s s i b l e
f a i l u r e and i n c r e a s e s i t s u n i t w e i g h t . The r e s i s t i n g f o r c e s a r e
d e c r e a s e d , and t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e s a r e i n c r e a s e d .

Possible S u r f a c e
When l e v e e s o r s p o i l banks are l o c a t e d away from t h e e d g e of t h e
c h a n n e l bank s o a s t o l e a v e a berm a t t h e ground s u r f a c e , t h e
f o r c e s tending t o cause shear f a i l u r e o r sloughing of t h e channel
bank are c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d . NEH, S e c t i o n l6z/, p a g e s 6-18 and
6-19, c o n t a i n s a d i s c u s s i o n on n a t u r a l ground berms and s p o i l banks.

I f surcharge l o a d s w i l l e x i s t , they should be considered i n t h e

s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s of c h a n n e l b a n k s . The l a r g e s t a n t i c i p a t e d
v a l u e o f t h e u n i t w e i g h t o f s o i l i n l e v e e s and s p o i l banks s h o u l d
b e used i n t h e a n a l y s e s . U n i t w e i g h t s w i l l v a r y w i t h s o i l t y p e s ,
m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t s , and methods o f p l a c e m e n t . F o r example, t h e
u n i t w e i g h t o f m a t e r i a l s p l a c e d by d r a g l i n e may v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y
from t h e u n i t w e i g h t o f m a t e r i a l p l a c e d by h a u l i n g equipment.

The l i n e l o a d , p l u s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e roadbed s u r c h a r g e l o a d , s h o u l d
b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s when r o a d s w i l l b e l o c a t e d
a d j a c e n t t o b a n k s , on berms o r o n l e v e e s of c h a n n e l p r o j e c t s .

Tension Cracks

E x p e r i e n c e h a s shown t h a t t h e u p p e r p o r t i o n of most c o h e s i v e s l o p e s
i s i n i t i a l l y i n a s t a t e of t e n s i o n . The d e p t h t o which t e n s i o n
e x t e n d s c a n b e r o u g h l y e s t i m a t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n :

where terms a r e as d e f i n e d i n g l o s s a r y .

I n a s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s , t h e d e p t h of t e n s i o n c r a c k s should n o t be
e x t e n d e d below t h e w a t e r t a b l e o r o v e r one-half t h e h e i g h t of t h e
s l o p e . F o r a v e r t i c a l bank, t h e l o c a t i o n of g r e a t e s t t e n s i l e stress
i s b a c k from t h e e d g e o f t h e c u t a d i s t a n c e e q u a l t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y
one-half o f t h e h e i g h t . The c o h e s i o n p o r t i o n o f t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h
s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d i n t h e zone o f c r a c k i n g . The h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
c r e a t e d by w a t e r i n t h e c r a c k s s h o u l d b e added t o t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e s .

C r a c k s c a u s e d by e x c e s s i v e s h r i n k a g e may e x i s t i n some s o i l s t o
g r e a t e r d e p t h s t h a n t h e t e n s i o n zone p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d . The
s o i l s g e n e r a l l y most s u s c e p t i b l e t o s h r i n k a g e c r a c k i n g are c l a y s
h a v i n g l i q u i d l i m i t s g r e a t e r t h a n 40 and p l a s t i c i t y i n d e x e s g r e a t e r
t h a n 20.
I n c l a y s o i l s where t h e water t a b l e i s low, s h r i n k a g e c r a c k s may
develop i n channel banks a s shown i n t h e above s k e t c h ; r e g a r d l e s s
of t h e s l o p e of t h e bank. Blocks of s o i l , a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e c r o s s -
hatched l i n e s , a r e f u r t h e r weakened by water i n t h e channel and
e v e n t u a l l y a r e moved from t h e bank. Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , channel
banks tend t o become v e r t i c a l . A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n o c c u r s i n d r y
s o i l s having a columnar s t r u c t u r e , such as l o e s s .

None of t h e methods of s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n
a r e d i r e c t l y applicable t o a s o l u t i o n involving t h e shrinkage condition.

F a c t o r s of S a f e t y Against S l i d i n g

The end r e s u l t of a l l methods of s l o p e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s e s i s a

comparison of t h e f o r c e s t h a t cause s l i d i n g w i t h t h o s e t h a t r e s i s t
s l i d i n g . The r a t i o of t h e r e s i s t i n g f o r c e s t o t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e s
i s t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y a g a i n s t s l i d i n g .

The minimum a c c e p t a b l e f a c t o r of s a f e t y i s dependent:

1. on t h e method of a n a l y s i s used,

2. on whether a l l l o a d s and f o r c e s on t h e banks have been

c o n s i d e r e d and i n c l u d e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s ,

3. on s t r e n g t h parameters t h a t may have t o b e c o r r e l a t e d o r

e s t i m a t e d t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t because of l i m i t e d i n t e n s i t y
of i n v e s t i g a t i o n and t e s t i n g .

Piping

P i p i n g i s t h e movement of s o i l p a r t i c l e s by p e r c o l a t i n g water and

t h e subsequent development of i n t e r n a l c h a n n e l s o r p i p e s . The
formation of p i p e s i n t h e p e r i p h e r y of a channel r e d u c e s s u p p o r t
f o r t h e t o e of t h e s l o p e ; t h i s l o s s of s u p p o r t may e v e n t u a l l y
c r e a t e an u n s t a b l e bank.

When h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e e x i s t s i n a sub-stratum a t a planned

p r o j e c t s i t e , t h i s p r e s s u r e may become e x c e s s i v e when overburden
m a t e r i a l s a r e removed, w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t heaving and p i p i n g may
o c c u r i n t h e bottom and/or banks of c h a n n e l , A f t e r e x c a v a t i o n of
t h e channel, t h e e f f e c t i v e weight of t h e s o i l o v e r l y i n g t h e s t r a t u m
under h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e must be g r e a t e r t h a n t h e u p l i f t p r e s s u r e
i f t h e c h a n n e l i s t o be s t a b l e . I n o r d e r t o make a n a n a l y s i s , t h e
h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e must be determined by piezometers o r o t h e r
means.

Water impounded i n a r e s e r v o i r may i n c r e a s e t h e u p l i f t p r e s s u r e on

a channel downstream from a dam. I n t h o s e c a s e s where a l e s s
p e r v i o u s b l a n k e t o v e r l i e s a more p e r v i o u s s t atum, t h e u p l i f t
a n a l y s i s may b e made by b l a n k e t equations.- 3 8 7
In the case where an aquifer lies above the bottom of a channel,
it may be necessary to construct a flow net to determine the exit
gradient for use in a piping analysis.

The minimum acceptable factor of safety against heaving and piping

is generally 1.5.

Stabilizing Measures

General

When the preliminary design for an earth channel indicates that the
allowable tractive force and velocity will be exceeded, considera-
tion should be given to vegetation or structural stabilization.

Stabilizing measures can be classified broadly into three groups --

bank protection, channel linings, and grade control structures.

Bank protection and channel linings protect the channel surfaces

from erosion caused by movement of water and transported materials
and from shallow surface sliding.

Grade control structures may be used to reduce the channel bottom

grade with a resulting reduction in velocity and scour, to control
overfalls at the head end of channels, and to control the discharge
from tributary channels.

The selection of a particular measure or combination of measures

should be based on sound engineering and agronomic principles for
each particular situation since channel stabilizing problems can
vary considerably from one location to another.

Except in narrowed channels, protective elements should approximate

natural roughness. Revetments should be as coarse in texture as
natural banks. Retards, baffles and jetties should simulate the
effect of trees and boulders along natural banks and in overflow
channels.

Bank Protection

Under certain conditions channel stability may be obtained by pro-

viding protection to the banks only. Examples are at sharp changes
in alignment and at bridges, culverts, or grade control structures
where the bottom is stable.

Vegetation may be considered for sites suitable to good vegetative

growth. It can be used alone or in conjunction with structural
measures to provide a more effective and permanent type of protection.
 <

It may be necessary to use temporary materials to protect the seed-

lings or plants against erosion from wind and runoff during the period
of establishment.

Permissible velocities for vegetative cover are given in Table 3 of

SCS-~~-6la'. This table indicates a range of velocities from 2.5
f.p.s. for easily erodible soil, to 8.0 f.p.s. for erosion-resistant
soil. Velocities exceeding 5.0 f.p.s. should not be used except
where good cover and proper maintenance are assured.

Conditioned Earth

Conditioned earth may be used to increase the stability of channels

with stable bottoms by providing denser, more erosion-resistant
soil in the channel banks. Earth banks may be "conditioned" by
the following methods: (See page 29 of -391)

1. Compacting the existing soil in the shaped channel to a

greater density.

2. Over-excavating to a larger cross section t h a ~necessary, and

placing a compacted less permeable soil as a lining. Both
methods 1 and 2 are not easily adaptable to4slopes steeper
than 3 to 1.

3. By adding chemicals to the soil.

-
42/ s/
Revetments of various types may be used to stabilize channel banks.

Retards and permeable jetties. - Retards and permeable jetties are

extensive or multiple-unit structures composed of open forms like
piling, fencing, and unit frames. However, their function and
alignmenr are different.

Retards are placed parallel to erodible banks of channels on stable

gradients where the prime purpose is to Lessen the tangental or
impinging stream velocities sufficiently to prevent erosion of the
bank and to induce deposition. As a remedial measure, the prime
purpose may be deposition near the bank in deep channels or restora-
tion of an eroded bank by accretion.

Retards may be used alone (see Fig. 189 of d ) if the bank will. be
protected by deposition behind the retard, or by establishment of
vegetation, otherwise they should be used in combination with an
armor protection. (See Fig. 190 of 5 1 ) Retards may permit use
of a lighter type of armor or they may be used as toe protection
of armor revetments when a good foundation for the revetment is
impractical because of high water or extreme depths of poor soil
materials.
On t a n g e n t r e a c h e s where t h e c h a n n e l i s narrow, r e t a r d s may, by
s l o w i n g t h e v e l o c i t y on one s i d e , a f f e c t a n i n c r e a s e i n v e l o c i t y
on t h e o t h e r . I n wide r e a c h e s of a meandering s t r e a m r e t a r d s may
r e d u c e an impinging a t t a c k a s w e l l a s have b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t on
t h e o p p o s i t e bank by slowing a rebounding h i g h v e l o c i t y wave.

Permeable j e t t i e s a r e p l a c e d a t a n a n g l e w i t h t h e c h a n n e l bank and

a r e g e n e r a l l y used i n meandering s t r e a m s t o d i r e c t t h e c u r r e n t away
from t h e bank. (See F i g . 1 9 1 of G / ) They e n c o u r a g e d e p o s i t i o n
of bed material and growth of v e g e t a t i o n , b u t where r e t a r d s b u i l d
a narrow s t r i p i n f r o n t of t h e b a n k , permeable j e t t i e s c o v e r a
w i d e r a r e a r o u g h l y l i m i t e d by t h e e n v e l o p e o f t h e o u t e r e n d s .

Timber p i l i n g . - - Timber p i l i n g r e t a r d s and j e t t i e s may b e of

s i n g l e , d o u b l e o r t r i p l e rows of p i l e s w i t h t h e o u t s i d e c r u p s t r e a m
row f a c e d w i t h w i r e mesh o r woven w i r e f e n c i n g m a t e r i a l which a d d s
t o t h e r e t a r d i n g e f f e c t by t r a p p i n g l i g h t b r u s h o r d e b r i s . T h i s
t y p e of r e t a r d i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a d a p t e d t o l a r g e r c h a n n e l s where
t h e p i l e s w i l l remain i n t h e w a t e r , removed from t h e f i r e h a z a r d
of b r u s h y banks. The number of p i l e rows and amount of w i r e may
be v a r i e d t o c o n t r o l t h e d e p o s i t i o n of m a t e r i a l . I n leveed
channels, i t is o f t e n desirable t o discourage accretion i n order
n o t t o c o n s t r i c t t h e channel b u t s t i l l provide s u f f i c i e n t r e t a r d i n g
e f f e c t t o p r e v e n t l o s s of bank p r o t e c t i o n s u c h a s v e g e t a t i o n o r
s m a l l r o c k r i p r a p . When used a s j e t t i e s , t h e p u r p o s e i s t o encourage
d e p o s i t i o n of m a t e r i a l and p r o t e c t v e g e t a t i o n . Assuming n e g l i g i b l e
f i r e h a z a r d , t h e wood may b t r e a t e d w i t h p r e s e r v a t i v e t o p r o v i d e
a l o n g l i f e ( F i g . 195 of d ).
Fence t y p e s . - - For s m a l l e r c h a n n e l s o r a r e a s of l e s s f r e q u e n t
f l o o d f l o w a t t a c k , s u c h a s o v e r f l o w a r e a s , s i n g l e and d o u b l e r o s
of v a r i o u s t y p e s of f e n c i n g may b e u s e d . ( F i g s . 202-205 of cY)
A l l m e t a l t y p e s , s u c h a s pipe-and-wire o r r a i l - a n d - w i r e , a r e more
s u i t a b l e when c o n d i t i o n s a r e conducive t o t h e growth of b r u s h t h a t
p r e s e n t s a s e r i o u s f i r e h a z a r d t o wooden p o s t s . D e t a i l s of t y p i c a l
of pipe-and-wire r e t a r d s are found i n F i g s . 206 and 207
of -
The p r i n c i p a l d i f f e r e n c e between f e n c e r e t a r d s and o r d i n a r y woven
w i r e f e n c e s i s t h e p o s t s of r e t a r d s must b e d r i v e n s u f f i c i e n t l y
deep t o a v o i d l o s s by s c o u r .

When i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e d u c e t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y a s a n a i d i n
d i r e c t i n g t h e stream, a s is frequently required a t e a r h f i l l s
behind b r i d g e a b u t m e n t s , s e l f - a d j u s t i n g w i r e b a s k e t e F may be
used and f i l l e d w i t h a l t e r n a t e l a y e r s of r o c k and b r u s h .

P e r m e a b i l i t y c a n b e v a r i e d t o m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e l o c a t i o n .
F o r s i n g l e f e n c e s , t h e f a c t o r most r e a d i l y v a r i e d i s t h e p a t t e r n of
t h e w i r e mesh. For m u l t i p l e f e n c e s , t h e mesh p a t t e r n c a n be v a r i e d
o r t h e s p a c e between f e n c e s c a n b e f i l l e d t o any d e s i r e d h e i g h t .
Making optimum u s e of l o c a l m a t e r i a l s , t h i s f i l l may b e brush
b a l l a s t e d by r o c k , o r rock a l o n e .

-
J a c k s and t e t r a h e d r o n s . These d e v i c e s a r e s k e l e t a l frames adapt-
a b l e t o permeable r e t a r d s and j e t t i e s by t y i n g a number of s i m i l a r
u n i t s t o g e t h e r i n t h e d e s i r e d alignment.

They s e r v e b e s t i n meandering c h a n n e l s t h a t c a r r y c o n s i d e r a b l e
bedload d u r i n g f l o o d s t a g e s . Impedance of t h e s t r e a m along t h e
s t r i n g of u n i t s c a u s e s d e p o s i t i o n of bed m a t e r i a l , e s p e c i a l l y a t
t h e c r e s t of flow and d u r i n g f a l l i n g s t a g e s . Beds of such s t r e a m s
o f t e n s c o u r on t h e r i s i n g s t a g e , u n d e r c u t t i n g t h e u n i t s and caus-
i n g t h e i r s u b s i d e n c e , and r o t a t i o n when one l e g o r s i d e i s undercut
more t h a n t h e o t h e r . Deposition on t h e f a l l i n g s t a g e u s u a l l y
r e s t o r e s t h e former bed and p a r t i a l l y o r completely b u r i e s t h e
u n i t s . However, i n t h e lowered and r o t a t e d p o s i t i o n , t h e y may b e
completely e f f e c t i v e d u r i n g f u t u r e f l o o d flows.

S e l e c t i o n of j a c k s and t e t r a h e d r o n s may be i n f l u e n c e d by l o c a t i o n
i n o r n e a r urban o r r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a s . Unless t h e u n i t s w i l l b e
screened by n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n , a t t e n t i o n should be given t o t h e i r
appearance. Where u n i t s may become " a t t r a c t i v e n u i s a n c e s , " d e t a i l s
should avoid s h a r p p o i n t s and edges o r o t h e r f e a t u r e s dangerous t o
children.

Rock r i p r a p ( n o t g r o u t e d ) . - T h i s kind of p r o t e c t i o n c o n s i s t s of
r o c k c o u r s e s p l a c e d e i t h e r d i r e c t l y upon t h e bank s opes o r on
g r a v e l f i l t e r s on bank s l o p e s . (See F i g . 152 of 43 )f
Where s t o n e s of s u f f i c i e n t s i z e and q u a l i t y a r e a v a i l a b l e , i t may
be t h e most economical type of revetment and h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g
advantages:

It i s f l e x i b l e .

Local damage o r l o s s i s e a s i l y r e p a i r e d by t h e a d d i t i o n of
rock.

Appearance i s n a t u r a l , hence a c c e p t a b l e i n r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a s .

V e g e t a t i o n may grow through t h e r o c k s adding s t r u c t u r a l v a l u e

t o t h e bank m a t e r i a l and r e s t o r i n g n a t u r a l roughness.

A d d i t i o n a l t h i c k n e s s can b e provided a t t h e t o e t o o f f s e t
p o s s i b l e s c o u r when i t i s n o t f e a s i b l e t o found i t upon a
s o l i d foundation.

Wave runup i s l e s s (as much a s 70%) t h a n w i t h smooth l i n i n g s .

It i s s a l v a b l e . The r o c k may be s t o c k p i l e d and re-used if

necessary.
h. Rock s l o p e p r o t e c t i o n , more t h a n any o t h e r t y p e , a d o p t s a non-
uniform widely v a r y i n g m a t e r i a l t o a s t r u c t u r a l purpose, w i t h
g r a v i t y alone holding t h e s t o n e together.

Rock r i p r a p should:

a. Assure s t a b i l i t y of t h e p r o t e c t e d bank as an i n t e g r a l p a r t of
t h e channel a s a whole. For t h i s major o b j e c t i v e , t h e i d e a l
c o n d i t i o n f o r s t a b i l i t y i s a s t r a i g h t channel o r a g e n t l y
curved channel w i t h i t s o u t e r bank rougher and more e r o s i o n
r e s i s t a n t t h a n t h e i n n e r bank.

b. T i e t o s t a b l e n a t u r a l bank, b r i d g e abutments o r o t h e r f i x e d
improvements w i t h t r a n s i t i o n s designed t o e a s e d i f f e r e n t i a l s
i n a l i g n m e n t , grade, s l o p e and roughness of banks.

c. Eliminate o r ease l o c a l i r r e g u l a r i t i e s so a s t o streamline

t h e p r o t e c t e d bank.

Rock and w i r e m a t t r e s s (gabion r e v e t m e n t ) . - T h i s t y p e of bank

p r o t e c t i o n c o n s i s t s of connected f l a t mats f a b r i c a t e d of w i r e mesh
o r woven w i r e f e n c i n g f i l l e d w ' t h r o c k and a d e q u a t e l y anchored t o
t h e bank. (See F i g . 363 of - 437)

A s a revetment, i t s a p p l i c a t i o n h a s been l i m i t e d t o l o c a t i o n s where

t h e r o c k economically a v a i l a b l e i s t o o s m a l l f o r o r d i n a r y rock
r i p r a p , o r where grouted p r o t e c t i o n i s u n s u i t e d because of f i n e n e s s
of s t o n e o r i n s e c u r i t y of bedding o r f o u n d a t i o n . A l t e r n a t i v e s of
w i r e s t r e n g t h and mat s i z e s make r o c k and w i r e m a t t r e s s e s a d a p t a b l e
t o a wide r a n g e of exposure t o h y d r a u l i c f o r c e s , b u t t h e l i g h t e r
exposures a r e s e r v e d more economically by r e t i c u l a t e d revetment.

The most common u s e of rock and w i r e m a t t r e s s e s h a s been t o p r o v i d e

f l e x i b l e t o e p r o t e c t i o f o r o t h e r t y p e s of bank p r o t e c t i o n a s shown
i n F i g s . 179-181 of u7. The mat w i l l a d j u s t i t s e l f by f l e x u r e and
s u b s i d e n c e , and b l o c k t h e p r o g r e s s of e r o s i o n and s c o u r t h a t might
t h r e a t e n t h e t o e of t h e bank. T h i s t y p e h a s n o t performed w e l l on
c u r v e s ( F i g s . 182, 325 of % I ) , where s e t t l e m e n t r e q u i r e s extending
o r s h o r t e n i n g of t h e l e n g t h of t h e mat. It i s more adapted t o
t a n g e n t r e a c h e s when t h e mat h a s s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h t o hang suspen-
ded when deep o r uneven s c o u r o c c u r s . Its l i f e and t h a t of t h e
bank p r o t e c t i o n above depend on t h e d u r a b i l i t y and s t r e n g t h of
t h e w i r e . T h e r e f o r e , rock and w i r e mats should have a l o n g e r
s e r v i c e l i f e i n d r i e r c l i m a t e s and mature channels c a r r y i n g mud
and s i l t ( b u t n o t g r a v e l and s t o n e s t h a t would a b r a i d and s h o r t e n
t h e l i f e of t h e wire mesh).

Considering t h e h i g h c o s t of t h e l a b o r involved, t h e q u e s t i o n a b l e
s e r v i c e l i f e of t h e w i r e , and t h e e f f i c i e n c y of modern methods of
e x c a v a t i n g f o r t o e p r o t e c t i o n , u s e of t h i s t y p e of bank p r o t e c t i o n
has declined.
R e t i c u l a t e d revetment. - Wire-mesh n e t t i n g i s u s e f u l i n revetment
work t o c o n f i n e r o c k t h a t by i t s e l f would b e t o o l i g h t t o resist
t h e e r o s i v e f o r c e s of t h e s t r e a m flow. It may b e used a s a cover
f o r banks o v e r which a l a y e r of rocky m a t e r i a l h a s been placed.
The s i z e of t h e mesh must b e s m a l l enough t o c o n f i n e t h e m a j o r i t y
of t h e s t o n e s . Although some s m a l l s t o n e s may wash through t h e
n e t t i n g , t h e r e w i l l remain a t o p l a y e r of l a r g e r s t o n e s which, i n
t u r n , w i l l c o n f i n e t h e s m a l l s t o n e s underneath.

The n e t t i n g i s p l a c e d over t h e rocky s l o p e and pinned by means of

s h o r t l e n g t h s of r e i n f o r c i n g b a r hooked a t t h e t o p . Brush may
grow through t h e w i r e and p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l anchorage. An
a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s t y p e i s shown i n F i g . 187 and t y p i c a l d e s i g n
d e t a i l s a r e shown i n F i g . 188 of 431. I f t h e c h a n n e l bed m a t e r i a l
i s g r a v e l , t h e w i r e may s e r v e a s a f l e x i b l e t o e p r o t e c t i o n by
e x t e n d i n g i t i n t o t h e channel bed and weighting t h e t o e end.

Sacked c o n c r e t e r i p r a p . - T h i s method of p r o t e c t i o n c o n s i s t s of
f a c i n g t h e banks w i t h s a c k s f i l l e d w i t h d r y c o n c r e t e mix. Much
hand l a b o r i s r e q u i r e d b u t i t i s s i m p l e t o c o n s t r u c t and a d a p t a b l e
t o almost any c o n t o u r . A photograph of t h i s t y p e of i n s t a l l a t i o n
i s shown i n F i g . 169 and t y p i c a l p l a n s ad p t e d t o s e v e r a l s l o p e s
a r e reproduced i n F.igs, 170 and 1 7 1 of 3 3 .7 .
Sacked c o n c r e t e i s a n expensive b u t commonly used t y p e of r e v e t -
ment. Where b o t h l e d g e r o c k and g r a v e l a r e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e ,
sacked c o n c r e t e may c o s t f o u r t o f i v e times a s much a s an e q u a l
q u a n t i t y of rock. It is almost n e v e r used u n l e s s s u i t a b l e s t r e a m
g r a v e l i s a v a i l a b l e a t t h e l o c a t i o n and s a t i s f a c t o r y r o c k i s n o t .

Dry pack may be a n e x c e l l e n t d e v i c e f o r subaqueous placement, f o r

i n i t i a l f o u n d a t i o n , o r r e p a i r of u n d e r c u t s . It i s a l s o a d a p t a b l e
f o r p r o t e c t i o n o r r e p a i r of s m a l l a r e a s .

I n many l o c a t i o n s , t h e smoothness of sacked c o n c r e t e is v e r y u n d e s i r -

a b l e and i t s u s e may r e q u i r e s u r f a c e roughening. P r o j e c t i n g dowel
b a r s and honeycombed s u r f a c e c o n c r e t e have been used f o r t h i s
purpose.

P o r t l a n d cement c o n c r e t e a r t i c u l a t e d block. - T h i s t y p e of r e v e t -
ment c o n s i s t s of s m a l l p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e b l o c k s h e l d t o g e t h e r t o
f l e x i b l e mat, A- t y p i c a l i n s t a l l a t i o n i s shown i n F i g . 115
of - .
I n t h i s t y p e of i n s t a l l a t i o n , t h e b l o c k s c o n t a i n wire-mesh r e i n -
forcement w i t h r e b a r s e x t e n d i n g o u t from each edge and b e n t i n t o
an e y e a t one edge and a hook a t t h e o p p o s i t e edge. A s t h e b l o c k
i s p l a c e d , t h e open hooks a r e p u t through t h e e y e s of t h e a d j a c e n t
b l o c k s and c l o s e d . I t i s e a s i l y p l a c e d and i s d e s i r a b l e from an
appearance s t a n d p o i n t . T h i s t y p e of f a b r i c a t i o n becomes compli-
c a t e d f o r curved c o n t o u r s a s t h e b l o c k s must be c a s t i n d i f f e r e n t
s i z e s f o r each row. U s e of t h i s t y p e h a s been most s u c c e s s f u l
f o r t o e p r o t e c t i o n on t a n g e n t s e c t i o n s .

Grouted r o c k r i p r a p . - T h i s t y p e of revetment c o n s i s t s of rock

r i p- r a p having v o i d s f i l l e d w i t h p o r t l a n d cement c o n c r e t e g r o u t
-

t o form a m o n o l i t h i c armor. A photograph of t h i s t y p e of i n -

s t a l l a t i o n i s shown i n F i g s . 112, 159 and a t y p i c a l p l a n i n F i g .
160 of 431. It h a s a p p l i c a t i o n i n a r e a s where r o c k of s u f f i c i e n t
s i z e f o r o r d i n a r y r o c k r i p r a p i s n o t economically a v a i l a b l e . It
a l s o w i l l g e n e r a l l y reduce t h e q u a n t i t y of r o c k needed f o r a given
job. Grouting n o t o n l y p r o t e c t s t h e s t o n e s from t h e f u l l f o r c e of
h i g h v e l o c i t y w a t e r b u t i n t e g r a t e s a g r e a t e r mass t o resist i t s
pressure.

Grouting w i l l u s u a l l y more t h a n double t h e c o s t p e r u n i t volume of

s t o n e , b u t t h e u s e of s m a l l e r s t o n e s i n g r o u t e d r o c k s l o p e pro-
t e c t i o n t h a n i n a n e q u i v a l e n t p r o t e c t i o n u s i n g ungrouted s t o n e s
p e r m i t s a lesser t h i c k n e s s of p r o t e c t i o n which may o f f s e t t o some
e x t e n t t h e c o s t of t h e g r o u t .

A s t h i s t y p e of p r o t e c t i o n i s r i g i d w i t h o u t h i g h s t r e n g t h , s u p p o r t
by t h e banks must b e maintained. Slopes s t e e p e r than t h e angle
of r e p o s e of t h e bank m a t e r i a l a r e r i s k y .

Asphalt c o n c r e t e paving. - T h i s t y p e of revetment c o n s i s t s of a

f a c i n g of a s h It c o n c r e t e u s u a l l y r e i n f o r c e d by w i r e mesh. (See
t7
F i g . 175 of 2 ) Such revetment i s v e r y s u s c e p t i b l e t o damage
from h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e behind t h e pavement and should n o t be
used u n l e s s r e l i e f from t h i s c o n d i t i o n can b e provided a t reason-
able cost.

It h a s found most u s e i n bank l i n i n g s where drawdown i s n o t r a p i d

and w a t e r p r e s s u r e a c t s t o m a i n t a i n c l o s e c o n t a c t between t h e paving
and t h e bank. It h a s been used w i t h o u t r e i n f o r c e m e n t a s a l i n i n g
f o r s m a l l d r a i n a g e i t c h e s where i t i s placed and compacted by hand.
(See F i g . 176 of G ? . )

Concrete paving. -T h i s method of p r o t e c t i o n c o n s i s t s of paving the

bank s l o p e s w i t h r e i n f o r c e d p o r t l a n d cement c o n c r e t e . A photograph
of t h i s t y p e of i n s t a l l a t i o n i s shown i n F i g . 162 and t y p i c a l p l a n s
a r e shown i n F i g s . 163 and 164 of 431.

It i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a d a p t a b l e t o l o c a t i o n s where t h e h y d r a u l i c
e f f i c i e n c y of smooth s u r f a c e s i s i m p o r t a n t . On a c u b i c yard
b a s i s , t h e c o s t i s high but a s t h e thickness i s generally only
3 t o 6 i n c h e s , t h e c o s t on a b a s i s of a r e a covered w i l l u s u a l l y
b e less t h a n f o r sacked c o n c r e t e s l o p e p r o t e c t i o n . T h i s i s
e s p e c i a l l y s o when s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s a r e involved
and alignment w i l l permit t h e u s e of mass p r o d u c t i o n equipment
such a s s l i p - f o r m p a v e r s .
Because of the rigidty of portland cement concrete slope paving,
its foundation must be good and the bank slopes stable.

Bulkheads. - In bank protection, a bulkhead is constructed along

a steep slope to retain the bank from sliding as well as to protect
it against erosion. (Fig. 226 of %/.)

Walls. - - The commone3t bulkhead in bridge practice is the wingwall

(or endwall) serving as a transition from a rectangular constr'ction
to a trapezoidal channel. The commonest forms (Fig. 227 of 2?) are:

Straight Endwall

This type has no transitional value but protects approach

against eddy erosion; it is suitable only for low velocity
in poorly defined channel.

Straight Wingwall

This type also has no transitional value but protects steep

banks which support the approach embankment.

Oblique Wingwall

This is a conventional transition; it is efficient and economical P

for well-defined channels and moderate velocity. Flare angle in
300 for converging and
degrees should be limited to -- - for
v v
diverging flow, where V is the velocity in f.p.s. through the
constricted section.

Tapered Wall

Tapering the grade of the parapet of either the straight or

oblique wingwall is common practice for streams of moderately
low velocities. By matching the surcharge slope to the natural
bank, the transition progressively exposes this slope to the
low velocity boundary of the varied flow.

Warped Wall

Tapering the slope of the wall from vertical at the abutment

to a stable-bank slope at the end of the wall makes an
excellent transition for moderate to high velocity.
6. Returned Wall

B u i l d i n g t h e s t a n d a r d c a n t i l e v e r w a l l on a curved alignment
r e t u r n e d from t h e abutment i s a n economical s o l u t i o n f o r a
combination of a v u l n e r a b l e approach embankment p r o j e c t i n g
i n t o a channel w i t h d u r a b l e banks.

C r i b s . - - Timber and c o n c r e t e c r i b s are used f o r bulkheads i n

l o c a t i o n s where some f l e x i b i l i t y i s d e s i r a b l e o r p e r m i s s i b l e
( F i g s . 229-233 of .?.?-I).Using b a c k f i l l f o r s t a b i l i t y , c r i b s
a r e economical i n t h e u s e of s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l s . T h e i r rough
s u r f a c e s a r e advantageous i n a l l n a t u r a l l o c a t i o n s where banks
a r e exposed t o h i g h v e l o c i t i e s .

Piling. - - Timber, c o n c r e t e and s t e e l p i l i n g a r e used f o r bulk-

heads depending on deep p e n e t r a t i o n of f o u n d a t i o n m a t e r i a l s f o r
a l l o r p a r t s of t h e i r s t a b i l i t y . Any of t h e t h r e e m a t e r i a l s i s
a d a p t a b l e t o s h e e t p i l i g o r a s h e a t h e d system of p o s t o r column
piles. (Fig. 234 of 43 .) 9
Channel L i n i n g s

Channel l i n i n g s a r e used t o p r o t e c t t h e e n t i r e c h a n n e l s u r f a c e .

V e g e t a t i o n i s t h e most commonly used p r o t e c t i o n f o r channels w i t h

i n f r e q u e n t flow, r e l a t i v e l y low v e l o c i t i e s , and where a good s t a n d
can be e s t a b l i s h e d and maintained.

Ungrouted r o c k r i p r a p may be used f o r channel l i n i n g where s o i l s

a r e n o t s u i t a b l e t o v e g e t a t i v e growth. Such l i n i n g i s a p p l i c a b l e
t o t h e i n l e t and o u t l e t of c h a n n e l s t r u c t u r e s f o r s t a b i l i z a t i o n
of bottom and banks.

Where i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o conserve w a t e r by l i m i t i n g o r e l i m i n a t i n g
seepage, where h i g h v e l o c i t y flow o c c u r s , o r where channel o p e r a t i o n
a t h i g h h y d r a u l i c e f f i c i e n c y i s r e q u i r e d , d u r a b l e , r e l a t i v e l y im-
p e r v i o u s l i n i n g s such a s c o n c r e t e o r a s p h a l t i c c o n c r e t e may b e used.
For r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t r e a c h e s g r o u t e d rock r i p r a p may b e used. Such
l i n i n g s may b e r e q u i r e d where channel right-of-way i s l i m i t e d .

The u s u a l s h a p e of c r o s s s e c t i o n s f o r v e g e t a t e d c o v e r , ungrouted
rock, grouted rock, a s p h a l t i c concrete, o r o t h e r non-structural
s e c t i o n s is t r a p e z o i d a l . For r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , t h e c r o s s
s e c t i o n may b e r e c t a n g u l a r o r t r a p e z o i d a l . The t y p e of p r o t e c -
t i o n s e l e c t e d w i l l depend almost e n t i r e l y on economics. The o n l y
s u r e way t o s e l e c t t h e most economical m a t e r i a l i s t o p r e p a r e a
p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n f o r each and compare annual c o s t s .

A s a g u i d e t o t r i a l s e l e c t i o n of t h e t y p e of l i n i n g , t h e f o l l o w i n g
approximate c r i t e r i a a r e p r e s e n t e d :
 R e c t a n g u l a r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e c h a n n e l s w i l l show t h e least
a n n u a l c o s t when v e l o c i t i e s a r e h i g h , rights-of-way a r e
e x p e n s i v e , and w a l l h e i g h t s are 1 5 f e e t o r less.

T r a p e z o i d a l R / C c h a n n e l s a r e most economical f o r t h e above

c o n d i t i o n s when right-of-way c o s t s a r e more m o d e r a t e and
channel w a l l h e i g h t s a r e q u i t e g r e a t (usually over 15 f e e t ) .

Loose r o c k l i n i n g i s e f f i c i e n t when v e l o c i t i e s a r e n o t s o
g r e a t as t o r e q u i r e e x t r e m e l y l a r g e r o c k and t h i c k s e c t i o n s ,
and where r o c k and f i l t e r m a t e r i a l a r e a v a i l a b l e from n e a r b y
sources.

Grouted r o c k l i n i n g i s g e n e r a l l y economical o n l y f o r s h o r t
r e a c h e d o f h i g h v e l o c i t y f l o w where e x t r e m e l y l a r g e r o c k would
be required f o r loose rock l i n i n g .

Channel l i n i n g s c o n s t r u c t e d of a s p h a l t i c c o n c r e t e , p n e u m a t i c a l l y
a p p l i e d m o r t a r , p r e - c a s t R / C s l a b s a r e u s u a l l y economical on a n
a n n u a l c o s t b a s i s o n l y i n s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n s of a v a i l a b i l i t y ,
s h o r t p r o j e c t l i f e requirements, e t c .

Grade C o n t r o l ~ t r u c t u r e & . /

V a r i o u s t y p e s of s t r u c t u r e s may b e used t o r e d u c e t h e g r a d i e n t i n
c h a n n e l r e a c h e s where t h e c h a n n e l m a t e r i a l s w i l l n o t resist t h e
e r o s i v e f o r c e s . They c a n be d i v i d e d i n t o two c l a s s e s - - open t o p
s t r u c t u r e s and c l o s e d c o n d u i t s t r u c t u r e s .

Open t o p s t r u c t u r e s , such a s d r o p s p i l l w a y s and c h u t e s , may b e con-

s i d e r e d f o r u s e w i t h any s i z e c h a n n e l s .

Closed c o n d u i t s t r u c t u r e s , s u c h a s c u l v e r t s , hooded i n l e t s and d r o p

i n l e t s a r e g e n e r a l l y used i n r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l c h a n n e l s .

I n t h e d e s i g n of g r a d e c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s t h e s i t e c o n f i g u r a t i o n ,
foundation, conditions, a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s ,
h y d r a u l i c and s t r u c t u r a l adequacy, and economic f a c t o r s s h o u l d b e
considered .
Generally, t h e d e s i g n procedure f o r grade c o n t r o l requirements
should i n c l u d e t h e following:

1. For t h e c h a n n e l r e a c h s e l e c t e d , d e t e r m i n e rhe t o t a l f a l l
between u p s t r e a m and downstream l i m i t s .

2. For t h e d e s i g n d i s c h a r g e , t h e s e l e c t e d c h a n n e l dimensions and

t y p e of c h a n n e l p r o t e c t i o n gen r a l l y d e t e r m i n e t h e maximum
s t a b l e channel gradient.- 2 0 1 a7
3. Using t h e t o t a l f a l l , l e n g t h of c h a n n e l r e a c h , and s t a b l e g r a d e ,
d e t e r m i n e t h e amount of f a l l t o b e c o n t r o l l e d by s t r u c t u r e ( s ) .

4. S e l e c t t h e t y p e and s i z e of g r a d e c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s needed,
b a s e d on s i t e c o n f i g u r a t i o n , f o u n d a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s , a v a i l a b i l i t y
of c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s , h y d r a u l i c and s t r u c t u r a l adequacy and
economic f a c t o r s .

S i n c e c h a n n e l d i m e n s i o n s and t y p e o f p r o t e c t i o n d i r e c t l y a f f e c t t h e
s t a b l e g r a d e and t h e amount of f a l l t o b e c o n t r o l l e d by s t r u c t u r e s ,
a l t e r n a t e d e s i g n s s h o u l d be made t o s e l e c t t h e most p r a c t i c a l and
economical o v e r a l l p l a n .

Open Top S t r u c t u r e s

S t r a i g h t d r o p s p i l l w a y -4 / 4 6 / - - T h i s t y p e of s t r u c t u r e i s e f f i c i e n t
f o r t h e c o n t r o l of r e l a t i v e l y low h e a d s n o r m a l l y up t o 10 f e e t . It
i s v e r y s t a b l e f o r h e a d s l e s s t h a n 10 f e e t and t h e l i k e l i h o o d of
s e r i o u s s t r u c t u r a l damage i s more remote t h a n f o r o t h e r t y p e s of
s t r u c t u r e s . However, a s t a b l e g r a d e below t h e s t r u c t u r e i s e s s e n t i a l
t o stability.

A r e c t a n g u l a r w e i r i s l e s s s u s c e p t i b l e t o c l o g g i n g by d e b r i s t h a n
t h e o p e n i n g s o f o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s of c o m p a r a t i v e d i s c h a r g e c a p a c i t i e s .
When p r o p e r l y c o n s t r u c t e d , m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s a r e lower f o r s t r a i g h t
d r o p s t h a n f o r o t h e r t y p e s of g r a d e c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s f o r most em-
bankment and f o u n d a t i o n s o i l c o n d i t i o n s . It i s r e l a t i v e l y easy t o
construct.

L i m i t a t i o n s t o t h e use of t h e drop spillway a r e :

a. It i s more c o s t l y t h a n some o t h e r t y p e s of s t r u c t u r e s where t h e

r e q u i r e d d i s c h a r g e c a p a c i t y i s l e s s t h a n 100 c . f . s .

b. When t h e t o t a l head o r d r o p i s g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 f e e t , i t becomes

c o s t l y t o s t a b i l i z e t h i s t y p e of d r o p s t r u c t u r e a g a i n s t s l i d i n g .

c. I t i s n o t a f a v o r a b l e s t r u c t u r e where i t i s d e s i r e d t o u s e tempo-
r a r y spillway storage t o obtain a large reduction i n discharge.

.
Box i n l e t d r o p spillway-4 6 1 - - The box i n l e t d r o p s p i l l w a y can be
u s e d f o r t h e same p u r p o s e s a s a s t r a i g h t d r o p s p i l l w a y . One of i t s
g r e a t e s t u s e s i s f o r g r a d e and e r o s i o n c o n t r o l i n open c h a n n e l s
where t h e w i d t h of o u t l e t i s l i m i t e d . It c a n a l s o s e r v e a s a t i l e
o u t l e t a t t h e head end of t h e c h a n n e l .
It i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a d a p t e d t o narrow c h a n n e l s where i t i s n e c e s s a r y
t o p a s s l a r g e f l o w s of w a t e r . The l o n g c r e s t of t h e box i n l e t
p e r m i t s l a r g e f l o w s t o p a s s o v e r i t w i t h r e l a t i v e l y low h e a d s , and
t h e w i d t h o f t h e s p i l l w a y need b e l i t t l e , i f a n y , g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t
of t h e e x i t c h a n n e l . The box i n l e t d r o p s p i l l w a y c a n b e e a s i l y
combined w i t h a b r i d g e t o p r o v i d e a r o a d c r o s s i n g . The h i g h p o r t i o n
of t h e s i d e w a l l s c a n b e used as abutments f o r t h e b r i d g e .

The s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n of t h e box i n l e t d r o p s p i l l w a y i s more complex

than f o r s t r a i g h t drop s p i l l w a y s .

I s l a n d - t y p e spillway-4 6 1 . - - The i s l a n d - t y p e s p i l l w a y c o n s i s t s of
a d r o p s t r u c t u r e i n t h e c h a n n e l w i t h e a r t h emergency s p i l l w a y s f o r
c a r r y i n g s t o r m f l o w around t h e s t r u c t u r e . E i t h e r t h e s t r a i g h t
d r o p s p i l l w a y o r t h e box i n l e t d r o p s p i l l w a y c a n be used. When
t h e w e i r l e n g t h o f t h e s t r u c t u r e is g r e a t e r t h a n t h e bottom w i d t h
of t h e c h a n n e l , t h e box i n l e t d r o p s p i l l w a y s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d .
T h i s t y p e o f s p i l l w a y i s a d a p t a b l e f o r u s e a t t h e head end of
channels t o c o n t r o l t h e o v e r f a l l . It i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a d a p t e d t o
s i t e c o n d i t i o n s where t h e d e s i g n r u n o f f volume i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e
c a p a c i t y o f t h e o u t l e t c h a n n e l i n t o which t h e s t r u c t u r e e m p t i e s .
The u s e of t h i s t y p e of g r a d e c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e i s l i m i t e d t o areas
where t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t n e a r l y l e v e l l a n d on e i t h e r s i d e of t h e
c h a n n e l f o r u s e a s e a r t h s p i l l w a y s . Topography o f t h e ground must
b e s u c h t h a t t h e p a t h of o v e r f l o w around t h e s t r u c t u r e w i l l r e t u r n
t o t h e c h a n n e l l o c a t i o n s a s h o r t d i s t a n c e below t h e s t r u c t u r e w i t h o u t
c a u s i n g damage t o t h e l a n d o r c h a n n e l banks.

The i s l a n d - t y p e s p i l l w a y i s p r o p o r t i o n e d s o t h a t t h e c h a n n e l w i l l
b e f u l l b e f o r e t h e o v e r f l o w around t h e dam e n t e r s t h e c h a n n e l ,
t h e r e b y e l i m i n a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of bank e r o s i o n from f l o w
o v e r t h e bank. To a c c o m p l i s h t h i s , t h e c r e s t of t h e w e i r must b e
s e t below t h e bottom e l e v a t i o n o f t h e e a r t h s p i l l w a y , a d i s t a n c e
s u f f i c i e n t t o p r o v i d e a w e i r n o t c h c a p a c i t y between t h e s e two
p o i n t s e q u a l t o t h e bank f u l l c a p a c i t y of t h e c h a n n e l a t t h e p l a c e
where t h e f l o w from t h e a u x i l i a r y s p i l l w a y w i l l e n t e r t h e c h a n n e l .
L a r g e r f l o w s w i l l t h e n p a s s around t h e e a r t h embankment of t h e d r o p
s p i l l w a y forming a n i s l a n d composed of t h e d r o p s p i l l w a y and t h e
h e a d w a l l e x t e n s i o n l e v e e s . The waterway above t h e s t r u c t u r e must
have t h e same c a p a c i t y a s t h e c h a n n e l below t h e dam a t t h e p o i n t of
o v e r f l o w . The i s l a n d s p i l l w a y s h o u l d b e s o p r o p o r t i o n e d t h a t e a r t h
s p i l l w a y s w i l l b e g i n t o f10.w as soon a s t h e c h a n n e l c a p a c i t y f l o w
h a s been r e a c h e d . I n o r d e r t o f o r c e o v e r f l o w w a t e r away from t h e
dam and p r o t e c t t h e f i l l from washing o u t around t h e dam, l e v e e s
e x t e n d i n g e a c h way from t h e dam must be p r o v i d e d .

The i s l a n d - t y p e s t r u c t u r e p e r m i t s t h e u s e o f a s p i l l w a y h a v i n g a
c a p a c i t y l e s s t h a n would be r e q u i r e d t o h a n d l e t h e t o t a l r u n o f f peak
discharge. I t r e q u i r e s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a u x i l i a r y s p i l l w a y s i n
a r e a s t h a t may b e c r o p l a n d where m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e c o r r e c t g r a d e
and e l e v a t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t .
 -.
Concrete c h u t e spillway-4 4 1 461 - - The c o n c r e t e c h u t e i s p a r t i -
c u l a r l y adapted t o h i g h o v e r f a l l s where a f u l l flow s t r u c t u r e i s
r e q u i r e d and where s i t e c o n d i t i o n s do n o t p e r m i t t h e u s e of a
detention-type structure.

Chutes may be more economical t h a n drop i n l e t s t r u c t u r e s of t h e

same c a p a c i t y and drop when l a r g e r c a p a c i t i e s a r e r e q u i r e d .

Closed Conduit S t r u c t u r e s

Hooded i n l e t spillway-4 6 1 . - - The hooded i n l e t s p i l l w a y i s b e s t

adapted f o r u s e a t s i t e s where t h e p i p e can b e i n s t a l l e d i n t h e
o r i g i n a l ground. C o n s t r u c t i o n i s complicated when t h e p i p e i s
p l a c e d i n t h e embankment.

The hooded i n l e t s p i l l w a y w i l l f l o w completely f u l l f o r c o n d u i t

s l o p e s up t o 36 p e r c e n t ( t h e l i m i t of p r e s e n t t e s t s ) i f t h e l e n g t h
of t h e hood i s p r o p e r l y s e l e c t e d and t h e head on t h e i n l e t i s
s u f f i c i e n t . A s compared w i t h t h e drop i n l e t , i t h a s t h e advantage
t h a t no riser is r e q u i r e d and t h e r e i s less f i l l o v e r t h e p i p e .
It i s s i m p l e t o f a b r i c a t e and i n s t a l l and is c o m p a r a t i v e l y low
i n cost.

.
Drop i n l e t spillway-4 6 1 - - The drop i n l e t i s a n e f f i c i e n t s t r u c t u r e
i n t h e c o n t r o l o f r e l a t i v e l y h i g h heads. It i s w e l l adapted t o s i t e s
p r o v i d i n g an a p p r e c i a b l e amount of temporary s t o r a g e above t h e i n l e t .
It may a l s o b e used i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h r e l a t i v e l y low heads, a s i n
t h e c a s e of a drop i n l e t on a r o a d c u l v e r t .

For h i g h h e a d s , drop i n l e t s r e q u i r e less m a t e r i a l t h a n a drop s p i l l -

way under similar c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Where an a p p r e c i a b l e amount of
temporary s t o r a g e i s a v a i l a b l e , t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e s t r u c t u r e can
b e m a t e r i a l l y reduced. Besides a f f e c t i n g a r e d u c t i o n i n c o s t , t h i s
r e d u c t i o n of d i s c h a r g e r e s u l t s i n a lower peak channel flow below,
and can be a f a v o r a b l e f a c t o r i n c h a n n e l g r a d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n and
flood control.

Drop i n l e t s a r e s u b j e c t t o plugging by d e b r i s . They a r e l i m i t e d

t o l o c a t i o n s where s a t i s f a c t o r y e a r t h embankments and emergency
s p i l l w a y s can b e c o n s t r u c t e d .

C u l v e r t drop b o e l . - - Drop boxes a r e used t o c o n t r o l g r a d i e n t s

above c u l v e r t s i n e i t h e r n a t u r a l o r c o n s t r u c t e d c h a n n e l s and, i n
a d d i t i o n , t h e y may s e r v e a s an o u t l e t s t r u c t u r e f o r t i l e l i n e s i n
d r a i n a g e . s y s t e m s . C a t t l e ramps can be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e d e s i g n
of t h e box when t h e c u l v e r t i s used a s a c a t t l e p a s s . The drop box
i s v e r y e f f e c t i v e f o r roadway e r o s i o n c o n t r o l .

The drop box i s one of t h e most economical s t r u c t u r e s f o r con-

t r o l l i n g o v e r f a l l s because t h e e x i s t i n g c u l v e r t and roadway
embankment r e p l a c e s t h e o u t l e t p o r t i o n of t h e t y p i c a l drop s p i l l -
way. It h a s t h e advantage of t h e box i n l e t drop s p i l l w a y i n t h a t
w e i r l e n g t h can be f i t t e d t o a narrow waterway.

Other S t r u c t u r e s

General

A comprehensive channel d e s i g n f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e s t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n
of one o r more of t h e f o l l o w i n g s t r u c t u r e s a n d / o r p r a c t i c e s :

1. channel c r o s s i n g s ;

2. channel j u n c t i o n s t r u c t u r e s ;

3. side i n l e t structures;

4. water l e v e l c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s .

Channel C r o s s i n g s

Channel c r o s s i n g s a r e r e q u i r e d where p r i v a t e o r p u b l i c roadways p a s s

over t h e channel. S t r u c t u r e s used f o r t h i s purpose a r e stream f o r d s ,
c u l v e r t s , and b r i d g e s .

Stream ford&/. . - - Stream f o r d s a r e i n s t a l l e d on t h e channel

s u r f a c e . They p r o v i d e t h e most economical t y p e of c r o s s i n g . They
can be c o n s t r u c t e d of r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , compacted r o c k , o r broken
concrete.

Stream f o r d s a r e b e s t s u i t e d f o r u s e i n t h e upper ends of c h a n n e l s .

They should n o t be i n s t a l l e d where deep f l o w s of long d u r a t i o n w i l l
prevent normal u s e ,

C u l v e r t s . - - C u l v e r t s of c o n c r e t e o r m e t a l p i p e s a l s o p r o v i d e an
economical c r o s s i n g when used a t l o c a t i o n s where t h e flow i s
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l , and where s e r i o u s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e flow of
water i s n o t a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r i n ov r a l l channel d e s i g n . For
h y d r a u l i c d e s i g n , s e e page 6-29 of 2 7.
Bridges. - - Bridges of c o n c r e t e o r timber should be used when
n e c e s s a r y on most open channels t h a t a r e designed t o c a p a c i t y on
low g r a d i e n t s . S i n c e t h e y do n o t o f f e r s e r i o u s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e
flow of w a t e r , t h e y a r e p r e f e r r e d over c u l v e r t s , e s p e i a l l y f o r
h i g h flows. For h y d r a u l i c d e s i g n , s e e page 6-32 of 2 7.
Channel J u n c t i o n S t r u c t u r e s

Where two main channels j o i n , wave formation can be minimized i f

t h e two f l o w s a t t h e j u n c t i o n a r e a s n e a r l y p a r a l l e l a s p o s s i b l e .
The d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r s t r u c t u r e s a t a j u n c t i o n of 2 t r a p e z o i d a l
o r 2 r e c t a n g u l a r channels i s shown on F i g . 5-1.
Side I n l e t Structures

P r o v i s i o n s should always be made f o r lowering s u r f a c e water from

a d j o i n i n g f i e l d s t o t h e main channel w i t h o u t s e r i o u s e r o s i o n .
P i p e s p i l l w a y s , drop s p i l l w a y s , and c h u t e s a r e t h e more common
t y p e s of s t r u c t u r e s used f o r s i d e i n l e t s .

S i d e i n l e t s t r u c t u r e s should empty i n t o a r e a s r e c e s s e d i n t h e banks

of t h e main channel. C o n s t r u c t i o n i n t h i s manner w i l l minimize
damage by t h e movement of f l o o d w a t e r , d e b r i s , o r i c e , and a l s o
w i l l cause l e s s r e t a r d a n c e of flow i n t h e main channel.

Pipe spillway&/. -- P i p e s p i l l w a y s can be used advantageously

t o convey w a t e r from bank of l e v e e s and continuous s p o i l banks i n t o
a channel. The hooded i n l e t i s most e f f i c i e n t where d i s c h a r g e capa-
c i t y i s a problem. The f l a r e d i n l e t i s l e s s e f f i c i e n t b u t f a c i l i -
t a t e s t h e p a s s i n g of d e b r i s such a s c o r n s t a l k s and g r a s s e s . The
p i p e drop i n l e t i s e f f i c i e n t and can b e used a s a t i l e o u t l e t .
When t h e r e q u i r e d p i p e s i z e exceeds 48-inches i n d i a m e t e r , an open
t o p s t r u c t u r e should be c o n s i d e r e d f o r economy.

Drop spillway&/. - - Drop s p i l l w a y s a r e g e n e r a l l y used where t h e

volume of w a t e r t o be handled i s l a r g e . They c a n be used as a t i l e
o u t l e t s t r u c t u r e . The drop s p i l l w a y f i t s c o n d i t i o n s where t h e r e is
no s p o i l bank and f u n c t i o n s w e l l a t t h e head end of a channel.

Reinforced c o n c r e t e chute*/. - - Concrete c h u t e s f u n c t i o n w e l l

where t h e . v o l u m e of water t o b e handled is l a r g e and t h e o v e r f a l l
i s such t h a t a drop s p i l l w a y w i l l n o t be economical.

Vegetated c h u t e / . -- T h i s t y p e of c h u t e should be l i m i t e d t o
s m a l l watersheds and s i t e s where good, dense sod can be developed
and maintained. The water c o u r s e below t h e c h u t e must b e s t a b l e .
When t h e channel below t h e c h u t e i s narrow o r c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e
lower end of t h e c h u t e may n o t b e f a v o r a b l e t o e s t a b l i s h and main-
t a i n v e g e t a t i o n because of poor s o i l o r rocky o r w e t c o n d i t i o n s o r
s i l t a t i o n from a d j a c e n t c h a n n e l s o r s t r e a m s , a t o e w a l l should b e
used. The t o e w a l l w i l l r a i s e t h e end of t h e sod c h u t e above t h e s e
u n f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s and p e r m i t t h e maintenance of a good vegeta-
t i o n . The t o e w a l l i s a s m a l l drop s p i l l w a y w i t h a headwall g e n e r a l l y
1 t o 2 f e e t i n height.

A v e g e t a t e d c h u t e i s economical s i n c e m a t e r i a l and c o n s t r u c t i o n
c o s t s a r e g e n e r a l l y low. Use i s l i m i t e d t o sites where t h e v e l o c i t y
of flow i n t h e c h u t e is low enough t o m a i n t a i n t h e v e g e t a t i v e cover.
T h i s g e n e r a l l y l i m i t s t h e u s e of v e g e t a t e d c h u t e s t o s m a l l water
c o u r s e s w i t h low o v e r f a l l s where t h e r e i s no l o n g , s u s t a i n e d flow.
Riprap c h u t e ' . - - A r o c k r i p r a p c h u t e p r o v i d e s a more s t a b l e
o u t l e t t h a n a v e g e t a t e d c h u t e . The u s e of n a t i v e r o c k may make i t
less expensive t h a n a p i p e o r c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e of comparable s i z e .
It i s a permanent t y p e f a c i l i t g r e q u i r i n g l e s s maintenance t h a n a
vegetated chute.

Rock r i p r a p l i n e d c h u t e s a r e l i m i t e d t o a r e a s where s u i t a b l e
d u r a b l e c o b b l e s o r rock a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n . It
r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l adherence t o t h e b a s i c d e t a i l s of d e s i g n i n t h e i r
c o n s t r u c t i o n t o o b t a i n s a t i s f a c t o r y performance and s t a b i l i t y .

Gabion chute!?!?/. -- The gabion c h u t e i s s i m i l a r t o t h e r i p r a p

c h u t e except t h a t t h e rock i s p l a c e d i n w i r e b a s k e t s . It i s p a r t i -
c u l a r l y a d a p t a b l e t o u n s t a b l e f o u n d a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s because of i t s
a b i l i t y t o a d j u s t and r e t a i n i t s g e n e r a l s e c t i o n w i t h displacement
o r compression of t h e foundation. The o p p o r t u n i t y t o f i l l i t w i t h
n a t i v e r o c k and c o b b l e s makes i t s c o s t f a v o r a b l e i n comparison w i t h
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e . G e n e r a l l y , by t h e t i m e t h e l o n g - l a s t i n g w i r e
b a s k e t s d e t e r i o r a t e , t h e s t r u c t u r e w i l l be s o w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d and
bound t o g e t h e r t h a t i t w i l l remain i n d e f i n i t e l y w i t h o u t t h e need
f o r added p r o t e c t i o n .

Water Level C o n t r o l structure&'

Water l e v e l c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s a r e used t o r e g u l a t e and m a i n t a i n

w a t e r i n channels f o r water t a b l e c o n t r o l o r f o r f l o o d i n g land s u r -
f a c e s . The c o n t r o l i s accomplished by u s e of g a t e s o r s t o p l o g s
t h a t can b e f i t t e d i n t o s e v e r a l t y p e s of s t r u c t u r e s . The most common
t y p e s used a r e drop s p i l l w a y s , box i n l e t s o r c u l v e r t s , and open
flumes.

Design F e a t u r e s R e l a t e d t o Maintenance

Channels must be p r o p e r l y maintained t o f u n c t i o n a s designed.

f
Maintenance c a n be made e a s i e r and more e f e c t i v e i f c e r t a i n
f e a t u r e s a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e design.-2

Added Depth o r Capacity f o r D e p o s i t i o n

Allowance should be made i n t h e d e s i g n f o r i n i t i a l sloughing and

s e d i m e n t a t i o n . Quite o f t e n d u r i n g t h e f i r s t y e a r a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
t h e channel bottom w i l l be r a i s e d from s l o u g h i n g s l e f t by c o n s t r u c t i o n
equipment. S o i l and seepage c o n d i t i o n s a f f e c t bank sloughing and
s i l t i n g . The s e d i m e n t a t i o n problem must be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e d e s i g n
s o t h s t d e p t h and c a p a c i t y w i l l be provided over a p e r i o d of y e a r s i n
l i n e w i t h economy.
R e l a t i o n s h i p of S i d e Slopes t o Maintenance Methods

The s l o p e of channel banks may b e dependent on t h e t y p e of main-

t e n a n c e a s w e l l a s on s o i l c o n d i t i o n s ; f o r example 3 : l s l o p e s o r
f l a t t e r a r e u s u a l l y needed f o r banks t o b e mowed.-2 f

Berms

Berms may b e used t o f a c i l i t a t e maintenance by:

1. P r e v e n t i n g m a t e r i a l from washing o r r o l l i n g i n t o t h e channel.

2. P r o v i d i n g work a r e a s and f a c i l i t a t i n g s p r e a d i n g of s p o i l banks.

3. P r o v i d i n g a c c e s s roadways.

Berm d e s i g n may f o l l o w t h e g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e of t h e l o c a l i t y where

t h e channel i s t o b e c o n s t r u c t e d , provided p r o p e r l o a d i n g and s o i l
c o n d i t i o n s a r e used. Guidance t o minimum berm w i d t h s i s g i v e n on
NEH, S e c t i o n I&/, page 6-19, and N a t i o n a l Standard and S p e c i f i c a -
t i o n Guide f o r Dikes and Levees.

Maintenance Roadways

Roadways should b e provided f o r a c c e s s t o t h e channel w i t h main-

t e n a n c e equipment and f o r i n s p e c t i o n . They c a n b e l o c a t e d on
berms, s p o i l banks, o r l e v e e s . On channels i n e x c e s s of 20' t o p
w i d t h , roadways may b e r e q u i r e d on b o t h s i d e s of t h e channel.
The roadway should b e wide enough t o handle a l l maintenance
equipment and s h o u l d s l o p e away from t h e channel.

Spoil

It is good p r a c t i c e t o spread s p o i l banks t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y

can b e maintained p r o p e r l y and can be used i n t h e same manner a s
t h e a d j o i n i n g a r e a . The de e e t o which t h e s p o i l is spread depends
upon t h e l o c a l conditions.- 2 8 7

Entrance of S i d e S u r f a c e Water t o Channel

S i d e s u r f a c e w a t e r should n o t b e ' a l l o w e d t o s p i l l o v e r t h e channel

bank w i t h o u t p r o t e c t i o n . I n t e r c e p t i o n d i t c h e s should b e provided
t o c o n t r o l l o c a l d r a i n a g e on t h e l a n d s i d e of t h e berms o r s p o i l
banks throughout t h e l e n g t h of t h e p r o j e c t . These d i t c h e s should
b e graded toward c o l l e c t i o n p o i n t s t o d r a i n i n t o t h e channel
through l i n e d c h u t e s , p i p e drops and c u l v e r t s , o r o v e r drop
spillways .
Seeding

The berms and s p o i l s h o u l d b e s e e d e d . Q u i t e o f t e n t h e c h a n n e l s i d e

s l o p e s are a l s o s e e d e d . The e x t e n t t o which s e e d i n g i s done depends
upon t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e c h a n n e l and l o c a l d e s i r e s . S i d e s l o p e
s e e d i n g i s a c c e p t e d a s good p r a c t i c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y when f l a t s i d e
s l o p e s a r e u s e d s o t h a t b o t h s e e d i n g and m a i n t e n a n c e can be done
economically.

P i l o t Channels

O c c a s i o n a l l y p i l o t c h a n n e l s a r e used t o f a c i l i t a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
a c h a n n e l s y s t e m a s d e s i g n e d . The p r i n c i p a l f u n c t i o n of a p i l o t
c h a n n e l i s t o lower t h e water t a b l e s u f f i c i e n t l y t o p e r m i t d e e p e r
e x c a v a t i o n s t o be made w i t h g r e a t e r s a f e t y and economy. T h i s i s
accomplished by e x c a v a t i n g t h e p i l o t c h a n n e l a s deep below t h e
w a t e r t a b l e a s p r a c t i c a l w i t h o u t c a u s i n g e x c e s s i v e s l o u g h i n g of
t h e banks. Construction is then deferred u n t i l t h e water t a b l e
i s lowered and t h e banks become more s t a b l e .
 GLOSSARY OF SYMBOLS

A - a l i g n m e n t f a c t o r t o a d j u s t t h e b a s i c v e l o c i t y b e c a u s e of t h e
e f f e c t s o f c u r v a t u r e of t h e c h a n n e l .

A - a r e a of flow. (ft2)

b - bottom w i d t h of a c h a n n e l ( f e e t ) .

bT - w a t e r s u r f a c e w i d t h ( f e e t ) .

B - bank s l o p e f a c t o r t o a d j u s t t h e b a s i c v e l o c i t y b e c a u s e of t h e
e f f e c t s o f d i f f e r e n t bank s l o p e s .

C - sediment c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n p a r t s p e r m i l l i o n by w e i g h t .

C1, C2, C3, Cq, C5 - c o e f f i c i e n t s used t o d e t e r m i n e c h a n n e l propor-

t i o n s and s l o p e when u s i n g t h e m o d i f i e d regime
equations.

Ce - D e n s i t y f a c t o r t o a d j u s t t h e b a s i c v e l o c i t y b e c a u s e of v a r i a t i o n s
i n t h e d e n s i t y of s o i l m a t e r i a l s i n t h e c h a n n e l boundary.

'rn - cohesion i n t e r c e p t a t n a t u r a l moisture sf).

d - d e p t h of f l o w ( f e e t ) .

d, - c r i t i c a l d e p t h of f l o w ( f e e t ) .

dm - mean d e p t h of f l o w ( f e e t ) .

D - d e p t h f a c t o r t o a d j u s t b a s i c v e l o c i t y b e c a u s e of t h e e f f e c t s
of t h e d e p t h of f l o w .

Ds - t h e p a r t i c l e d i a m e t e r of which s%of t h e sample i s s m a l l e r .

F - f r e q u e n c y f a c t o r t o a d j u s t t h e b a s i c v e l o c i t y b e c a u s e of t h e
e f f e c t of infrequent flood flows.
v
F - Froude number =
Jgd,
g - a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y ( f p s 2 ) .

G - specific gravity.

H, - d e p t h of t e n s i o n c r a c k ( f e e t ) .

k, - c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l e n g t h of r o u g h n e s s e l e m e n t , f o r g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l .

k, = DG5 s i z e i n f e e t .
K - c o e f f i c i e n t modifying t r a c t i v e f o r c e f o r g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e s
on c o a r s e , noncohesive m a t e r i a l s on channel s i d e s .

n - Manning's c o e f f i c i e n t .

n
t
- Manning's c o e f f i c i e n t f o r roughness of s o i l g r a i n s .

P - wetted perimeter.
PI - P l a s t i c i t y index.
qU - unconfined compressive s t r e n g t h .

Q - discharge ( c f s ) .

Qs - sediment t r a n s p o r t r a t e ( t o n s l d a y ) .

R - hydraulic radius - f e e t

Rc - r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e of c e n t r a l s e c t i o n of compound curve.

Rt - h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g r a i n roughness of t h e s o i l .

so - s l o p e of channel bottom.

s, - c r i t i c a l slope.

se - energy g r a d i e n t

st - r a t e of f r i c t i o n head l o s s because of t r a c t i v e s t r e s s a c t i n g
on bed and s i d e m a t e r i a l s .

V - average v e l o c i t y (fps).

V, - allowable v e l o c i t y ( f p s ) .

Vb - basic velocity (fps).

V, - c r i t i c a l velocity (fps).

W - average width of flow - ft.

WT - t o p width of flow - ft.

ks
x - f a c t o r d e s c r i b i n g e f f e c t of r a t i o - on flow r e s i s t a n c e .
6
z - cotangent of s i d e s l o p e a n g l e .

T - f a c t o r t o c o r r e c t allowable t r a c t i v e f o r c e f o r materials
w i t h D 7 5 > 0.25" f o r u n i t w e i g h t s d i f f e r e n t t h a n 160 p c f .
y - u n i t weight of water ( p c f ) .

- d r y u n i t weight ( p c f ) .
Yd

m
'
- m o i s t u n i t weight ( p c f ) .

Ys
- u n i t weight of p a r t i c l e s l a r g e r t h a n 0.25" (pcf).

yw - u n i t weight of water (62.4 p c f ) .

11.6~
6 - t h i c k n e s s of laminar s u b l a y e r =
/@t Se

fl - a n g l e of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e .

flm - a n g l e of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e a t n a t u r a l m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t .

gr - a n g l e of repose of c o a r s e noncohesive m a t e r i a l s .

v - k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y of water ( f t 2 / s e c ) .

p - water d e n s i t y ( l b - s e c 2 / f t 4 ) .

r - r e f e r e n c e t r a c t i v e stress ( p s f ) .

r
03
- t r a c t i v e s t r e s s i n an i n f i n i t e l y wide channel ( p s f ) .

T - maximum t r a c t i v e s t r e s s on t h e channel bed ( p s f ) .

b
r - maximum t r a c t i v e s t r e s s on t h e channel s i d e s ( p s f ) .
s
T
bc
- maximum t r a c t i v e s t r e s s on t h e bed i n a curved r e a c h ( p s f ) .

T
sC
- maximum t r a c t i v e s t r e s s on t h e s i d e s i n a curved r e a c h ( p s f ) .

a l l o w a b l e t r a c t i v e s t r e s s along t h e bed. (psf)

T~b-
r
Ls
- a l l o w a b l e t r a c t i v e stress a l o n g t h e s i d e s ( p s f ) .
 REFERENCES

Marmer, H. A. -
"Tidal D a t u m Planes", U. S. Coast and Geodetic
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Rev. 1951.

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S e c t i o n 1 6 , Drainage.

S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e - N a t i o n a l Engineering Handbook,

S e c t i o n 6 , S t r u c t u r a l Design.

S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e - N a t i o n a l Engineering Handbook,

S e c t i o n 11, Drop S p i l l w a y s .

S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e - N a t i o n a l Engineering Handbook,

S e c t i o n 8 , Engineering Geology.

S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e - N a t i o n a l Engineering Handbook,

S e c t i o n 9, Foundations and E a r t h S t r u c t u r e s .

ASAE - Spec. Pub. SP-SW-0262, Measuring S a t u r a t e d Hydraulic

Conductivi,ty of S o i l s .

Bureau of Reclamation - E a r t h Manual, F i r s t E d i t i o n , Denver,

Colo., 1960.

Flaxman, E. M. - Channel S t a b i l i t y i n Undisturbed Cohesive

S o i l s ; ASCE Hyd. Paper No. 3462, March 1963.

Middleton, H. E. - P r o p e r t i e s of S o i l s Which I n f l u e n c e S o i l
E r o s i o n ; USDA T e c h n i c a l B u l l e t i n No. 178, March 1930.

Smerdon, E. T., and Beasley, R. P. - C r i t i c a l T r a c t i v e Forces

i n Cohesive S o i l s ; M i s s o u r i A g r i c u l t u r a l Experiment
S t a t i o n , J o u r n a l S e r i e s No. 2082, 1959,

United Nations Economic Commission f o r Asia and t h e Far E a s t -

River T r a i n i n g and Bank P r o t e c t i o n ; Flood C o n t r o l S e r i e s
No. 4 , Bangkok, 1953.

Simons, D. B . , Richardson, E. V . , and Haushild, W. L. - Some

E f f e c t s of F i n e Sediment on Flow Phenomena; USGS Water
Supply Paper 1498-G, 1962.

L e l i a v s k y , Serge-An I n t o r d u c t i o n t o F l u v i a l Hydraulics;
257 p p . , Constable and Co., L t . , London, 1955.
 REFERENCES (Continued)

Lane, E. W . , and Borland, W. M. - River and Bed Scour During

Floods; Trans. ASCE, Vol. 119, 1954; pp. 1954; pp. 1067.

Kuenen, Ph. H. - "Sand"; S c i e n t i f i c American, A p r i l 1960;

pp. 95-110.

S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e - N a t i o n a l Engineering Handbook,

S e c t i o n 4 , Hydrology, P a r t 1, Watershed P l a n n i n g .

S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e - N a t i o n a l Engineering Handbook,

Section 15, I r r i g a t i o n .

U. S. Weather Bureau -
T e c h n i c a l Paper No. 40, R a i n f a l l
Frequency A t l a s of t h e United S t a t e s .

S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e -N a t i o n a l Engineering Handbook,

S e c t i o n 5, Hydraulics.

SCS-TP-61 - Handbook of Channel Design f o r S o i l and Water

Conservation; March 1947.

SCS-TP-106 - Hydraulic Design of t h e Box I n l e t Drop Spillway,

J u l y 1951.

Hydraulic Model S t u d i e s f o r Whiting F i e l d Naval A i r S t a t i o n .

F o r t i e r , S. F., and Scobey, F. C. - " P e r m i s s i b l e Canal Vel-

o c i t i e s " ; American Soc. Civ. Engin. Trans. 8 9 , p. 940-
956.

Lane, E. W. - "Progress Report on R e s u l t s of S t u d i e s on Design

of S t a b l e Channels1'; H y d r a u l i c Laboratory Report No.
Hyd-352, June 1952; U. S. Bureau of Reclamation.

"Standards f o r P e r m i s s i b l e Non-Eroding V e l o c i t i e s " ; Bureau of

t h e Methodology of t h e Hydro-Energo P l a n ; Gidrotekh-
n i c h e s Koye S t r o i t e l ' s t v o , Obedinennoe Nanchno- Tekhnich-
eskoe 12 d a t e d ' s t v o . , Moscow, USSR, May 1936.

E i n s t e i n , H. A.- h he Bedload Function f o r Sediment Trans-

p o r t a t i o n i n Open Channel Flow"; USDA Tech B u l l . NO.
1026, S e p t . 1950.

Ning Chien - Meyer-Peter Formula f o r Bedload T r a n s p o r t and

E i n s t e i n Bedload F u n c t i o n ; Univ. Cal. I n s t . Eng. Research,
M. R. D. Sediment S e r i e s No. 7, March 1954.
 REFERENCES (Continued)

Shulits, Samuel - The Schoklitsch Bedload Formula; Engr. J.

139, 1935; p. 644-646, 687.

Colby, B. R., and Nubbell - "Simplified Methods for Computing

Total Sediment Discharge with the Modified Einstein Pro-
cedure"; USGS Water Supply Paper 1593; 1961.

Dawdy, D. R. - "Depth-w is charge Relations of Alluvial Streams-

Discontinuous Rating Curves," USGS Water Supply Paper
1498-C, 1961.

Horton, R. E. - "Separate Roughness Coefficients for Channel

Bottom and Sides," Eng. News-Record, Vol. 111, NO. 22;
pp. 652-653; Nov. 30, 1933.

King, Horace Williams and Brater, Ernest F. - Handbook of

Hydraulics; McGraw-Hill Pub. Co.; 1963.

Taylor, Donald W. - "Fundamentals of Soil Mechanics," John

Wiley & Sons.

Nilmar Janbu - "Stability Analysis of Slopes with Dimensionless

Parameters"; Harvard Soil Mechanics Series No. 46.

Justin, Hinds and Creager - "~ngineeringfor ~ams";Vol. 111;

John Wiley & Sons.

Bishop and Bjerrum - "The Relevance of the Triaxial Test to

the Solution of Stability Problems", from Research Conference
on Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils, University of Colorado,
June 1960; pp. 437-501.

Bennett, P. T, - "The Effect of Blankets on Seepage Through

Pervious Foundations"; ASCE Trans. Vol. 111, 1946,
page 215.

Agricultural Research Service - "Study and Investigations of

Use of Materials and New Designs and Methods in Public
Works"; Committee Print No. 6, 87th Congress, 2nd Session;
U. S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, D. C.; 1962.

Parsons, D. A. - "Vegetative Controls of Streambank Erosion."

Bondurant, D. C. - "Channel Rectification Structures."

 REFERENCES (Continued)

G i l d e a , A. P. - "Design P r a c t i c e f o r Levee Revetment on West

."
Coast I n t e r m i t t e n t Streams

Department of P u b l i c Works, S t a t e of C a l i f o r n i a - "Bank and

Shore P r o t e c t i o n i n C a l i f o r n i a Highway P r a c t i c e " ; Nov.
1960.

S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e - N a t i o n a l Engineering Handbook,

S e c t i o n 14, Chute Spillways.

S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e - "Conservation I r r i g a t i o n " ;

A g r i c u l t u r e Handbook No. 107.

Beauchamp, K. H. - " S t r u c t u r e s i n S o i l and Water Conservation";

S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e , E&WP U n i t , Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

L i n d e r , W. M. - " S t a b i l i z a t i o n of Stream Beds w i t h Sheet

P i l i n g and Rock S i l l s . "

Vanoni, V. A. and Brooks, N. H. - "Laboratory S t u d i e s of t h e

Roughness and Suspended Load of A l l u v i a l Streams,"
U . S . Army Corps of Engineers - M i s s o u r i R i v e r D i v i s i o n
Sediment S e r i e s No. 11, December 1957.

Chien, N. - "A Concept of t h e Regime Theory", T r a n s a c t i o n s ,

ASCE, Vol. 122, Paper No. 2884, 1957, pp. 785-793.

Blench, J. -
Mobile-Bed F l u v i o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a ,
Dept. of Technical S e r v i c e s , 1966.

Simons, D. B. and A l b e r t s o n , M. L . , "Uniform Water Conveyance

Channels i n A l l u v i a l M a t e r i a l , " T r a n s a c t i o n s , ASCE,
Vol. 128, P a r t 1, Paper No. 3399, 1963, pp. 65-107.

S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e - N a t i o n a l Engineering Handbook,

S e c t i o n 3 , Sedimentation.
 TECHNICAL RELEASE
NUMBER 25 A
DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

CHAPTER 2. FIELD SURVEYS & PLAN LAYOUT
CHAPTER 2. APPENDIX A. LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE SITE
SURVEY AND ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 3. SITE INVESTIGATIONS

CHAPTER 3. APPENDIX. OUTLINE TO PLAN SITE INVESTIGATIONS AND PREPARE
REPORTS FOR CHANNEL IMPROVEMENT
CHAPTER 4. DETERMINING DESIGN DISCHARGE
CHAPTER 5. CHANNEL LOCATION, ALIGNMENT, 6 HYDRAULIC DESIGN
CHAPTER 5. APPENDIX I. TRANSITIONS
CHAPTER 5. APPENDIX 11. MOMENTUM METHOD OF DETERMINING BRIDGE PIER
LOSS
CHAPTER 6. STABILITY DESIGN
CHAPTER 6. APPENDIX A. STREAM ARMOR DESIGN CONCEPTS
CHAPTER 7. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS IN CHANNEL DESIGN, INSTALLATION,
AND MAINTENANCE
CHAPTER 7. APPENDIX A. EVALUATING CHANNELS FOR RECREATION DEVELOPMENTS
CHAPTER 7. APPENDIX B. FISH STREAM INVESTIGATION GUIDE (SAMPLE)
CHAPTER 7. APPENDIX C. POOR QUALITY RECOGNITION GUIDE
CHAPTER 7. APPENDIX D. HABITAT REQUIREMENTS
CHAPTER 8. LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE DESIGN
(this chapter to be added in near future)
 Page

Design F e a t u r e s R e l a t e d t o Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-84

Added Depth o r Capacity f o r D e p o s i t i o n . . . . . . . . . 6-84

R e l a t i o n s h i p of S i d e Slopes t o Maintenance Methods . . . 6-85

Berms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-85

MaintenanceRoadways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-85

Spoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-85

Entrance o f S i d e S u r f a c e Water t o Channel ........ 6-85

Seeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-86

P i l o t Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-86

Glossary o f Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-87

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-90

Appendix A . Stream Armor Design Concepts . . . . . . . . . . 6-94

 6-94
Appendix A

TECHNICAL RELEASE No. 25, CHAPTER 6. APPENDIX A.

Stream Armor Design Concepts

Purpose
This appendix (1) explains the underlying physical processes affecting
armoring, (2) describes different SCS-approved math models available,
and (3) presents an example illustrating one way to estimate armoring.

The various math models for critical and recommended allowable tractive
stress discussed in this appendix are accepted in the engineering profes-
sion; they differ mainly in choice of a safety factor, scope of applica-
tion, or both. TWO different math models for recommended allowable trac-
tive stress are used in SCS. They differ solely in their safety factors.
The armor designer is free to select the most applicable model.

Actual transverse tractive stress of each situation must be determined

through a hydraulic analysis. The example in this appendix uses a sim-
plistic model to determine the hydraulic radius. In real situations,
actual cross-sectional geometry and, possibly, precise water surface
profile calculations are required. ow ever, this requirement does not
invalidate the concepts illustrated by the example.

Physical Processes
Armoring is a well-known natural phenomenon. Furthermore, its important
features already are used in some engineering structures, for example,
riprap. Armoring is sometimes called hydraulic sorting. It is a limit-
ing or special case of sediment transport. It has been studied by vari-
ous scientists over the years, (e.g., A. Shields, A . Strickler, E. Lane,
I{. Einstein, and others). Understanding the primary principles of armor-
ing is still developing and is leading to various math models and pro-
cedures for field application.

Armoring is the result of the dynamic interaction of unsteady fluid flow

and a mobile bed composed generally of a broad range of discrete parti-
cles.
6- 95
Appendix A

At low flows, the boundary is stationary; as the flow increases, how-

ever, the smallest particles begin to move. As the flow increases fur-
ther, larger particles also begin to move but at a lower velocity. Fi-
nally, the discharge can increase to a point where the entire boundary
is moving, although the larger particles move more slowly than the
smaller. As the flow decreases, the process reverses itself; but if
the smaller particles are not replaced, the bed is left degraded and
coarser.

Armoring occurs when smaller particles are transported from the bound-
ary but not replaced and coarser particles are exposed but not trans-
ported. Whether true armoring occurs depends on whether the exposed
coarser particles originated at their present position or upstream. If
they originated upstream, what has occurred is not armoring but sediment
transport by unsteady flow.

A design of a stable channel that depends upon armoring for stability

can be a contradiction unless the armor surface has already been estab-
lished and will not be disturbed during construction. Otherwise, degra-
dation must occur before a complete armor surface can exist, and result-
ing eroding bed material contributes a downstream sediment load to the sys-
tem. Furthermore, this degradation causes undercutting of the toes of the
bank, which can lead to bank sloughing. Ultimate design value of armoring
may be that it is the last line of defense against the more extreme events
that otherwise may completely unravel a channel and possibly lead to eco-
logical disaster or catastrophic failure of important cultural features.

Math Models
The math models developed by Shields and Strickler provide the basis for
the armoring design procedure. The procedure was verified by Lane's field
work. The designer must analyze (1) the active or driving forces and (2)
the passive or resisting forces. The analysis of active forces consists
of determining the hydraulics or depth of flow and determining the bound-
ary roughness shear or tractive stress. The latter determination is nec-
essary because not all energy loss is due to boundary roughness. Bends or
changes in cross-sectional area cause energy loss through internal fluid
shear.
 Appendix A

SCS has adopted Manning's equation to estimate the rate of total energy
loss (Se) ; i.e. ,

Se = [(Q ne)/(l.486 AR~/~)]'

where
n E retardance coefficient for total energy loss.
e

Furthermore, SCS has adopted the Manning-Strickler equation to estimate

the energy loss due to boundary roughness, (St); i.e.,
St = [(Q nt)/(l.486 AR~/~)]~
where
n = Kd the Strickler equation -- retardance coefficient
t m m
due to boundary roughness only.
d E a characteristic boundary particle size.
m
Km E empirical coefficient relating dm to nt*
Units for K must be consistent with units chosen for d .
m m

Report 108 of the National Cooperative Highway Research Program recom-

mends using K = 0.0395, with dm = d,, expressed in feet. The Km value
m
is the same as the default value for C in Eq. 2 of TR-59, "Hydraulic
n
Design of Riprap Gradient Control Structures."

This leads to the following formula.for actual average transverse stress

-
T = YR St
act.
where

R Z hydraulic radius, ft.

= (n /n ) 2 Se; Eq. 6-3, TR-25.
St t e

Shield's work establishes the critical relationship between the active

and passive forces; i.e., it relates the critical fluid tractive stress
(T ) for incipient motion to the gravitational resisting force. It was
C
verified for coarse grained materials (dm > 6 mm) by Lane's study of'
prototype field canals and for discrete particle material (dm > .1 mm)
by Report 108.
6-97
Appendix A

Lane reports:
Critical tractive stress, r = 6 dm; where dm is in feet and
C
r C is in psf.
This critical tractive stress is nearly identical with Shield's work for
dm > h inch.

Lane recommends:
Allowable tractive stress, = 4.8 dm; rc same units as above.
'all. dm '
This allowable tractive stress is conservative with respect to Shield's
work for d > 4 mm and gives results identical to those from Eq. 6-5 of
m
TR-25.

Report 108 reports :

Critical tractive stress, r dm; dm, T~ same units as above.
= 5
C
This critical tractive stress is conservative with respect to Shield's
work for dm > 4 mm.

Report 108 recommends:

all. - 4 dm; dm, rc same units as above.

Allowable tractive stress, r
rhis allowable tractive stress is conservative with respect to Shield's
work for d > 2 mm and gives results identical to those from Eq. 24 of
m
TR-59, setting the FS value equal to 1 and using the default value for
'50'

For armoring design analysis, the characteristic armor particle size

(dm) is chosen from the coarser portion of the original material since
most of the fine material will be hydraulically removed. Usually dm=d,,;
therefore, m = 90. Furthermore, for design purposes, all material
smaller than the d is assumed to be sorted out. Therefore, the depth
m
of degradation (D ) is
d
Dd = dm/[(lOO - m)/100] = 10 d,, (see page 6-31).
This assumption has a physical interpretation. The d,, size of the
original bed material (before armoring) will become the d5, of the final
exposed surface bed material -(after armoring).
 6-98
Appendix A
Examp 1e
This example illustrates the armoring design concept. The uniform flow-
unit slice assumption was made for convenience in computing the depth of
flow; it may not be valid for most field applications. Furthermore, it
is not a conservative assumption, from a stability viewpoint, for sub-
critical but supernormal flows. Also, the choice of the numeric value
v
for the modifying value (no), which accounts for energy loss due to fac-
tors other than boundary roughness, should be determined reach-by-reach
for each application. (See NEH-5, Supplement B y for guidance). The
smaller the no value, the more conservative the design from a srability
viewpoint.

Problem: A concrete emergency spillway is planned to discharge onto an

alluvial valley floor of at least 6 feet of homogeneous material. What
maximum steady-state unit discharge would limit scour by permitting
armoring to the d,, size material? What would be the expected depth of
scour? The valley slope (So) is 0.00520 ft/ft, the d,, is 110 milli-
meters, and the modifying value (no) is assumed to be 0.005. Assume
uniform flow-unit slice principles are applicable; therefore, the hy-
draulic radius is equal to the depth of flow (y = R), the rate of total
energy loss is equal to the valley slope (Se = So), and the actual trans-
verse tractive stress is uniformly distributed (7 < T ) Use the
act. - all.
recommended allowable tractive stress formula from Report 108 that is
compatible with TR-59. Use Km = 0.0395.

Given: So = 0.00520
m = 90
d = d,, = 110 mm = 0.3609 ft.
m
n = 0.005
0

Required : for 7 = T
qmax act. all.
(b) D for m = 90
d

Solution: (a) nt = K d 'I6

m m
= 0.0395(0.3609)~/~
= 0.0333
6-99
Appendix A
ne = nt + no (see 7th step, page B.6, Supplement B,
NEH-5)

T = 4 d
all. m
= 4 0.03609
= 1.444 pounds per sq. ft.

T
act. = T
all.
YR St = 4 dm

R = (4 dm)/ 0 St
= 1.444/(62.4 0.00393)

Therefore, the maximum steady-state unit discharge that would limit scour
by permitting armoring is approximately 54 cfslft. The expected depth of
degradation before complete armoring (one layer) is almost 4 feet.
 Page

TABLE OF CONTENTS: CHAPTER 7 - ENVIRONMENTAL

CONSIDERATIONS IN CHANNEL
DESIGN. INSTALLATION. AND
MAINTENANCE

Introduction.......... ............ 7-1

Scope.. . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 7-1

Wildlife Resources . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2

Fish Resources . . . . . . ............ 7-2

Recreation Resources . . . ............ 7-5

...
Protection and Enhancement Techniques and Measures 7-8

Design.. .................... 7-8

CHAPTER 7 - APPENDIX A

Evaluating Channels for Recreation Developments. .... 7-17

Chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18

Sample Worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-19

CHAPTER 7 - APPENDIX B

Fish Stream Investigation Guide (Sample) ........ 7-20

CHAPTER 7 - APPENDIX C

Poor Quality Recognition Guide . ............ 7-29

CHAPTER 7 - APPENDIX D

Habitat Requirements ..... .,........... 7-30

 Chapter 7

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
IN
CHANNEL DESIGN, INSTALLATION, AND MAINTENANCE

Introduction

A channel improvement project causes a change in the surrounding

environment* The change may be abrupt or gradual; localized or broader
in impact; biological, social, or cultural in nature. Whatever the changes
they be recognized and considered in arriving a t the decision
to a channel. The optimum channel improvement project is
one that is based upon a careful assessment of the functional demands
of the ~ r o j e c t the
, needs for protection and enhancement of affected
resourcest and a justification that considers environmental and economic
values.

The information presented here provides guidance for the proper recognition,
and enhancement of the affected fish, wildlife and recreation
factors, during the planning, design, inst all a t ion, and maintenance
of channel projects.

The decision to develop a channel project will be made only after careful
consideration of the impact of the project upon the environment.
Once the decision has been made that a channel project is necessary,
i t is then equally important that the channel designer, builder, and
those responsible for maintenance recognize the environmental factors
that may be affected by the project. All those involved must know
the techniques and measures available to protect and enhance these
environmental values. This is the primary purpose for the material
that follows*

Fish, ~ i l d l i f eand recreation factors are listed and described. Addi-

tional factors will need to be identified in local areas. The factors
have not been rated or priorities assigned. This is the job of the appropriate
i.e., engineer, biologist, forester, agronomist, range conserva-
tionist, geologist, recreation specialist, landscape architect, naturalist,
.tc. The development of the design requires a joint effort by all the
concerned disciplines and the sponsors of the project. The final product
then will result in minimized detrimental effects and, when possible,
in the enhancement of some of the factors. There may be occasions
when the decision t o install a channel project may have to be reconsidered
after d l the factors are carefully evaluated.

The techniques and measures are presented to provide guidance in

the development of the project in a manner that will protect or enhance the
environmental factors identified as being affected by the project. These
techniques and measures are not criteria. The features or factors under
consideration in a given area generally will dictate the criteria for
the project, The designer, builder, and those responsible for maintenance
in their use of the various techniques and measures must constantly
be aware of the functional, economical and environmental aspects of
the project.

The functional and economic aspects of a project cannot be separated

from the environmental aspects. Drainage, flooding, vector and phrea-
tophyte problems, and the economical aspects related to these problems,
also are critical "environmental factors." They must be given consid-
eration a t the time the decision is made on the need for a channel.

A. Wildlife Resources

The fundamental needs of wildlife are food, cover, and water.

Food is needed at all seasons of the year, but the types of food
vary between seasons. Spring nesting and winter escape cover
are critical items for most species. Seldom can a wildlife species
find i t s needs in a single vegetative type. Thus, a mixing or inter-
spersion of vegetative types is important within the daily cruising
range of a particular species. One or more important elements
of wildlife habitat always are found along or adjacent to streams.
Frequently, critical woody cover is present next to the stream.

The needs for food, cover, and water vary depending upon the species.
Guidelines for meeting these needs should be established by States
or areas. (See Appendix D. for sample.)

B. Fish Resources*

1. Water quality is a limiting factor for fish production. The

individual States have established water quality standards
in line with national guidelines. The following items affect
fish species suitability, production, and survival.

a. Temperature is an important physical factor. Summer

0
water temperatures commonly vary as much as 10 in
a 24-hour period. In eneral, summer temperatures should
0 5
be between 50 to 70 for cold-water species. Egg hatching
0
.
success is best for trout between 45' to 55 Warm-water
0
species need summer temperatures between 70 t o 90
0
.
Removal of shade tends to raise water temperatures while
the maintenance of vegetation for shade may keep the
water cooler. Water temperature is raised when velocity
and depth are reduced. Water temperature may be affected
by release of water from upstream impoundments.

* See Appendices B and C for Fish Stream Investigation Guides.

b. Turbidity caused by inorganic material, such a s clay, is
detrimental t o fish production. Such material destroys
spawning areas by sedimentation and reducing growth
of bottom organisms. Adult fish generally can withstand
high levels of turbidity for short periods of time, but pro-
longed exposure may cause mortality.

It is reported that turbidity as high as 245 mg/L is not

harmful t o fish. In fact, fish thrive in water with turbidities
that range over 400 mg/L and average 200 mg/L. Turbidities
of 3,000 mg/L are considered dangerous t o fish when main-
tained over a 10-day period. Trout eggs were destroyed
with 2,000 mg/L turbidity for six days. Symptoms of
fish stress appear as turbidity approaches 20,000 mg/L;
death between 50,000 and 200,000 mg/L. At turbidities
causing death, the opercular cavities were found to be
matted with soil and the gills bad a layer of soil in them.

c. Oxygen requirements for subsidence of fingerling and

adult salmon and trout a r e about 6 p.p.m. dissolved oxygen.
--
Incubating eggs require a minimum -0; 8 p.p.m. Warm-
water species require about 3 p.p.m. Water a t or near
oxygen saturation, for its temperature and elevation,
is always satisfactory. Oxygen is put into water by direct
absorption from the atmosphere, photosynthesis of growing
plants, and by tumbling action of stream or waterfalls
and turbulence generated at drop inlets or drop spillways.
Turbidity, reduced flow, and non-tumbling action reduce
oxygen.

d. Carbon dioxide is another of the basic factors determining

productivity of waters. It is necessary in photosynthesis
and for keeping minerals, such as calcium, in solution.
High carbon dioxide levels reduce the ability of fish t o
take up oxygen and to dispose of carbon dioxide from
t h e body. Concentrations of carbon dioxide should be
kept below 25 p.p.m.

Carbon dioxide is put in water by direct absorption from

t h e atmosphere, decomposing organic matter, and respira-
tion of plants and animals. It is removed by photosynthesis,
agitation of water, evaporation, and rise of bubbles from
depths.

e. pH is a measure of the acid intensity in water. The scale

of reading is from 0 t o 14. Optimum fish production lies
between 6.5 and 8.5. Values below 5 and above 9 affect
the .ability of fish to take oxygen from the water source.
Water pH is changed if an acid layer of soil is exposed
in stream bottom or sides.
 2. These stream channel features a f f e c t fish production, species
suitability, and survival.

a. Bottom Material - The bottom material of a stream is

important from t h e standpoint of food production and
natural spawning. The following yield in grams of food
per square foot in t e r m s of different stream bottom m
materials has been recorded: silt - 3.07; cobble - 2.47;
coarse gravel - 1.51; fine gravel - 0.93; and sand - 0.1.

Coarse and fine gravel beds in riffles a r e best for trout

t o deposit their spawn successfully. Most warm-water
fish spawn in sand or silt beds in water less than 3 f e e t
deep and with little or no current.

b. Water Types

Riffle - Section of stream containing gravel and/or

rubble, in which surface water is a t least slightly
turbulent and current is swift enough that t h e surface
of the gravel and cobble is kept fairly f r e e from
sand and silt.

Riffles a r e essential for trout spawning and food

production. Riffles should occur a t intervals equal
t o every 5 t o 7 channel widths. The current in t h e
riffle should be swift enough to carry away sediment.
The bed material in riffles should be larger than
in pools so as t o provide f o r aeration of t h e water.
A water depth of 6 inches is desirable.
1/ - Section of stream deeper and usually wider
-
Pool-
than normal with appreciably slower current than
immediate upstream or downstream a r e a s and possess-
ing adequate cover (sheer depth or physical condition)
for protection of fish. Stream bottom usually is
a mixture of silt and coarse sand.

Pools a r e valuable as resting and refuge areas.

Some surface feeding also is done.

-
~ l a t -y Section of stream with current too slow
t o be classed a s riffle and too shallow t o be classed
a s a pool. Stream bottom usually composed of sand
and finer materials with coarse cobbles, boulders,
or bedrock occasionally evident.

Cascades or Bedrock - Section of stream without

pools, t h e bottom consisting primarily of bedrock
with l i t t l e cobble, gravel, or other such material
present. Current usually faster than in riffles.

Warm-water streams normally contain only these water types.

 c. Stream Side Vegetation - This item pertains to the relation
of vegetation to stream shade and fish shelter. Low
shrubs and grasses provide shade for small streams, but
do not over-shade them. Such vegetation does not clog
streams by falling in the water, and i t provides hiding
cover for fish if allowed to hang over the bank into the
water.

Trees are necessary for shade along streams over 30

feet wide since low shrubs and grasses shade only a small
portion of this width.

An ideal situation, along small streams, is enough trees

for aesthetic purposes and low shrubs and grasses providing
shade and cover. Along large streams, trees for about
40 percent of the stream length, on both sides should
be present. There probably are situations where the
presence of trees well back from the water's edge furnishes
shade almost as good as comparable ones closer to the
stream. This would be true especially on the east side
of north-south flowing stream and the south side of east-
west streams.

d. Velocities - Tolerable water velocity for fish is governed

by several factors, chiefly, by the species of fish, size
of fish, and the distance and frequency of resting areas.
Boulders, pools, deflectors, etc. provide resting areas.

C. Recreation Resources

There are numerous opportunities for recreation along and in

channels. Many of these opportunities have been discussed under
the heading of wildlife, fish, or aesthetic resources.

For optimum use a recreation resource must satisfy several key

factors:

Proximity - All recreation activities are distance-related

with respect to the user's home. Generally the greater the
population within a 50-mile radius (or an hour's drive), the
more the area may be used.

Access - The public road system needs to provide access

to the potential recreation resource. The degree of access
of the area can be gauged by determining the portion that
is within one mile of an all weather road. Again, the greater
the degree of access the more likely the recreation area
will be used.
7-6

3. Ownership - The ownership and land-use pattern of the area

have a bearing on the potentials for developing recreation
opportunities. The area must be of sufficient size to support
a public recreation activity. The landowner must be interested.
The area will have t o be accessible to the public for heavy
use. Sometimes the resource will be used by t h e landowner
and his family.

Specific factors for each activity are:

-
Fishing Stream fishing has a special quality for some fisherman.
All of the environmental factors listed under "Fish Resources"
are essential if fishing opportunities a r e to be provided.

Many factors besides the abundance of fish and accessibility enter

into stream fishing quality. The unique scenic setting, sounds
of nature, the sight of a riffle or pool, the wooded reach, the
open meadow, and overall diversity of a landscape a e qualities
appreciated by the stream fisherman and enjoyed by many others.
Streams that a r e partially brush and t r e e lined offer the fisherman
the opportunity t o exercise his skill.

-
Hunting Hunting opportunities of ten are enhanced by t h e presence
of streams or channels. In some localities the vegetative cover
along channels (brush and trees) provides the onlfcover available
for hunting. The brush and trees provide, for some species, the
only avenues for hunting, escape cover from predators, or the
opportunity for protected movement. The grasses and legumes
provide t h e essential nesting cover required for ample populations.
All of the environmental factors already described under "Wildlife
Resources" are essential i f the hunting opportunity is to be established.

The combination of food, cover, and water enhances the opportunities

for hunting success.

Channels and the accompaning marshes offer opportunities to

hunt many species of waterfowl, rail, and woodcock. In some
areas they provide the only habitat for these species.

Swimming - Swimming in streams and channels is an activity

practiced in many parts of the country, particularly if ponds and
lakes are relatively scarce. Desirable environmental factors are
good water quality, pH between 6.5 and 8.3, coliform count below
800, clear water with minimum in flow of 650 gallons of water
per bather per day (number of bathers 1,000 = inflow cfs). State
regulations may require higher standards. Shade and desirable
soils (sands) will enhance the desirability of the area.

Stream "pools" may be developed fully with all facilities (bathhouse,

beach, etc.) present or they may be simply t h e local swimming
"hole."
 Depth should be a t least 5 feet, greater if diving is permitted.
The shore line should have a slope of less than 10 percent, 2-4
percent is best.

4. Boating and Canoeing - Boating streams should be a t least 2 feet

deep for rowboats or 3 feet for boats with outboard motors. A
good width is a t least 2-1/2 times t h e length of boat allowed.
Narrower streams, however, can be utilized. Stream channels
with minimum depths must be f r e e of obstructions.

Canoeing streams may have depths a s shallow as 6 inches for

short stretches or 18 inches for a major portion. Canoeists are
not adverse t o portaging (carrying) for short stretches where water
is too shallow. Good widths are 17 feet, but widths of 6 feet are
acceptable. Some authorities recommend an average flow of
100 cfs in order t o be suitable but this is dependent upon depth,
width, and gradient. While many canoeing streams have white
water and pools in combination, flat water streams a t t r a c t thousands
of users for canoeing and boating alike.

5. Hiking and Walking - Many of the same characteristics that enhance

a canoeing or boating stream are desirable for hiking along a stream.
Cascades, riffles, white water and pools, shrubs and trees with
a variety of color and shape add to the aesthetic value.

Over-water walkways and bridges which permit extensive observation

a r e interesting features. A trail should be approximately 4 feet
in width, sufficient to allow two people to walk side by side.
A grade of 10 percent or less is recommended.

6. Painting and Photography - The thousands of photographs and'

paintings depicting landscape scenes with streams a t t e s t to man's
interest in viewing his environment. Natural curves, a variety
of landscapes, water courses meandering through a variety of
vegetative types and vistas all provide professional and amateur
artists with ample subject matter.

7. Camping - The environmental factors previously discussed may

be used as guides. Vacation camping may be a profitable recreation
activity if other recreation opportunities (fishing, swimming,
boating, etc.) also are available. Transient campground may be
feasible without these activities if the size is within 3 miles of
a major highway. In either case the necessary land area is 10-
15 acres. Soils in the area should be suitable for septic tanks
and roads. An adequate potable water supply should be available.
Characteristics that limit an area's usefulness for camp sites
are susceptibility to flooding, impermeable hardpan layers, shallow
soil over bedrock, restrictions t o natural drainage, erosion hazard,
and inability t o support and sustain vegetative cover. Slopes should
be less than 15 percent, preferably less than 8 percent.
 Botanizing - On occasion, an area adjacent to a water course
may be of particular interest to botanists and other nature lovers.
The species of plants may, but need not be, of rare or exotic nature.

Bird- The environmental factors discussed under "Wildlife

Resourcesn should be used in determining whether the opportunities
for bird-watching exists. The thousands of birdwatchers in the
country often visit water courses during their bird counts. In
some areas the plant species may compose a specialized habitat
for a particular species of bird. Fields of one crop reduce the
number and species using the area. The shrubs and trees bordering
a channel have added value in crop areas. Landscape variations
are much more attractive to songbirds than areas of a single crop.

Specimen Collecting - Artifacts from cache pits or Indian mounds,

fossils, decorative rocks, or desirable mineral specimens are of
interest to a number of people, institutions, and agencies.
Collectors also may find driftwood, burntwood, and tree roots
of value or interest.

A guide for evaluating channels for general recreation development

is included in Appendix A. See Fig. 1

Protection and Enhancement Techniques and Measures

Design

1. -
Alignment, Capacity, and Grade Channels generally will
follow existing alignment except where stability, environmental,
or cost factors clearly dictate an alternative course. For
instance, a section of the channel or floodway may be relocated
in order to bypass important fish or wildlife habitat.

Natural streams and constructed channels need t o convey

water discharges of all magnitudes from base flow through
floodflow without significant damage t o the channel or to
fish habitat. In order to protect a desirable existing stream
channel, higher frequency floodf lows could be carried out
of banks or on a separate alignment. As the floodflow channel
would be dry most of the time, i t could be designed to include
farming or reforestation within the right of way.

Water often is used as a receiving medium for various waste

discharges and yet its quality must be maintained so that
i t is suitable for instream recreational uses as well as out
of stream needs for municipal water supply, irrigation, cooling,
washing, and dilution. Reservoir releases of stored water
can provide low flow augmentation to prevent waste discharges
from exceeding acceptable concentrations and to provide
recreation and fish habitat water requirements. Oxbow and
wetland flood storage, with controlled releases, also can
be used for this purpose.
 Sediment loads delivered to the channel by tributary streams
or other sources need to be controlled as part of the overall
design. A stable channel has a limited sediment carrying
capacity and downstream uses of the water may necessitate
further limitation of sediment load. Sediment traps may
be needed at delivery points or at intermediate points along
the channel to provide the required water quality and stability.

In certain reaches, the channel slope may need to be flattened

to obtain stability in highly erosive soils or can be steepened
to make maximum use of erosion resistant soils. Where gravel
armoring or riprap is needed, or just available, full use should
be made of its ability t o withstand higher velocities. The
channel slope variations and rock protection will allow for
the inclusion of pools and riffles and also provide control
of meander development.

2. -
Channel Section The low flow channel cross section should
approach a natural stream condition. (Figure 2) The side
slopes and bottom width can be allowed to vary to take advantage
of existing conditions. Where possible, the side slope on the
outside of the channel curve could be steepened and the side
slope on the inside of the channel curve flattened to duplicate
a naturally developed sinuous waterway. Use the onsite large
boulders in riprap sections or at selected points for fish habitat
development. Large slab rocks or boulders can be used to
create near vertical banks and on trout streams for wing
deflectors and bank cover devices to improve the fishing
potential. (Figure 3) The channel bottom width can be varied
in conjunction with the bed slope to aid in the development
of deep pools, cascades, low velocity sections, and sections
of high velocity rips that would simulate natural conditions
and also take advantage of localized variations of in-bank
capacity and stability. Width restrictions also could be satisfied
in this manner.

Figure 4 shows the cross sections, meander pattern, bed

contours, and bottom profile that can develop in a natural
stream. The meander parameters shown are average values
but could be used for preliminary proportioning and alignment
of a constructed channel. Other factors, such a s discharge,
character and amount of bed load, general valley slope and
the resistance of bed and banks to erosion, also need to be
considered to develop the final layout.

3. Spoil Placement - Channel excavation spoil should be utilized

in a manner most appropriate for the controlling reach conditions.
In general, excavated materials should be placed so as to
reduce to a minimum the required clearing and disturbed
areas and to provide wildlife habitat. (Figure 5) The template
sections shown on the drawings and the specifications should
provide guidance as to typical sections, approved spoil disposal
methods, maintenance limits and construction limits.
 Water Control Structure
For Seasonal Impoundment

Excavate One Side Only

To Flood Flow Grade

PLAN O F DEVELOPMENT

Excavate One Side Only

To Normal Flow Grade

Cross Section 6-B

ONE-SIDED CONSTRUCTION FOR ADJACENT STREAM CHANNEL & FLOOD FLOW CHANNEL

poi l

Cross Section A-A

UNDISTURBED STREAM CHANNEL & SEPARATE FLOOD FLOW CHANNEL

Figure 2 SEPARATE LOW FLOW AND FLOOD FLOW CHANNELS

Figure 3 FISH HABITAT DEVELOPMENT
 -Tvnical bed contours

(a) Typical meander pattern

Thalwee

Outside of curve
of curve

I current

(b) Section A-A (c) Typical section of straight

channel, or crossover B-B

Riffle

(d) Pool-and-riffle formation (VERTICAL MEANDER PATTERN)

(e) Concealed meander pattern in a straight channel

r c = radius of curvature in Thalweg

APPROXIMATE
MEANDER - -- 7 T O I l
PARAMETERS
cB = 2 ~ 0 3

Figure 4 NATURAL CHANNEL - MEANDER PATTERNS WITH POOL AND R I F F L E DEVELOPMENT

Figure 5 SPOIL BANK DEVELOPMENT FOR WILDLIFE HABITAT
4. -
Structural Measures Channels with flat enough gradients
so that stability is not a design problem could, if desirable,
be laid out in pond-riffle-pool manner. The additional grade
provided by ponding would allow the inclusion of a series
of riffles and pools that could add to the fish habitat. See Figure 6.

5. Vegetation

a. Wildlife habitat seedings and plantings can be used outside

the channel section, on the spoil sections or in odd corners
of suitable size where the wildlife potential can be enhanced
and the disturbed areas stabilized. Wildlife habitat mitigation
areas, when included, and the normal habitat seedings
can be laid out in discontinuous blocks, irregularly sized
t o provide a maximum of edges.

b. Recreation areas could be selected for special treatment

that would greatly add to the utility of the project.
Functional planting can be used to screen noise and direct
pedestrian traffic.

Figure 1 shows some examples of activity areas that

might be included along a channel. A hiking, cycling,
or bridle trail along t h e berm, or stream side fishing
supplemented with a few picnic tables for t h e rest of
the family. A dike to preserve a marsh enhanced by
a wildlife planting. A swimming "hole" for light use
or a wading pool in a suburban development. "Green"
areas through suburban areas can be developed into play-
grounds or neighborhood parks. Long channels with
sufficient depth may be used for canoeing.
 APPENDIX A

E v a l u a t i n g Channels f o r R e c r e a t i o n Developments

A copy of t h e c h a r t and work s h e e t used i n t h i s approach follow. The

u s e of t h i s approach r e q u i r e s a c u r s o r y o n - s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . R a t i n g s
a r e determined on t h e b a s i s of judgment and e s t i m a t i o n s .

It should b e noted t h a t t h i s e v a l u a t i o n i s f o r a "general" r e c r e a t i o n

development. E v a l u a t i o n of a s i t e f o r s p e c i f i c r e c r e a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s
e n t a i l s c o n s i d e r a t i o n of many a d d i t i o n a l key elements o r a change i n
t h e c r i t e r i a a l r e a d y o u t l i n e d . Water flow c r i t e r i a , f o r example, would
be d i f f e r e n t i f swimming, canoeing, o r h i k i n g were t h e s p e c i f i c a c t i v i -
t i e s under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , A d d i t i o n a l key e l e m e n t s , such a s l e n g t h of
channel, s i z e of a d j a c e n t l a n d a r e a , width of a d j a c e n t l a n d a r e a , s o i l s ,
d e p t h of w a t e r a r e some a d d i t i o n a l key elements r e q u i r e d f o r s p e c i f i c
activities. R e c r e a t i o n developments should be planned t o p r e s e r v e and
i n t e n s i f y t h e landscape c h a r a c t e r . P l a n n i n g should n o t i n t r o d u c e a
d i s t u r b i n g , inharmonious i t e m i n t o t h e l a n d s c a p e , whether i t i s a
f a c i l i t y o r a n a c t i v i t y . The p l a n n e r should e n s u r e t h a t t h e planned
p r o j e c t comprises a complex of f u n c t i o n s r e l a t e d t o t h e b e s t f e a t u r e s
of t h e s i t e . For t h i s r e a s o n , e v a l u a t i o n and p l a n n i n g f o r s p e c i f i c
r e c r e a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s should b e undertaken by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s p e c i a l -
ist.
7- 18
Appendix A

EVALUATING CHANNELS AND ADJACENT AREAS

FOR 'RECREATION DEVELOPMENTS

[ulti- -
Key Elements ier
11 High Fair Poor
-M 3 2

Water Qua1i t y 4* No p o l l u t i o n ph 6.5-8.3 ph 8.3-9 ph 9 4- o r

c o l i count c o l i count o r 5-6.5 5 -
coli
below 200 200=600/100 c o l i corn count
ml 600=800/ 800 +/loo
100 m l ml

Aesthetics 4;'; Excellent Good Fair Poor

(vista, natural
a t t r a c t i o n s near-
by, v i s u a l appear
ance of c h a n n e l )

Water Flow 4* Little Little Inter- Lacking

variation variation mittent sufficient
with flow d u r i n g
r i f f l e s and primary u s e
pools period

Adjacent Land 3 Wooded or Open with Open Open -

Flora open w i t h g r a s s and with g r a s s only
12" t r e e s small grass
forming a t r e e s form- and
10-20% i n g a 10- brush
canopy 20% canopy

D i s t a n c e From 3 Under 112 112-3/4 H r . 314-1 H r Over 1 H r .

Users Hr .
Distance t o 2 Under 3 3-5 m i l e s 5-10 Over 10
Surf aced Road miles miles miles

Width of Channel 2 6-10' 6' -

a t Normal Water
Sur f a c e
P ormul a f(Mx F - 5
Maximum P o s s i b l e Score
High P o t e n t i a l
Medium P o t e n t i a l
Low P o t e n t i a l
I f any key element with a m u l t i p l i e r of 4 i s r a t e d a s "Poor" ( I ) t h a t
element must be considered l i m i t i n g . F u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n of o t h e r
key elements i s unnecessary. The a r e a i s g e n e r a l l y considered u n s u i t -
a b l e f o r r e c r e a t i o n development.
 7- 19
Appendix A

SAMPLE WORKSHEET

EVALUATING CJ3ANNELS AND ADJACENT AREAS

FOR RECREATION DEVELOPMENTS

State County Township

River Basin Watershed

Location o r Job No.

Key Elements

Water Q u a l i ~ y *
Aesthetics *
Water Flow

Adjacent Land F l o r a

D i s t a n c e Prom Users

D i s t a n c e t o S u r f a c e d Road

Width of Channel a t

Normal Water Surf ace 2 X -

T o t a l Score

Maximum P o s s i b l e Score 88

High P o t e n t i a l 67 - 88
Medium P o t e n t i a l 45 - 66
Low P o t e n t i a l 22 - 44

* If any key element w i t h a m u l t i p l i e r of -4 i s r a t e d a s "Poor" (1) t h a t

element must be considered l i m i t i n g . F u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n of other
key elements i s unnecessary. The a r e a i s g e n e r a l l y considered un-
s u i t a b l e f o r r e c r e a t i o n development.
 APPENDIX B

Sample
F i s h Stream I n v e s t i g a t i o n Guide

Introduction

T h i s guide p r o v i d e s a s y s t e m a t i c approach t o f i s h stream i n v e s t i g a -

tion.

Ten stream f e a t u r e s a r e used t o o b t a i n a b i o l o g i c a l r a t i n g and s i x

u s e f a c t o r s a r e used t o o b t a i n a use r a t i n g ,

Each stream f e a t u r e is recorded and r a t e d on a f i e l d work s h e e t ,

u s i n g predetermined c r i t e r i a . The t e n f e a t u r e s have been a s s i g n e d
importance f a c t o r s based on t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l importance t o t h e t o t a l
s t r e a m c h a r a c t e r . The f i n a l r a t i n g i s weighted average of t h e i n d i v i d -
u a l stream f e a t u r e s .

The use r a t i n g i s a judgment based on s i x items r e l a t e d t o f i s h i n g ,

I n s t r u c t ions

Headinq - Show watershed, major water c o u r s e s , and i m ~ o r t a n tt r i b u t a -

r ies .
Biological Investigation

1. Designated Reaches - The a p p r a i s e r should d i v i d e t h e s t r e a m i n t o

reaches from mouth t o upper l i m i t . The two d e s i g n a t e d p o i n t s
s e t t i n g t h e l i m i t s of each r e a c h should be e a s i l y i d e n t i f i a b l e on
t h e gnound by d e s i g n a t e d r o a d s , n a t u r a l markers, o r p o i n t s s e l e c t e d
due t o some p h y s i c a l l a n d o r scream c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . (No r a t i n g )

Length - The l e n g t h must b e measured i n f e e t . (No r a t i n g )

a. Average width ( f t . ) i s measured a t normal flow o r depth.

Imporrance f a c t o r of 2.
Rating -
1 p o i n t f o r each f o o t of average width. (Maximum 10)

b. The a c r e a g e of t h e stream i s c a l c u l a t e d by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e
l e n g t h ( f t . ) by average width ( f t . ) and d i v i d i n g by 43560.
Importance f a c t o r of 3.
Rating - 3 p o i n t s f o r 112 a c r e o r l e s s (warm water - 1 acre
or l e s s )
3-5 p o i n t s f o r 112 a c r e t o 1 a c r e (warm water -
1-2 acres)
6-10 p o i n t s f o r 1 a c r e p l u s (warm water -'2 a c r e s
plus)
 7-21
Appendix B

( I n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e one p o i n t f o r each 114 a c r e ) (warm water

- 112 a c r e )

c. Flow - C o n s t a n t flow i s y e a r - l o n g and i n t e r m i t t e n t o n l y a por-

t i o n of a year.
Importance f a c t o r of 10.
R a t i n g - I n t e r m i t t e n t flow
2 p o i n t s base s c o r e . S u b t r a c t 1 p o i n t f o r each 15-day
p e r i o d ( o r f r a c t i o n t h e r e o f ) w i t h o u t flow.

Constant flow
2 points base score. (Maximum 10)

Cold - Add 1 p o i n t f o r each

- 1 inch of average flow
depth i n r i f f l e .

Warm - Add 2 p o i n t s f o r each 5 i n c h e s average flow

depth i n r i f f l e .

2. Water c h e m i s t r y i s measured i n p a r t s p e r m i l l i o n . Temperature i s

recorded i n degrees F.

Water c h e m i s t r y i s a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r and o v e r r i d e s a l l o t h e r f a c t o r s
i f any q u a l i t y c o n d i t i o n f a l l s o u t s i d e f i s h requirements.

3. The pool r i f f l e r a t i o i s c a l c u l a t e d by d e t e r m i n i n g t h e f e e t o f each

r e a c h i n r i f f l e s , pools, f l a t s , and cascades o r bedrock and c a l c u -
l a t i n g t h e p e r c e n t of t o t a l l e n g t h . These are d e f i n e d a s f o l l o w s :

R i f f l e - S e c t i o n of stream c o n t a i n i n g g r a v e l and/or r u b b l e , i n which

s u r f a c e w a t e r i s a t l e a s t s l i g h t l y t u r b u l e n t and c u r r e n t i s s w i f t
enough t h a t t h e s u r f a c e of t h e g r a v e l and r u b b l e i s k e p t f a i r l y f r e e
from sand and s i l t . (Disregard bottom m a t e r i a l f o r warm water stream.)

-
Pool - S e c t i o n of s t r e a m deeper
a p p r e c i a b l y slower c u r r e n t t h a n
and u s u a l l y wider t h a n normal w i t h
immediate upstream o r downstream
a r e a s and p o s s e s s i n g adequate cover ( s h e e r d e p t h o r p h y s i c a l con-.
d i t i o n ) f o r p r o t e c t i o n of f i s h . Stream bottom u s u a l l y a m i x t u r e of
s i l t and c o a r s e sand.

--
Flat S e c t i o n of s t r e a m w i t h c u r r e n t t o o slow t o be c l a s s e d a s
r i f f l e and t o o shallow t o be . c l a s s e d a s a pool. Stream bottom
u s u a l l y composed of sand o r f i n e r m a t e r i a l s , w i t h c o a r s e r u b b l e ,
b o u l d e r s , o r bedrock o c c a s i o n a l l y e v i d e n t .

Cascades o r Bedrock - S e c t i o n of stream w i t h o u t pools, c o n s i s t i n g

p r i m a r i l y of bedrock w i t h l i t t l e r u b b l e , g r a v e l , o r o t h e r such
m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t . C u r r e n t u s u a l l y more s w i f t t h a n i n r i f f l e s .

The sums of a , b , c , and d should e q u a l 100 p e r c e n t .

Importance f a c t o r of 10.
7-22
Appendix B

Rating - (Consider q u a l i t y of pools and r i f f l e s f o r i n -

group r a t i n g . )

8-10 i f p o o l - r i f f l e r a t i o i s a t l e a s t 35 p e r c e n t
pools and 35 p e r c e n t r i f f l e s .

4-8 i f l e s s t h a n 35 p e r c e n t of s t r e a m i s i n pools
and 35 p e r c e n t o r more i s r i f f l e s or
i f more
than 35 p e r c e n t i s i n pools and 35 p e r c e n t o r
less i s i n riffles.

1-3 i f l e s s t h a n 35 p e r c e n t i n pools and l e s s than

35 p e r c e n t i n r i f f l e s (Must be i n t h i s range
i f i n t e r m i t t e n t flow.)

The water s o u r c e - P l a c e a check mark t o i n d i c a t e water s o u r c e s

f o r each reach. Number of s o u r c e s probably w i l l d e c r e a s e a s
one p r o g r e s s e s upstream.

Importance f a c t o r of 5.
I f s o u r c e i s s p r i n g s and s e e p s r a t e 10.
I f source i s r u n o f f d r a i n a g e r a t e 3.
I f s o u r c e i s l a k e s o r ponds r a t e 2.
Any combination - 5.

Dominant v e g e t a t i o n - This item p e r t a i n s t o t h e r e l a t i o n of

v e g e t a t i o n t o stream shade and f i s h s h e l t e r , n o t w i l d l i f e
h a b i t a t . Record i n f e e t f o r r i g h t and l e f t bank.

Importance f a c t o r of 5.
Rate each s i d e independently and average r a t i n g .
For each r e a c h and t o t a l s t r e a m l e n g t h award 2 p o i n t s f o r each
10 p e r c e n t o f t r e e and shrub type. (Maximum 10)

Turbidity - Express a s c l e a r i f bottom i s d i s t i n c t l y seen

through 4 o r more f e e t of w a t e r , s l i g h t l y t u r b i d i f bottom
can be s e e n a t from 1- t o 4 - f o o t depth, and t u r b i d i f bottom
i s only v i s i b l e a t l e s s t h a n 1 f o o t . ( I f o r g a n i c s t a i n of
f e r t i l i t y p r e v e n t s a p p r a i s a l of t h i s item, s o n o t e and d i s -
r e g a r d t h i s item.)

Importance f a c t o r of 5.

Rating - C l e a r 10.
S l i g h t l y Turbid 5 .
Turbid 1.

Sediment - This item r e f l e c t s t h e amount of sediment d e p o s i t s

v i s i b l e i n t h e stream bottom. Sediment i n f l u e n c e s p o o l - r i f f l e
r a t i o , w i d t h , acreage, t u r b i d i t y and p o s s i b l y o t h e r f a c t o r s .
T h e r e f o r e , i t i s f e l t t h e r a t i n g of t h e s e items w i l l r e f l e c t
t h e e f f e c t of sediment. (No r a t i n g )
 7- 23
Appendix B
8. Check a l l v i s i b l e o r d e t e c t a b l e s o u r c e s of p o l l u t i o n , i n c l u d i n g
s i l t a t i o n , a l t e r i n g water q u a l i t y .

Water p o l l u t i o n ( a s water c h e m i s t r y ) i s a l i m i t i n g f a c t o r i f
s e v e r e enough t o a f f e c t f i s h l i f e o r cause u n d e s i r a b l e a e s t h e t i c
quality.

Final

M u l t i p l y r a t i n g assigned t o each element by t h e importance f a c t o r ,

add t o t a l s , and d i v i d e by t o t a l of importance f a c t o r s .

BIOLOGICAL SCORESHEET

Stream F e a t u r e ;
= Score

1 c.

2 (Limiting f a c t o r )

7 (No r a t i n g )

8 (Limiting f a c t o r )
Total 40 Total

= F i n a l Grade

40 y T o t a l Score

The f i n a l s t r e a m grade i s based on a s c a l e of 1 -

10 (10 b e i n g t h e
h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e grade). A grade of l e s s t h a n 5 i n d i c a t e s a stream
with a l o w b i o l o g i c a l value. The p r o c e s s i d e n t i f i e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
by r e a c h and by e v a l u a t i n g them, management needs and p o t e n t i a l can
be i d e n t i f i e d .
7-24
Appendix B

Use I n v e s t i g a t i o n

l o F i s h Resources - Name s p e c i e s and s p e c i f y c a t e g o r y .

2. Access - T h i s i s p h y s i c a l a c c e s s due t o t e r r a i n , stream-

bank v e g e t a t i o n , a q u a t i c v e g e t a t i o n , d e b r i s , e t c .

3. P u b l i c Access - I n d i c a t e 0 , 1, 2, o r 3 i n blank.

4. Ownership - Check i f p u b l i c ownership, e t c .

5. and 6 . F i s h i n g P r e s s u r e and Success - Record based on l o c a l know-

ledge, s p e c i a l s t u d i e s , u s e evidence, and i n f o r m a t i o n i n 1
through 4.

The f i n a l r a t i n g i n d i c a t e s v a l u e of stream f i s h i n g a r e a and i s

one of judgment made by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r based on t h e informa-
t i o n i n items 1 through 6. The p r e s e n t use r a t i n g may be
l i m i t e d by a c c e s s f a c t o r s and a p o t e n t i a l u s e r a t i n g s u b s t i t u t e d
f o r i t i f s o desired.

Source References

1. L a g l e r , K a r l F. (1952) Freshwater F i s h e r y Biology, William C.

Brown Company, Dubuque , Iowa.

2. Seehorn, Monte E. (1970) A Survey Procedure f o r E v a l u a t i n g Stream

F i s h e r i e s , 24th Annual Convention, Southern D i v i s i o n , American
F i s h e r i e s S o c i e t y , A t l a n t a , Georgia.

3. Unpublished - A Guide t o Stream A p p r a i s a l , UD - RTSC, TSC Advisory

BIOL - UD-11, 1967.
 FISH-STREAM INVESTIGATION GUIDE
(Worksheet f o r I n - S e r v i c e Use Only)

-Watershed: Stream :

Tributary to: Important branches o r t r i b u -

t a r ies :

Biological Investigation
(a) (b
1. Designated Reaches : Length ( F t . ) Av.Width ( F t . ) Ac. - Area Flow
(1) From To
( 2 ) From To
(3) From To
(4) From To
(5) From To
(6) From To
Etc. Total

2. Water Chemistry and Temperature

H 0
-
Reach Pheno ALK MO ALK T. Hardness T D S Temp - 2

Date Time A i r Temperature Weather P -J

Cd I
LFl N
u
-1 / Constant Intermit t e n t 0
(with average depth)
Sc"
7-26
Appendix
5 . Dominant v e g e t a t i o n w i t h i n 25 f e e t of normal water l e v e l on each s i d e
(Note: I d e n t i f y a l l important t y p e s )

Dominant
Vegetation Types
Reach
-
3 -4
R L R L

6 . Water c l e a r , s l i g h t l y t u r b i d , o r t u r b i d :

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(Record f o r o t h e r than flood flow)
7. Degree of s i l t a t i o n : ( S l i g h t o r none, moderate, o r extremely heavy)

8. Evidence of P o l l u t i o n : (Check)
1
a, Sewage
b. Animal e f f l u e n t s
c. I n d u s t r i a l wastes
d o E ~ o d i n ga r e a s
-
 USE INVESTIGAT ION
Important f i s h r e s o u r c e s
(Name: STK. = stocked annually; mig. = migrant (spawner); r e s . = permanent r e s i d e n t i n reach)

P u b l i c f i s h i n g i s allowed t o t h e approximate e x t e n t of 0 = none, 1 = less than 112, 2 = more than 112,

3 = a l l of r e s t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
P u b l i c agency h a s f Fshing ownership, easement, right-of-way on reach :

F i s h i n g p r e s s u r e (Check)
1
High
Moderate
Low

F i s h i n g suacess (Check)
Good
Fair
Poor
 APPENDIX C

POOR QUALITY RECOGNITION GUIDE

Pool
Quality
C l a s s NC Length Depth S h e l t e r 1/
-
-2 /
G r e a t e r than a. c . w. 2 ' o r deeper Abundant -3 /
G r e a t e r than a. c. w. 3 ' o r deeper 4/
Exposed -

G r e a t e r t h a n a. c.w. 2 ' o r deeper Exposed

G r e a t e r than a. c. w. <2 ' Intermediate -51
G r e a t e r t h a n a. C.W. (2' Abundant

Equal t o a. COW. Intermediate

Equal t o a. C.W. Abundant

Equal t o a. c. w. 61
Shallow - Exposed
Less t h a n a. c . w. Shallow Abundant
L e s s t h a n a. c. w. Shallow Intermediate
L e s s t h a n a. c. w. <2' Inte~mediate
L e s s t h a n a. C.W. 2 ' o r deeper Abundant

L e s s t h a n a. c. w. I Shallow Exposed

-I / Logs, stumps, b o u l d e r s , and v e g e t a t i o n i n o r overhanging pool o r

overhanging banks.
21
- Average channel width.

-3 / More t h a n one-half p e r i m e t e r of pool has cover.

-
4/ Less t h a n o n e - q u a r t e r of pool perimeter h a s cover.

-5 / One-quarter t o one-half p e r i m e t e r of pool h a s cover.

6 1 Approximately e q u a l t o average stream depth.
-
 APPENDIX D

H a b i t a t Requirements

(The m a t e r i a l below was developed t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e type of informa-

t i o n t h a t t h e d e s i g n e r needs t o have a v a i l a b l e . These d a t a can b e
prepared f o r S t a t e s o r Regions and t h e n can cover t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
species. )

L i s t e d below a r e some s p e c i f i c h a b i t a t requirements f o r t h e more

common w i l d l i f e s p e c i e s . These d e s c r i p t i o n s can be used t o i d e n t i f y
e x i s t i n g h a b i t a t , judge q u a l i t y , and determine e f f e c t s of m o d i f i c a -
tion.

1. Pheasants - A f a v o r a b l e l a n d u s e p a t t e r n f o r p h e a s a n t s c o n s i s t s
o f : ( a ) 60-80 p e r c e n t i n g r a i n and seed c r o p s , (b) 10-30 p e r -
c e n t i n g r a s s e s and legumes, ( c ) 5-10 p e r c e n t i n brush and woods,
and ( d ) 3-5 p e r c e n t i n permanently p r o t e c t e d herbaceous weedy
cover.

Crop f i e l d s t e n a c r e s o r more i n s i z e , growing b a r l e y , buckwheat,

c o r n , g r a i n sorghum, o a t s , p r o s o m i l l e t , soybeans, o r wheat,
should dominate t h e a r e a . A t l e a s t two a c r e s of g r a s s e s and
legumes ( a l f a l f a , crownvetch, o r c h a r d g r a s s , r e e d c a n a r y g r a s s ,
s e r i c e a l e s p e d e z a , smooth b r m e , s w i t c h g r a s s , o r timothy) p e r 100
a c r e s should be p r e s e n t . E x t r a growth should be p r e s e n t on a t
l e a s t two 118 a c r e p l o t s w i t h i n 100 f e e t of a v e g e t a t i v e change.
It i s d e s i r a b l e t o have a t l e a s t one 1 / 2 a c r e s t r i p of annual
weeds p e r 100 a c r e s and a t l e a s t 1 a c r e of brushy t h i c k e t s o r
woods.

2. Bobwhite Q u a i l - Bobwhite u s u a l l y t h r i v e b e s t where t h e r e a r e

numerous s m a l l f i e l d s of g r a i n and seed c r o p s , i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h
g r a s s l a n d , weedy p a t c h e s , and brush o r woodland a r e a s . They s e l -
dom a r e abundant i n e x t e n s i v e and continuous a r e a s of c r o p l a n d ,
g r a s s l a n d , o r dense woodland.

A t l e a s t one-half a c r e of g r a i n and seed c r o p s (corn, cowpeas,

l e s p e d e z a , m i l l e t ) should be p r e s e n t w i t h i n 100 f e e t of woody
cover p e r each 100 a c r e s of h a b i t a t o r a one-half a c r e p a t c h of
w i l d herbaceous p l a n t s ( p a n i c g r a s s , ragweed, c r o t o n , p a r t r i d g e
pea). A combination of t h e two i s b e s t . Unmowed g r a s s a r e a s ,
1/10 t o 114 a c r e s n e a r food and cover, p r o v i d e n e c e s s a r y n e s t i n g
s i t e s f o r a covey range. Woody cover t o t a l i n g about 1 a c r e p e r
100 i s n e c e s s a r y .

3. Ruffed Grouse -
This grouse is a b i r d p r i m a r i l y of woodland edges
and openings r a t h e r t h a n dense woods. Hardwood t r e e s should p r e -
dominate. Hardwood t r e e s , such a s a l d e r , a p p l e , beech, b i r c h ,
 7-31
Appendix D

c h e r r y , mountain-ash, oaks, and p o p l a r s , s h o u l d be w e l l d i s t r i b u t e d

throughout t h e woodland. Openings w i t h i n each 200 a c r e s of woodlands
should occupy a t l e a s t 1 p e r c e n t of t h e a r e a and n o t exceed 15 p e r c e n t .
Such openings a r e more v a l u a b l e i f a v a r i e t y of v e g e t a t i o n , such a s
p e r e n n i a l weeds, wild g r a s s , shrubby e v e r g r e e n s , and hardwood b r u s h ,
grow i n them.

4. C o t t o n t a i l s - I n d i v i d u a l c o t t o n t a i l r a b b i t s u s u a l l y spend t h e i r e n t i r e
l i f e t i m e i n l e s s t h a n 10 a c r e s of h a b i t a t . T h e r e f o r e , a wide v a r i e t y
of v e g e t a t i o n on s m a l l - s i z e d a r e a s i s d e s i r a b l e f o r good h a b i t a t . Four
o r f i v e s m a l l patches ( o n e - t e n t h t o o n e - q u a r t e r a c r e s ) of g r a s s e s and
legumes, w i l d o r domesticated, i n and around woody and brushy o r c u l -
t i v a t e d f i e l d s , provide good food and cover. A t l e a s t 50 p e r c e n t of
any a r e a of r a b b i t h a b i t a t should be i n hardwood t r e e s and shrubs.

5. Woodcock - H a b i t a t f o r woodcock may be d e s c r i b e d a s a m i x t u r e of g r a s s ,

p e r e n n i a l weeds, shrubby e v e r g r e e n s , and brushy t h i c k e t s , g e n e r a l l y
o c c u r r i n g on m o i s t s o i l s having f a i r l y h i g h f e r t i l i t y and c o n s i d e r a b l e
o r g a n i c m a t t e r ( c o n d i t i o n f a v o r a b l e t o earthworm abundance).

Brushy t h i c k e t s should occupy 40 - 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e a r e a , and should

n o t exceed 15 f e e t i n h e i g h t . A t l e a s t 500 s q u a r e f e e t p e r a c r e of
brush should be i n g r a s s and p e r e n n i a l weeds and brush should n o t ex-
ceed 2 f e e t i n h e i g h t f o r 50 f e e t around openings. S e v e r a l s m a l l
clumps of e v e r g r e e n , s h r u b s n e a r g r a s s y a r e a s provide n e s t i n g and
brood r e a r i n g s i t e s .

6. W h i t e - t a i l e d Deer - This d e e r i s an animal o f f o r e s t l a n d s broken by

s m a l l c l e a r i n g s , l a k e s , swamps, c r o p f i e l d s , cut-over a r e a s , p a s t u r e s ,
hay meadows, e t c . , which c r e a t e edgk o r a l l o w s u n l i g h t t o r e a c h t h e
ground s o t h a t shrubs and bushes w i l l grow. Deer p r e f e r open f o r e s t
which p r o v i d e s p l e n t i f u l u n d e r s t o r y v e g e t a t i o n .

One 5 - a c r e opening p e r each 200 a c r e s of woodland provides g r a s s e s

and legumes f o r summer and s p r i n g food. In a d d i t i o n , one 5- t o 20-
a c r e opening p e r each 200 a c r e s of growing woodlands, s h r u b s , and
v i n e s i n c r e a s e s t h e food supply.

Tree S q u i r r e l s - The f o x s q u i r r e l i s l a r g e l y an i n h a b i t a n t of mature,

somewhat open, hardwood f o r e s t s and woodlots. The gray s q u i r r e l l i v e s
p r i m a r i l y i n l a r g e unbroken bottomland hardwood f o r e s t s . The ranges
o v e r l a p c o n s i d e r a b l y , b u t normally one s p e c i e s predominates. Both
s p e c i e s occupy two t y p e s of n e s t s - den and l e a f . Den t r e e s p r o v i d e
the b e s t protection. Two o r t h r e e good den t r e e s p e r a c r e a r e d e s i r -
a b l e . Nuts and acorns a r e s t a p l e foods; s e e d , buds, and f r u i t s a l s o
a r e e a t e n . Each animal r e q u i r e s about a pound and a h a l f of food
p e r week. Nut-bearing t r e e s should be w e l l d i s t r i b u t e d throughout
woodland, a t l e a s t two p e r a c r e .

8. Non-Game Land Birds - Non-game b i r d s i n c l u d e a g r e a t v a r i e t y of s p e c i e s

which a r e found i n n e a r l y e v e r y k i n d of v e g e t a t i v e community. These
7-32
Appendix D

s p e c i e s e a t a l l kinds of foods, have many a d a p t a t i o n s f o r n e s t i n g ,

f e e d i n g , e s c a p e , m i g r a t i o n , e t c . T h e r e f o r e , a v a r i e t y of h a b i t a t s
w i l l s u p p o r t a v a r i e t y of s p e c i e s . A s a r u l e , t h e g r e a t e r t h e
v a r i e t y of p l a n t forms on a g i v e n t r a c t of l a n d , t h e l a r g e r t h e
number of b i r d s p e c i e s and t h e more t h e i n d i v i d u a l s . Such a r e a s
may be g r a s s y a r e a s , g r a i n and seed c r o p f i e l d s , weedy s p o t s ,
brush a r e a s , and woodlands. They a l s o may be lawns, p a s t u r e s ,
meadows, fencerows, small woodlots, b a r n y a r d s , pond edges, e t c .

9. Waterfowl and Other Wetland B i r d s and Muskrats

a. Ducks (mallard, p i n t a i l , b l a c k duck, t e a l , wood duck):

Ducks r e q u i r e s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t v e g e t a t i v e t y p e s and water
c o n d i t i o n s f o r n e s t i n g , r e a r i n g broods, a d u l t moult, and
feeding:

C o u r t i n g , p a i r i n y , and m a t i n g (mid-winter and e a r l y s p r i n g ,

b e f o r e n e s t i n g a c t i v i t i e s ) r e q u i r e l i t t l e o r no v e g e t a t i v e
c o v e r , a s t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s g e n e r a l l y a r e performed on
s m a l l open-water a r e a s with b a r e s h o r e l i n e s . Mating
h a b i t a t u s u a l l y i s one o r s e v e r a l s m a l l , s h a l l o w , open-
water ponds.

N e s t i n g (March t o May). Mallards, t e a l , and b l a c k ducks

n e s t on t h e ground, u s u a l l y w i t h i n 150 yards of w a t e r ,
b u t sometimes f a r t h e r away i n medium-height v e g e t a t i o n ,
such a s a l f a l f a , r e d t o p , and o t h e r g r a s s e s a s w e l l a s
emergent type wetland g r a s s e s , s e d g e s , and rushes. Wood
ducks n e s t i n t r e e s a l o n g water o r waterways where t h e y
p r e f e r a hollow o r n a t u r a l c a v i t y i n t h e trunk.

Rearing t h e broods (May t o e a r l y September). Immediately

a f t e r t h e young a r e h a t c h e d , t h e hen l e a d s them from t h e
n e s t To a water a r e a s e v e r a l f e e t deep, surrounded by or
i n t e r s p e r s e d with marsh p l a n t s , such a s b u l r u s h e s , sedges,
c a t t a i l s , and o t h e r a q u a t i c p l a n t s . Wood ducks d e s i r e
woody cover a l o n g streams o r ponds.

Loafing. Ducks spend a g r e a t d e a l of t h e i r time l o a f i n g ,

sunning, o r p r e e n i n g themselves on mud f l a t s , k n o l l s , o r
s m a l l i s l a n d s . Wood ducks commonly perch i n t r e e s .

Feeding. Black ducks, m a l l a r d s , t e a l , and wood ducks feed

p r i m a r i l y on p l a n t seeds. They o c c a s i o n a l l y t a k e s n a i l s ,
i n s e c t s , and herbaceous v e g e t a t i o n . Important p l a n t s a r e
c o r n , buckwheat, sorghum, b a r l e y , pondweeds, w i l d r i c e ,
m i l l e t s , b u l r u s h e s , smartweeds, n a i a d , and w h i t e and p i n
oak acorns. Water, of c o u r s e , i s an e s s e n t i a l element
of t h e h a b i t a t .

Swamp o r marsh a r e a s , 1 a c r e and l a r g e r , a r e more v a l u a b l e .

 7-33
Appendix D

The following water c o n d i t i o n s a r e d e s i r a b l e on f e e d i n g a

and brood r e a r i n g a r e a s : A t l e a s t 50 p e r c e n t of t h e a r e a
w i t h water l e s s t h a n 3 f e e t deep; s m a l l (500-2,000 s q u a r e
f e e t ) open-water a r e a s s c a t t e r e d throughout, about 5 p e r
acre.
'\

b. Muskrats

Muskrats a r e semi-aquatic and need water t o l i v e . The e n t r a n c e

t o muskrat houses ( o r dens) i s normally 4 t o 16 inches beneath
t h e w a t e r l e v e l . Muskrats u s e open water f o r t r a v e l , and t h e i r
d i e t i s composed c h i e f l y of l e a v e s and r o o t s of emergent and
aquatic vegetation.

c. Wading B i r d s - C o n s i d e r a t i o n i s given h e r e t o f o u r f a m i l i e s of
birds :
Ardeidae (Herons and B i t t e r n s ) ; C i c o n i i d a e ( S t o r k s and Wood
I b i s e s ) ; T h r e s k i o r n i t h i d a e ( ' I b i s e s and S p o o n b i l l s ) ; and Gruidae
(Cranes).

Obviously, many s p e c i e s of w i l d l i f e , such a s o t h e r water b i r d s - -

amphibians, r e p t i l e s , f i s h e s , and some mammals, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e
marsh and swamp d w e l l e r s --
b e n e f i t from management of wading
bird habitat.

The wading b i r d group f e e d s l a r g e l y on s m a l l a q u a t i c l i f e found

a l o n g edges and i n e x t e n s i v e shallows of l a k e s and swampy a r e a s .
A l l k i n d s of small f i s h , both game and rough f i s h , have been
found i n food h a b i t a t s t u d i e s . Salamanders, f r o g s , and a q u a t i c
i n s e c t s make up a p a r t of t h e d i e t . S l u g g i s h swimmers and pro-
l i f i c p r o d u c e r s , such a s gambusia ( t o p minnows), make good food
sources.

Herons and t h e l i k e u s u a l l y n e s t i n groups of a few t o s e v e r a l

hundred o r more. These r o o k e r i e s may have s e v e r a l s p e c i e s n e s t -
i n g i n one t r e e , The n e s t i n g b i r d s p r e f e r t o b u i l d over water
s e v e r a l f e e t deep. Cypress swamps w i t h enough underbrush, such
a s buttonbush, make d e s i r e d n e s t i n g s i t e s .

It i s g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t water f l u c t u a t i o n p l a y s an .impor-
t a n t r o l e i n n e s t i n g behavior. P l e n t i f u l water supply i n e a r l y
s p r i n g a p p a r e n t l y s t i m u l a t e s breeding. Low water l e v e l s con-
c e n t r a t i n g t h e food s o u r c e 4 t o 6 weeks l a t e r provide good
f e e d i n g c o n d i t i o n s when t h e young a r e i n t h e n e s t .

UJDA.SC$.HVATT$YILLE, YO 1971

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 0 - 247-927