Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA ECIJA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
ISO 9001:2015 CERTIFIED

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(CE 414)

PREPARED BY:

ENGR. ROSEL G. VERDADERO

ENGR. ELMAR B. GERMINO
ENGR. JOHN EMARSON D. ABRES

ENGR. KARL ANGELO CLARETE

 Preface
The course deals with the study of the identification and classification of soils and rocks, site
investigation and subsurface exploration, the physical and index properties of soil,
compaction, water flow through soils, subsurface stress and deformation phenomena in soils,
laboratory testing, and the relevance of these topics as they affect soil strength,
compressibility, stability and drainage. A thorough knowledge of engineering geology and the
mechanics of deformable bodies is imperative.

The first four chapters are intended to give students a brief introduction and insight into the
field of Soil Mechanics before exposing them to the more detailed evaluation of basic soil
properties. Included is a brief overview of aspects related to engineering practice and
potential liabilities. The remaining chapters develop the fundamentals for understanding the
soil properties that are relevant to its use as a material for construction.

The module delivers eight units to help students focus on specific course topics. At the end of
the semester, the students are expected to define soil mechanics and its importance in civil
engineering, show proficiency in determining soil and rock properties, selecting soil
parameters for analysis and design relevant to geotechnical engineering, describe the
fundamentals of geotechnics, demonstrate concept and principles of field exploration, write
laboratory reports in soil mechanics in the proper format and in correct English and
understand various subsurface explorations equipment, soil laboratory tests and equipment.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT I SOIL: IT’S IMPORTANCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING 1

Setting up 2
1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Geotechnical Engineering – A General Perspective 3

1.3 Soil Mechanics – A Brief Overview 3

1.4 General Approach in Solving Geotechnical Problems 5

Assessing Learning 6
UNIT II SOIL DEPOSITS – ORIGIN, GRAIN-SIZE, AND SHAPE 9

Setting up 10
2.1 Formation of Soil and Soil Deposits 11

2.1.1 Rock Cycle and the Origin of Soil 11

2.1.2 Igneous Rock 11

2.1.3 Sedimentary Rock 12

2.1.4 Metamorphic Rock 12

2.2 Site Investigation and Subsurface Exploration 12

2.2.1 Soil Particle Size 12

2.2.2 Specific Gravity 12

2.3 Soil Description and Field Test 13

2.3.1 Mechanical Analysis of Soil 13

2.3.2 Sieve Analysis 13

2.3.3 Hydrometer Analysis 14

2.3.4 Particle-Size Distribution Curve 14

2.3.5 Particle Shape 15

Assessing Learning 16

UNIT III WEIGHT – VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS AND PLASTICITY 21

Setting up 22
3.1 Weight – Volume Relationships 23
 3.2 Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio,

Moisture Content, and Specific Gravity 25

3.3 Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and

Moisture Content 28
3.4 Relative Density 31

3.5 Consistency of Soil 33

3.6 Activity 39
3.7 Liquidity Index and Consistency Index 40

3.8 Plasticity Chart 41

Assessing Learning 43
UNIT IV Classification Test for Soils 44
Setting up 45

4.1 Classification of Soils 46

4.2 U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 47

4.3 American Association of State Highway and Officials 48
(AASHTO)
4.4 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) 51

Assessing Learning 56

UNIT V Soil Compaction and Field Tests 60

Setting up 61

5.1 Soil Compaction and Field Tests 62

5.2 Compaction – General 62

5.3 Standard Proctor Test 62

5.4 Modified Proctor Test 64

5.5 Field Compaction 65

5.6 Determination of Field Unit Weight after Compaction 65

Assessing Learning 66

UNIT VI Hydraulic Conductivity 69

Setting up 70

6.1 Darcy’s Law 71

 6.2 Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability 72

6.3 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil 76

Assessing Learning 78

UNIT VII Seepage 79

Setting up 80

7.1 Flow Nets 81

7.2 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil 83

Assessing Learning 86

UNIT VIII Stresses in a Soil Mass 88

Setting up 89
8.1 Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage 90
8.2 Effective Stress in the Zone Capillary Rise 94

8.3 Effective Stress in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage 96

8.4 Effective Stress in Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage 97

8.5 Seepage Force 99

Assessing Learning 102

________________________________________________________________________________________________
UNIT I. SOIL: IT'S IMPORTANCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Overview
This unit deals with the origin and the relationship between soil and rock, demonstrate and
discuss the rock cycle, meaning of soil mechanics/ geotechnical engineering and apply the
principles of soil mechanics to analyze and design simple geotechnical systems. Below are the
topics to aid the students in their studies.
• Soil: Its Importance in Civil Engineering
• Introduction
• Geotechnical Engineering - A General Perspective
• Soil Mechanics - A Brief Overview of its Evolution
• General Approach to Solving Geotechnical Problems

Learning Objectives:
At the end of the unit, I am able to:
1. define soil mechanics and its importance in civil engineering;
2. show proficiency in determining soil and rock properties, selecting soil parameters for
analysis and design relevant to geotechnical engineering; and
3. describe the fundamentals of geotechnics.

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Setting Up ____________________________________________________________________________________________
Name: ______________________ Date: ___________________
Section: ____________________

Geotechnical Engineering is the sub discipline of civil engineering that involves natural
materials found close to the surface of the earth. It includes the application of soil mechanics
and rock mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining structures and earth structures.
What do you think are the typical issues addressed by a geotechnical engineer?
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Lesson Proper_______________________________________________________________________________________
1.1 INTRODUCTION
"Virtually every structure is supported by soil or rock. Those that aren't either fly, float or fall
over."
- Richard L. Handy (1995)

TYPICAL ISSUES ADDRESSED BY GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERS INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:

• What are the soils and rocks in the subsurface at a construction site?
• Can the soils and rocks beneath a construction site safely support the proposed project?
• What groundwater conditions currently exist, how might they change in the future, and
what impact do they have on the project?
• What will be the impact of any planned excavation, grading or filling?
• Are the natural or proposed earth slopes stable? If not, what must we do to stabilize
them?
• What kinds of foundations are necessary to support planned structures, and how should
we design them?
• If the project requires retaining walls, what kind would be best and how should we
design them?
• If the project requires a tunnel or underground opening, how would it be excavated and
supported?
• How will the site respond to potential earthquakes?
• Has the ground become contaminated with chemical or biological materials? Do these
materials represent a health or safety hazard? If so, what must we do to rectify the
problem?

1.2 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING - A GENEREAL PERSPECTIVE

• Soil -is defined as the un-cemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic
matter (solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid
particles.
• Soil Mechanics- is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical properties
of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces.
• Soils Engineering- is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical
problems.
• Geotechnical Engineering- is the sub discipline of civil engineering that involves natural
materials found close to the surface of the earth. It includes the application of soil
mechanics and rock mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining structures and
earth structures.

1.3 SOIL MECHANICS - A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF ITS EVOLUTION

According to Skempton (1985), It was in 18th century when the understanding of
geotechnical engineering began in true engineering terms as it is known today. Ancient
civilizations flourished along the banks of rivers (Nile in Egypt, TIgris and Euphrates in
Mesopotamia, Huang Ho or Yellow river in China and Indus in India).
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 According to Kensel (1986), there were no evidences that measures were taken to
stabilize the foundations or check erosion caused by flood.

The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italy) is the most famous example of problems related to
soil bearing capacity in the construction of structures. Its construction began in 1173 AD and
still continuous for over 200 years. The following details of the tower are enumerated below:
Weight=15,700 metric tons
Dia. Of Circular base support=20m ft
Weak clay layer at depth=11m 36 ft below ground
More than 5m 16.5ft out of plumb w/ the 54m 179ft height
It was closed in 1990
North side soil was excavated for stabilization
70 metric tons of earth were removed
5 tower leans now.

There were four major periods in geotechnical engineering based on emphasis and
nature of study. They are as follows:
1. Pre classical (1700 to 1776 AD)
2. Classical Soil Mechanics – Phase 1 (1776 to 1856 AD)
3. Classical Soil Mechanics- Phase 2 (1856 to 1910 AD)
4. Modern Soil Mechanics (1910 to 1927 AD)

1. Pre Classical Soil Mechanics (1700-1776)

This period concentrated on studies relating to natural slope and unit weight of
various types of soils, as well as the semi empirical earth pressure theories. The following
soil scientists pioneered this period:

• Henri Gaulter (1660-1737)

• Bernard Forest de Belidor (1671-1761)
• Francois Gadroy (1705-1759)
• J.J. Mayniel (1808)

2. Classical Soil Mechanics-Phase 1 (1776-1856)

• Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806)
• Jacques Frederic Francais (1775-1833) and Claude Louis Marie Henri Navier (1785-
1836)
• Jean Victor Poncelet (1788-1867)
• Alexandre Collin (1808-1890)
• William John Macquorn Rankine (1820-1872)

3. Classical Soil Mechanics-Phase 2 (1856-1910)

• Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy (1803-1858)

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 • Sir George Howard Darwin (1845-1912)
• Joseph Valentin Boussinesq (1842-1929)
• Osborne Reynolds (1842- 1912)

4. Modern Soil Mechanics (1910-1927)

In this period, results of research conducted on clays were published in which the
fundamental properties and parameters of clay were established.

• Albert Mauritz Atterbeg (1846-1916)

• Jean Fontard (1884-1962)
• Arthur Langley Bell (1874-1956)
• Wolmar Fellenius (1876-1957)
• Karl Terzaghi (1883-1963) - of Austria developed the theory of consolidation for
clays as we know today and was published in Terzaghi’s celebrated book
Erdbaumechanik auf Bodenphysikalisher Grundlage in 1925.
• Father of modern soil mechanics
• Presided the first conference of the International Society
of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (ISSMFE)
held at Harvard University in 1936.
• In 1997, ISSMFE was changed to ISSMGE (International
Society of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering)

• Ralph B. Peck (1912-2008) – Godfather of soil mechanics.

1.4 GENERAL APPROACH TO SOLVING GEOTECHNICAL PROBLEMS

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS
1. Site Exploration and Characterization
2. Engineering Analysis
3. Design
4. Construction
Note: The instructor may give more additional examples on this depending on the needs of
the topic.

References
Das Braja M., Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning (C)
2010
Cernica John N., Geotechnical Engineering Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc, (c) 1995

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Assessing Learning
• Students will be given problem sets based on the discussed topic.
• Oral recitation and presentation. If needed, the presentation may be done per group
as instructed by the instructor/professor.
• Schedule a quiz covering the content of the course. It can be a combination of different
forms of examination that might be applicable to the topic.

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Assessing Learning__________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 1
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________________
Course/Year/Section: __________________ Date: _____________________

Directions: Select the correct answer for each of the following questions. Encircle the letter of
your best choice. STRICTLY NO ERASURES ALLOWED.
1. It is defined as the uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter
(solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid particles.
a. Soil c. Soil Engineering
b. Soil Mechanics d. Geotechnical Engineering
2. It is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical properties of soil and
the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces.
a. Soil c. Soil Engineering
b. Soil Mechanics d. Geotechnical Engineering
3. It is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical problems.
a. Soil c. Soil Engineering
b. Soil Mechanics d. Geotechnical Engineering
4. It is the sub discipline of civil engineering that involves natural materials found close to
the surface of the earth. It includes the application of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to
the design of foundations, retaining structures and earth structures.
a. Soil c. Soil Engineering
b. Soil Mechanics d. Geotechnical Engineering
5. Father of modern soil mechanics.
a. Albert Mauritz Atterberg c. Ralph B. Peck
b. Karl Terzaghi d. Henri Philibert Gaspard Darcy

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Assessing Learning__________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 2
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________________
Course/Year/Section: __________________ Date: _____________________

Directions: Identify the terms, names or places being defined or identified by the given
statements. Write your answer on the space provided before each number. ANY form of
ERASURE/ALTERATION will invalidate your answer.
__________________ 1.
__________________ 2.
Enumerate the four major periods in geotechnical
__________________ 3. engineering based on emphasis and nature of study.
__________________ 4.
__________________ 5.
__________________ 6.
Enumerate the Geotechnical Engineering Design Processes.
__________________ 7.
__________________ 8.

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________________________________________________________________________________________________
UNIT II. SOIL DEPOSITS – ORIGIN, GRAIN-SIZE, AND SHAPE
Overview

This unit deals with the importance of soil investigations and be able to plan a soil
investigation; specifying, conducting and interpretation of soil tests to characterize soils.
Below are the topics to aid the students in their studies.

• Formation of Soil and Soil Deposits

• Site investigation and subsurface exploration

• Soil Description and Field Test

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. demonstrate concept and principles of field exploration; and

2. write a laboratory reports in soil mechanics in the proper format and in correct English
and understand various subsurface explorations equipment, soil laboratory tests and
equipment.

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Setting Up ____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ____________________________________ Date: _____________________

Course/Year/Section: __________________

Directions: Before answering the questions below, it is expected that you have a background
in Rock Cycle in one of your previous Science classes. Answer the following questions with
concise thoughts.

1. What are three basic types of rocks based on their mode of origin.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

2. Explain your idea about the Rock Cycle.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

3. What is the importance of learning Rock Cycle to Geotechnical Engineering?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Lesson Proper_______________________________________________________________________________________

2.1 Formation of Soil and Soil Deposits

2.1.1. Rock Cycle and The Origin of Soil

The mineral grains that form the solid phase of a soil aggregate are the product of rock
weathering. The size of the individual grains varies over a wide range. Many of the physical
properties of soil are dictated by the size, shape, and chemical composition of the grains. To
better understand these factors, one must be familiar with the basic types of rock that form
the earth’s crust, the rock-forming minerals, and the weathering process.

Three basic types of rocks based on their mode of origin:

1. Igneous Rock

2. Sedimentary Rock

3. Metamorphic Rock

2.1.2 Igneous Rock

Igneous rocks are formed by solidification of molten magma ejected from deep within
the earth’s mantle. After ejection by either fissure eruption or volcanic eruption, some of
the molten magma cools on the surface of the earth.

Weathering - is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical processes
into smaller pieces

Transportation of Weathering Products

• Residual soils- formed by the weathered products at their place of origin, its important
characteristic is the gradation of particle size.

• Transported Soils:

1. Glacial soils—formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers

2. Alluvial soils—transported by running water and deposited along streams

3. Lacustrine soils—formed by deposition in quiet lakes

4. Marine soils—formed by deposition in the seas

5. Aeolian soils—transported and deposited by wind

6. Colluvial soils—formed by movement of soil from its original place by gravity, such as
during landslides

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 2.1.3 Sedimentary Rock

Sedimentary rocks form by the deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay formed by
weathering may become compacted by overburden pressure and cemented by agents like
iron oxide, calcite, dolomite, and quartz.

2.1.4. Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic Rocks has foliated texture. It generally contains large quantities of

quartz and feldspar.

Metamorphism is the process of changing the composition and texture of rocks (without
melting) by heat and pressure.

2.1.5. Clay Minerals

Clay minerals are complex aluminum silicates composed of two basic units: (1) silica
tetrahedron and (2) alumina octahedron

There are three important clay minerals: (1) kaolinite, (2) illite, and (3) montmorillonite

2.2. Site investigation and subsurface exploration

2.2.1. Soil Particle Size

Particle Size Classification

Name of Organization Grain size (mm)

Sand Gravel Silt Clay

Massachusetts Institute of Technology >2 2 to 0.06 to <0.002

(MIT) 0.06 0.002

U.S. Department of Agriculture >2 2 to 0.05 to <0.002

0.05 0.02
(USDA)

American Association of State Highway 76.2 2 to 0.075 <0.002

and Transportation Officials to 2 0.075 to 0.02

(AASHTO)

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 Unified Soil Classification System 76.2 4.75 to Fines (i.e., silts and
to 0.075 clays)
(U.S Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Bureau 4.75
of Reclamation, American Society for <0.075
Testing and Materials)

(USCS)

2.2.2. Specific Gravity

Specific Gravity is defined as the ratio of the unit weight of a given material to the unit weight
of water. The specific gravity of soil solids is often needed for various calculations in soil
mechanics. It can be determined accurately in the laboratory.

2.3. Soil Description and Field Test

2.3.1 Mechanical Analysis of Soil

Mechanical Analysis - is the determination of the size range of particles present in a soil,
expressed as a percentage of the total dry weight.

Two methods generally are used to find the particle-size distribution of soil:

1. Sieve Analysis - for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in diameter.

2. Hydrometer Analysis - for particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in diameter.

2.3.2 Sieve Analysis

consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of sieves that have progressively
smaller openings.

U.S. Standard Sieve Sizes

Sieve No. Opening

(mm)

4 4.75

6 3.35

8 2.36

10 2

16 1.18

20 0.85

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 30 0.6

40 0.425

50 0.3

60 0.25

80 0.18

100 0.15

140 0.106

170 0.088

200 0.075

270 0.053

2.3.3 Hydrometer Analysis

Hydrometer Analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water. When
a soil specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at different velocities, depending
on their shape, size, weight, and the viscosity of the water. For simplicity, it is assumed that
all the soil particles are spheres and that the velocity of soil particles can be expressed by
Stokes’ law, according to which:

s  w 2
v D
18

where: v= velocity

s = density of so l particles
i

w = densit of water
y

D = diameter of soil particles

 = viscosity of water

2.3.4 Particle-Size Distribution Curve

A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the following four parameters
for a given soil:
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• Effective size (D10): This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size distribution
curve corresponding to 10% finer. The effective size of a granular soil is a good
measure to estimate the hydraulic conductivity and drainage through soil.

• Uniformity coefficient (Cu): This parameter is defined as:

D60
Cu 
D10

Where: D60= diameter corresponding to 6 % finer.

• Coefficient of gradation (Cc): This parameter is defined as:

D 230
Cc 
D60 xD10

• Sorting coefficient (So): This parameter is another measure of uniformity and is

generally encountered in geologic works and expressed as:

D75
So 
D25

2.3.5 Particle Shape

• The shape of particles present in soil mass also has significant influence on the physical
properties of a given soil. However, not much attention is paid to particle shape
because it is more difficult to measure.

• The shape of granular particles in a soil mass has a great influence on the physical
properties of the soil, such as maximum and minimum void ratios, shear strength
parameters, compressibility, etc.

• The angularity, A:

A = Average radius of corners and edges

Radius of the maximum inscribed sphere

• Sphericity of bulky particles :

De
S
Lp

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 3
6V
where: De = equivalent diameter of the particle = 

Lp = length of particle

V= volu e of particle

Note: The instructor may give more additional examples on this depending on the needs of the topic.

References
Das Braja M., Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning (C)
2010

Cernica John N., Geotechnical Engineering Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc, (c) 1995

Assessing Learning
• Students will be given problem sets based on the discussed topic.

• Oral recitation and presentation. If needed, the presentation may be done per group
as instructed by the instructor/professor.

• Schedule a quiz covering the content of the course. It can be a combination of different
forms of examination that might be applicable to the topic.

Assessing Learning__________________________________________________________________________________
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 Activity 3
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________________
Course/Year/Section: __________________ Date: _____________________

Directions: TRUE OR FALSE. Write TRUE in the space provided if the statement is true.
Underline the incorrect word/s if the statement, and write the correct word/s in the space
provided if the statement is false. NO ERASURES ALLOWED.

1. Rocks can be classified into three basic categories: (a) igneous, (b) sedimentary, and (c)
metamorphic.
2. Igneous rocks are formed by mechanical and chemical weathering of rocks.
3. Sieve analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water.
4. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the unit weight of water to the unit weight of a
given material.
5. Clay minerals are mostly flake-shaped microscopic and submicrospic particles of mica, clay
minerals and other minerals.

Assessing Learning__________________________________________________________________________________

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 Activity 4
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________________
Course/Year/Section: __________________ Date: _____________________

Directions: Answer the following problems with complete and neat solution.

The following are the results of a sieve analysis:

U.S. Sieve No. Mass of Soil retained (g)

4 0

10 18.5

20 53.2

40 90.5

60 81.8

100 92.2

200 58.5

Pan 26.5

a. Determine the percent finer than each sieve and plot a grain-size distribution curve.

b. Determine D10, D30, and D60 from the grain-size distribution curve.

c. Calculate the uniformity coefficient. Cu.

d. Calculate the coefficient of gradation, Cc.

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________________________________________________________________
UNIT III. WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS AND PLASTICITY

Overview

This unit describes the weight-volume relationships for soils; unit weight, void ratio,
porosity, moisture content, and the specific gravity of soil solids. We will also discuss the
consistency of clayey soil, which is its behavior with change in moisture content.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. determine the relationships between soil properties;
2. solve problems involving soil properties;
3. determine the Atterberg limits (liquid limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage limit of
soils); and
4. be familiarized with apparatuses and devices used in Atterberg’s Limits.

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Setting Up ____________________________________________________________________________________________
Name: ______________________ Date: ___________________
Section: ____________________

Directions: Solve the following.

1. A soil sample is taken from the field, placed in a container having a volume of 100 ml.
The sample weighs 175 grams. Determine (a) density of soil, (b) unit weight of soil.

2. The vol. of soil is 110 𝑐𝑚3 . The wet weight of soil is 207 g and the dried weight of soil
is 163 g. If 𝐺𝑠 = 2.68, determine (a) vol. of soil solids, (b) vol. of water, (c) vol. of voids.

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Lesson Proper________________________________________________________________________________________

3.1 Weight-Volume Relationships

The element of soil is shown in figure (natural state). The total volume is,

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑣 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑤 + 𝑉𝑎

where

𝑉𝑠 = volume of soil solids

𝑉𝑣 = volume of soil solids
𝑉𝑤 = volume of soil solids
𝑉𝑎 = volume of soil solids

The total wt. of the sample (neglect air)

𝑊 = 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑤

where

𝑊𝑠 = wt. of soil solids

𝑊𝑤 = wt. of water

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Volume Relationships

Void ratio (e) - the ratio of the vol. of voids to the vol. of solids,

𝑉𝑣
𝑒=
𝑉𝑠

Porosity (n) - the ratio of the vol. of voids to the total vol., or

𝑉𝑣
𝑛=
𝑉

Degree of saturation (S%) - the ratio of the vol. of water to the vol. of voids, or

𝑉𝑤
𝑆=
𝑉𝑣

The relationship between 𝑒 and 𝑛

𝑉
𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑣 ( 𝑣) 𝑛
𝑒= = = 𝑉 =
𝑉𝑠 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑣 1 − (𝑉𝑣 ) 1 − 𝑛
𝑉

Also, we have

𝑒
𝑛=
1+𝑒

Weight Relationships

Moisture content (w) or water content - defined as the ratio of the wt. of water to the wt. of
solids in a given vol. of soil, or

𝑊𝑤
𝑤=
𝑊𝑠

Unit weight (𝛾) - the wt. of soil per unit vol.:

𝑊
𝛾=
𝑉

𝑊 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑤 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑠 𝑤 𝑊𝑠 (1 + 𝑤)
𝛾= = = =
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉

Unit weight of soil is also referred as moist/bulk/wet unit weight as natural state of soil
contains water to some degree. For dry unit weight,

𝑊𝑠
𝛾𝑑 =
𝑉

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 𝛾
𝛾𝑑 =
1+𝑤

In term of density,

𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

and

𝑚𝑠
𝜌𝑑 =
𝑉

3.2 Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture Content, and Specific
Gravity

𝑊𝑠 = 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤

𝑊𝑤 = 𝑤𝑊𝑠 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤

where

𝐺𝑠 = specific gravity of soil solids

𝑤 = 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝛾𝑤 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

P a g e 25 | 103
 𝑊𝑠 = 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
𝑊𝑤 = 𝑤𝑊𝑠 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤

where

𝐺𝑠 = specific gravity of soil solids

𝑤 = moisture content
𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water

For 𝛾 and 𝛾𝑑 ,

𝑊 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑤 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 + 𝑤𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 + 𝑤)𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
𝛾= = = =
𝑉 𝑉 1+𝑒 1+𝑒

and

𝑊𝑠 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑑 = =
𝑉 1+𝑒

Since the weight of water in the soil element under consideration is 𝑤𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 , the volume
occupied by it is

𝑊𝑤
𝑉𝑤 = = 𝑤𝐺𝑠
𝛾𝑤

Hence, from the definition of degree of saturation, we have

𝑉𝑤 𝑤𝐺𝑠
𝑆= =
𝑉𝑣 𝑒

or

𝑆𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠

P a g e 26 | 103
For saturated soil,

𝑊 𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑤 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 + 𝑒𝛾𝑤 (𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒)𝛾𝑤

𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = = = =
𝑉 𝑉 1+𝑒 1+𝑒

In terms of density,

(1 + 𝑤)𝐺𝑠 𝜌𝑤
𝜌=
1+𝑒

𝐺𝑠 𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑑 =
1+𝑒

(𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒)𝜌𝑤
𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
1+𝑒

For submerged unit weight,

𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤

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 (𝐺𝑠 − 1)𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑠𝑢𝑏 =
1+𝑒

Some typical values of void ratio, moisture content in a saturated condition, and dry unit
weight for soils in a natural state are given in Table 3.1.

3.3 Relationship among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content

P a g e 28 | 103
 𝑊𝑠 = 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 − 𝑛)

𝑊𝑤 = 𝑤𝑊𝑠 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 − 𝑛)

So, the dry unit weight equals

𝑊𝑠
𝛾𝑑 = = 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 − 𝑛)
𝑉

The moist unit weight equals

𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑤
𝛾= = 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 − 𝑛)(1 + 𝑤)
𝑉

For saturated,

𝑊𝑠 + 𝑊𝑤
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = = 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 − 𝑛) + 𝑛𝛾𝑤 = [𝐺𝑠 (1 − 𝑛) + 𝑛]𝛾𝑤
𝑉

The moisture content of a saturated soil sample can be expressed as

𝑊𝑤 𝑛𝛾𝑤 𝑛
𝑤= = =
𝑊𝑠 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤 (1 − 𝑛) 𝐺𝑠 (1 − 𝑛)

P a g e 29 | 103
Example 1

A soil sample has the following values: 𝑉 = 7.08 𝑥 10−3 𝑚3 , 𝑚 = 13.95 𝑘𝑔, 𝑤 = 9.8%, and
𝐺𝑠 = 2.66.
Determine the following:
a. 𝜌
b. 𝜌𝑑
c. 𝑒
d. 𝑛
e. 𝑆 (%)
f. 𝑉𝑤

Solution:

𝑚 13.95
a. 𝜌 = = = 𝟏𝟗𝟕𝟎. 𝟑𝟒 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒎𝟑
𝑉 7.08𝑥10−3

𝜌 1970.34
b. 𝜌𝑑 = = = 𝟏𝟕𝟗𝟒. 𝟒𝟖 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒎𝟑
1+𝑤 1+0.098

𝐺𝑠 𝜌𝑤
c. 𝑒 = −1
𝜌𝑑

(2.66)(1000)
𝑒= − 1 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖
1794.48

𝑒 0.48
d. 𝑛 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐
1+𝑒 1+0.48

𝑤𝐺𝑠 (9.8)(2.66)
e. 𝑆 = = = 𝟓𝟒. 𝟑𝟎%
𝑒 0.48

𝑚𝑤
f. 𝑉𝑤 = , and 𝑚𝑤 = 𝑚 − 𝑚𝑠
𝜌𝑤
𝑚
𝑚𝑤 = 𝑚 −
1+𝑤

13.95
𝑚𝑤 = 13.95 − = 1.245 𝑘𝑔
1+0.098
∴
1.245
𝑉𝑤 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟒𝟓𝒎𝟑
1000

Example 2

Given data of saturated soil: 𝛾𝑑 = 16.2 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 , 𝑤 = 20%.

Determine:
a. 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡
b. 𝐺𝑠
c. 𝑒

Solution:

a. 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝛾𝑑 (1 + 𝑤) = 16.2(1 + 0.20) = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟒𝟒 𝒌𝒈⁄𝒎𝟑

P a g e 30 | 103
 𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
b. 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = but 𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠 for saturated soils
1+𝑒
∴
𝐺𝑠 𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
1+𝑤𝐺𝑠

𝐺𝑠 (9.81)
16.2 =
1+0.2𝐺𝑠

𝐺𝑠 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔𝟓

c. 𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠 = 0.2(2.465) = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗

3.4 Relative Density

Relative density is the denseness or looseness of granular soil (in situ). It is defined as

𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒
𝐷𝑟 =
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛

Where

𝐷𝑟 = relative density, %
𝑒 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢 void ratio of the soil
𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = void ratio of the soil in loosest condition
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 = void ratio of the soil in densest condition

1 1
[ ]−[ ]
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝛾𝑑
𝐷𝑟 =
1 1
[ ]−[ ]
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
Where

𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = loosest condition (𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 )

𝛾𝑑 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢 dry unit weight (𝑒)
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = densest condition (𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 )

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It is reasonable to assume

𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈ 1.6𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛

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3.5 Consistency of Soil

3.6 Liquid Limit (LL)

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P a g e 34 | 103
P a g e 35 | 103
P a g e 36 | 103
 2𝛥𝑀𝐶
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 −
log(𝑀2 ⁄𝑀1 )

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Flow index is the slope of flow line.
𝑤1 −𝑤2
Flow Index, 𝐹𝐼 =
log(𝑁2 ⁄𝑁1 )

𝑚1 − 𝑚2 (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 )𝜌𝑤
𝑆𝐿 = −
𝑚2 𝑚2

𝑒
𝑆𝐿 =
𝐺𝑠
𝑚2
𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝑆𝑅 =
𝑉2 𝜌𝑤

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 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝑉2

3.6 Activity

Activity is the slope of the line correlating 𝑃𝐼 and percent finer than 2 𝜇. This activity may
be expressed as

𝑃𝐼
𝐴=
percent of clay − size fraction, by weight

where 𝐴 = activity. Activity is used as index for identifying the swelling potential of clay soils.

P a g e 39 | 103
3.7 Liquidity Index and Consistency Index

Liquidity index (𝐿𝐼) is the relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural state.

𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿
𝐿𝐼 =
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿

where 𝑤 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑢 or natural moisture content.

If 𝑤 is greater than 𝐿𝐿, 𝐿𝐼 > 1.

If 𝑤 is less than 𝑃𝐿, 𝐿𝐼 < 1.

𝐿𝐿 − 𝑤
𝐶𝐼 =
𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿

If 𝑤 is equal to 𝐿𝐿, 𝐶𝐼 = 0.

If 𝑤 is equal to 𝑃𝐿, 𝐶𝐼 = 1

P a g e 40 | 103
Atterberg’s limits are also used to assess the potential swell of a given soil.

LL PI Potential Swell Classification

<50 <25 Low
50-60 25-35 Medium
>60 >35 High

3.8 Plasticity Chart

P a g e 41 | 103
References____________________________________________________________________________________________

American Society for Testing and Materials (2010). ASTM Book of Standards. Sec. 4. Vol. 04.80,
West Consoshocken, PA.

BS:1377 (1990). British Standard Methods of Tests for Engineering Purposes. Part 2, BSI.
London.

Casagrande, A. (1932). “Research of Atterberg Limits of Soils,” Public Roads, Vol. 13, No. 8,
121-136.

Cubrinovski, M., and Ishihara. K. (1990). “Empirical Correlation Betweem SPT N-Value and
Relative Density for Sandy Soils,” Soils and Foundations. Vol. 39, No. 5. 61-71.

P a g e 42 | 103
Assessing Learning__________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 5
Name: ____________________ Score: _________________
Section: __________________ Date: __________________

Directions: Read the problems carefully. Correct answers with NO/WRONG solution shall
not be considered.

1. A soil sample has known values. 𝐺𝑠 = 2.74, moist unit weight = 20.6 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚3 , and
moisture content is 16.60%.
Determine:
a. 𝛾𝑑
b. Void ratio
c. Porosity
d. Degree of saturation

2. Given: 𝐷𝑟 = 40%, 𝐺𝑠 =2.65, 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.45 and 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.97.

Determine:
a. 𝑒
b. 𝜌 (saturated condition)

3. Given: 𝛾𝑑 = 17.10 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚3 , 𝑒 = 0.52 and 𝑤 = 12.5%. Determine 𝛾′.

4. Given: LI=0.87, PI=16, PL=12, 𝐺𝑠 = 2.72 and 𝑒 = 0.75. Determine 𝑤.

P a g e 43 | 103
________________________________________________________________

UNIT IV. CLASSIFICATION TEST FOR SOILS

Overview

This unit deals with the differentiation of AASHTO, USDA and USCS; description and
classification of soil; determination of particle size distribution in a soil mass; and lastly,
determination of the proportions of the main constituents in a soil. Below are the topics to
aid the students in their studies.

• Classification Test for Soils

• AASHTO

• USDA

• USCS

• Grain Size Analysis (Sieve Analysis and Hydrometer Test)

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. demonstrate concept and principles of field exploration; and

2. write a laboratory reports in soil mechanics in the proper format and in correct
English and understand various subsurface explorations equipment, soil laboratory
tests and equipment.

P a g e 44 | 103
 Setting Up ____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ____________________________________ Date: _____________________

Course/Year/Section: __________________

Directions: Fill up the missing details in the table below. STRICTLY NO ERASURES ALLOWED.

Particle Size Classification

Name of Organization Grain size (mm)

Sand Gravel Silt Clay

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) 1)_____ 2 to 0.06 2)_____ <0.002

3)____________________________________ >2 2 to 0.05 0.05 to <0.002

0.02

American Association of State Highway and 4)_____ 5)_____ 6)_____ 7)_____

Transportation Officials

(AASHTO)

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) 76.2 to 4.75 to Fines (i.e., silts and
4.75 0.075 clays)
8)____________________________________
<0.075
9)____________________________________

10)____________________________________

P a g e 45 | 103
Lesson Proper________________________________________________________________________________________

4.1 Classification of Soils

Different soils with similar properties may be classified into groups and sub-groups
according to their engineering behavior. Classification systems provide a common language
to concisely express the general characteristics of soils, which are infinitely varied, without
detailed descriptions.

Most of the soil classification systems that have been developed for engineering
purposes are based on simple index properties such as particle-size distribution and
plasticity. Although several classification systems are now in use, none is totally definitive of
any soil for all possible applications because of the wide diversity of soil properties.

 Textural Classification

• U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)

 Classification by Engineering Behavior

 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

P a g e 46 | 103
4.2 U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)

Fig. 01: U.S. Department of Agriculture Textural Classification

P a g e 47 | 103
4.3 American Association of State Highway and Officials (AASHTO)

The AASHTO system of soil classification was developed in 1929 as the Public Road
Administration classification system. It has undergone several revisions, with the present
version proposed by the Committee on Classification of Materials for Subgrades and Granular
Type Roads of the Highway Research Board in 1945 (ASTM designation D-3282; AASHTO
method M145).

The Classification system is based on the following criteria:

• Grain Size

• Plasticity

• Cobbles and Boulders are excluded from the soil classification, only recorded.

Group Index (GI)- use to evaluate the quality of soil as a highway subgrade material.

GI = (F -35) [0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)] + 0.01(F – 15)(PI – 10)

Rules in determining the group index:

• If GI < 0, GI = 0

• GI is rounded off to the nearest whole number.

• 0 < GI <

• GI = 0 for soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5 and A-3, always.

• For soils belonging to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7, use partial group index for GI, or

GI = 0.01(F – 15)(PI – 10)

P a g e 48 | 103
Table 00: Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials for Granular Materials
(AASHTO)
General Classification Granular Materials
(35% or less of total sample passing No. 200)
Group Classification A-1 A-3 A-2
A-1-a A-1-b A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
Sieve analysis
(percentage passing)
No. 10 50
max.
No. 40 30 50 51
max max min
No. 200 15 25 10 35 35 35 35
max max max max max max max
Characteristics of
fraction passing No. 40
Liquid Limit 40 41 40 41
max min max min
Plasticity Index 6 max NP 10 10 11 11
max max min min
Usual types of significant Stone Fine Silty or Clayey gravel and
constituent materials fragments, Sand sand
gravel, and
sand
General Subgrade Rating Excellent to good

P a g e 49 | 103
 Table 00: Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials for Silty-Clay Materials
(AASHTO)
General Classification Silt-Clay Materials
(more than 35% of total sample passing No.
200)
Group Classification A-4 A-5 A-6 A-7
A-7-5a
A-7-6b
Sieve analysis (percentage passing)
No. 10
No. 40
No. 200 36 min 36 min 36 min 36 min
Characteristics of fraction passing No. 40
Liquid Limit 40 max 41 min 40 max 41 min
Plasticity Index 10 max 10 max 11 min 11 min
Usual types of significant constituent Silty soils Clayey Soils
materials
General Subgrade Rating Fair to poor
a For A-7-5. PI < LL – 30
b For A-7-6. PI > LL – 30

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Fig. 02: Range of liquid limit and plasticity index for soils in groups A-2, A-4, A-5, A-6
and A-7

4.4 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

• The original form of this system was proposed by Casagrande in 1942 for use in the
airfield construction works undertaken by the Army Corps of Engineers during World War II.

• In cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, this system was revised in 1952.

• At present, it is used widely by engineers (ASTM Test Designation D-2487).

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P a g e 52 | 103
P a g e 53 | 103
P a g e 54 | 103
P a g e 55 | 103
References
Das Braja M., Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning (C)
2010

Cernica John N., Geotechnical Engineering Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc, (c) 1995

Assessing Learning
• Students will be given problem sets based on the discussed topic.

• Oral recitation and presentation. If needed, the presentation may be done per group as
instructed by the instructor/professor.

• Schedule a quiz covering the content of the course. It can be a combination of different
forms of examination that might be applicable to the topic.

P a g e 56 | 103
Assessing Learning__________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 6
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________________
Course/Year/Section: __________________ Date: _____________________

Directions: Answer the following problems with complete and neat solution.

1. Classify the following soil using the U.S. Department of Agriculture textural classification
chart.

Particle Size Distribution (%)

Soil
Sand Silt Clay

A 20 20 60

B 55 5 40

C 45 35 20

D 50 15 35

E 70 15 15

P a g e 57 | 103
2. The sieve analysis of ten soils and liquid and plastic limits of the fraction passing through
the No. 40 Sieve are given below. Classify the soils using AASHTO classification system and
give the group indexes.

Sieve Analysis (percent finer)

Liquid Plastic
Soil No.
Limit Limit
No. 10 No. 40 No. 200

1 98 80 50 38 29

2 100 92 80 56 23

3 100 88 65 37 22

4 85 55 45 28 20

5 92 75 62 43 28

6 48 28 6 - NP

7 87 62 30 32 24

8 90 76 34 37 25

9 100 78 8 - NP

10 92 74 32 44 35

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3. Classify the following soils using the Unified Soil Classification System. Give group symbols
and group names.

Sieve Analysis (percent

finer) Liquid Plastic
Soil No. Comments
Limit Limit
No. 4 No. 200

1 94 3 - NP

2 100 77 63 25

3 100 86 55 28
Cu = 4.48

4 100 45 36 22 And

Cc= 1.22
5 92 48 30 8

6 60 40 26 4

7 99 76 60 32

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________________________________________________________________
UNIT V. SOIL COMPACTION AND FIELD TESTS
Overview

This unit deals with the soil compaction- its definition; illustration of the difference between
Standard and Modified Proctor Test; identify different field compaction equipment;
determination of field unit weight after compaction by different field test methods. Below
are the topics to aid the students in their studies.

 Soil Compaction and Field Tests

 Compaction- General

 Standard Proctor Test

 Modified Proctor Test

 Field Compaction

 Determination of Field Unit Weight of Compaction

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. demonstrate concept and principles of field exploration; and

2. write a laboratory reports in soil mechanics in the proper format and in correct
English and understand various subsurface explorations equipment, soil laboratory
tests and equipment.

P a g e 60 | 103
Setting Up ____________________________________________________________________________________________

Name: ____________________________________ Date: _____________________

Course/Year/Section: __________________

Directions: Answer the following questions with concise thoughts.

1. What is soil compaction?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________

2. Why do we need to compact the soil?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________

3. What are the laboratory tests to determine the maximum dry unit of soil?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________

4. What are the field tests to determine the maximum dry unit of soil?

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________

P a g e 61 | 103
Lesson Proper_______________________________________________________________________________________

5.1 Soil Compaction and Field Tests

In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams, and many other engineering
structures, loose soils must be compacted to increase their unit weights. Compaction
increases the strength characteristics of soils, which increase the bearing capacity of
foundations constructed over them. Compaction also decreases the amount of undesirable
settlement of structures and increases the stability of slopes of embankments.

5.2 Compaction - General

Compaction- is the densification of soil by removal of air, w/c requires mechanical energy.

Optimum Moisture Content- moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight is
attained.

5.3 Standard Proctor Test

In the Proctor test, the soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume of 944 cm3( ft3). The
diameter of the mold is 101.6 mm (4 in.). During the laboratory test, the mold is attached to
a baseplate at the bottom and to an extension at the top (Figure 6.2a). The soil is mixed with
varying amounts of water and then compacted in three equal layers by a hammer (Figure
6.2b) that delivers 25 blows to each layer. The hammer has a mass of 2.5 kg (6.5 lb) and has
a drop of 30.5 mm (12 in.).

P a g e 62 | 103
Proctor Compaction Test - laboratory test generally used to obtain the maximum dry unit
weight of compaction and optimum moisture content.

For each test, the moist unit wt. of compaction:

W
γ=
Vm

γ
γd = 𝑤(%)
1+ 100

where: Vm = 943.3 cu.cm

for a given moisture content, the theoretical maximum dry unit weight is obtained when
there is no air in the void spaces- that is, S = 100 %. Thus:
𝐺𝑠 γ𝑤 γ𝑤
γzav = = 1
1+ w 𝐺𝑠 w+𝐺
𝑠

Factors Affecting Compaction

1. Soil Type- That is, grain-size distribution, shape of the soil grains, specific gravity of
soil solids, and amount and type of clay minerals present
2. Compaction Effort

 Standard Proctor Test

 Modified Proctor Test

P a g e 63 | 103
5.4 Modified Proctor Test

Heavy rollers development and their use in the field compaction, the Standard Proctor test
wa

Modified Proctor Test (ASTM Test Designation D-1557 and AASHTO Test Designation T-180)
is the result of modifying the standard proctor test to better represent field conditions
because of the development of heavy rollers used in field compaction. For modified proctor
test, the same mold is use. The differences are the following:

Summary of Standard and Modified Proctor Test Specifications (ASTM D-698 and D-
1557)

Description Standard Proctor Test Modified Proctor Test

Volume of Mold 943.3 cu.cm 943.3 cu.cm

Weight of hammer 24.4 N (5.5 lb) 44.5 N (10 lb)

Height of drop 305 mm (12 in) 457 mm (18 in)

Number of Soil layers 3 5

Number of blows/ layer 25 25

Compaction Effort 591.3 KN-m/m3 2696 KN-m/m3

P a g e 64 | 103
5.5 Field Compaction

Most of the compaction in the field is done with rollers. The four most common types of
rollers are

1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers)

2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

3. Sheepsfoot rollers

4. Vibratory rollers

Other factors affecting field compaction:

1. Thickness of lift,

2. Intensity of pressure applied by the compacting equipment,

3. Contact area over which pressure is applied.

Specifications for Field Compaction

Relative Compaction, R:
γd(field)
R (%) = x 100
γd(max−lab)

R (%) = 90 to 95 % in the field to pass earth work specifications

Relative Density, Dr:

γd(field)− γ γd(max)
d(min)
Dr = [ ][ ]
γd(max) − γd(min) γd(field)

𝑅𝑜
Where: R=
1− 𝐷𝑟 (1− 𝑅𝑜 )

γd(min)
Ro =
γd(max)

5.6 Determination of Field Unit Weight after Compaction

Three procedures for determining field unit weight of compaction:

1. Sand Cone Method

2. Rubber Balloon Method
3. Nuclear Method

P a g e 65 | 103
References
Das Braja M., Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Seventh Edition, Cengage Learning (C)
2010

Cernica John N., Geotechnical Engineering Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., (c) 1995

Assessing Learning
 Students will be given problem sets based on the discussed topic.

 Oral recitation and presentation. If needed, the presentation may be done per
group as instructed by the instructor/professor.

 Schedule a quiz covering the content of the course. It can be a combination of

different forms of examination that might be applicable to the topic.

P a g e 66 | 103
Assessing Learning__________________________________________________________________________________
Activity 7
Name: ____________________________________ Score: _____________________
Course/Year/Section: __________________ Date: _____________________

Directions: Answer the following problems with complete and neat solution.

1. Given Gs = 2.75, calculate the zero-air-void unit weight for a soil in lb/ft3 at w = 5%.

2. The result of a standard Proctor test are given below. Determine the maximum dry unit
weight of compaction and the optimum moisture content.

Volume of proctor mold Weight of wet soil in the mold

Moisture content (%)
(ft3) (lb)

1/30 3.26 8.4

1/30 4.15 10.2

1/30 4.67 12.3

1/30 4.02 14.6

1/30 3.63 16.8

3. Repeat No. 2 with the following details.

Volume of proctor mold Weight of wet soil in the mold

Moisture content (%)
(cm3) (kg)

943.3 1.68 9.9

943.3 1.71 10.6

943.3 1.77 12.1

943.3 1.83 19.8

943.3 1.86 15.1

P a g e 67 | 103
 943.3 1.88 17.4

943.3 1.87 19.4

943.3 1.85 21.2

4. The maximum and minimum dry unit weight of a sand were determined in the
laboratory to be 104 lb/ft3 and 93 lb/ft3 , respectively. What would be the relative
compaction in the field if the relative density is 78%?

5. A proposed embankment fill requires 8000 m 3 of compacted soil. The void ratio of the
compacted fill is specified as 0.7. Four borrow pits are available as described in the
following table, which lists the respective void ratio of the soil and the cost per cubic
meter for moving the soil to the proposed construction site. Make the necessary
calculations to select the pit from which the soil should be bought to minimize the
cost. Assume Gs to be the same at all pits.

Borrow Pit Void Ratio Cost (Php / m3 )

A 0.82 200

B 1.1 125

C 0.90 225

D 0.78 300

P a g e 68 | 103
________________________________________________________________
UNIT VI. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

Overview

This unit describes that water can flow through the voids subjecting earth dams and
earth retaining structures to seepage forces. It is necessary to estimate the amount of
underground seepage under hydraulic conditions and make stability analyses. In this unit,
we will also discuss the procedures to determine hydraulic conductivity.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. Develop a full knowledge on the application involved in the physical, mechanical
and hydraulic properties of soil.;
2. Determine how water flowing through soils behave;
3. Solve problems involving hydraulic conductivity; and
4. Be familiarized with the tests in determination of hydraulic conductivity

P a g e 69 | 103
Setting Up ____________________________________________________________________________________________
Name: ______________________ Date: ___________________
Section: ____________________

Directions: Solve the following problem.

From the figure, determine the rate of seepage in 𝑚3 ⁄ℎ𝑟⁄𝑚.

𝑘 = 4.8 𝑥 10−3 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 , 𝐻 = 3 and 𝛼 = 5°.

Note:
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴

Head loss
𝑖=
Length

P a g e 70 | 103
Lesson Proper________________________________________________________________________________________

6.1 Darcy’s Law

Darcy’s Law governs the flow of water through soils. The velocity flow is:

𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖

𝛥ℎ
𝑖=
𝐿

where

𝑣 = discharge velocity
𝑘 = hydraulic conductivity or coefficient of permeability
𝑖 = hydraulic gradient
𝛥ℎ = headloss
𝐿 = length of flow

Permeability – the property of soil that permits the passage of water under a gradient of force.

Transmissivity or Transmissibility – the ability of an aquifer to transmit water through its

entire thickness.

𝑞 = 𝑣𝐴 = 𝐴𝑣 𝑣𝑠

𝑞 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴

𝑣
𝑣𝑠 =
𝑛

Where

𝑣𝑠 = seepage velocity
𝐴𝑣 = area of void
𝑞 = quantity of water per unit time

P a g e 71 | 103
6.2 Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability, 𝒌

1. Constant Head Test - for coarse-grained soil.

𝑉𝐿
𝑘=
ℎ𝐴𝑡

P a g e 72 | 103
Where

𝑉 = 𝑣olume of water (in graduated flask)

ℎ = constant head
𝐴 = area of cross section
𝐿 = length
𝑡 = time elapsed (collecting water)

Example

For a constant head laboratory permeability test on a fine sand,

L = 300 mm
Diameter of specimen = 150 mm
Head difference = 500 mm
Water collected in 5 min = 350 𝑐𝑚3
𝑒 = 0.46

Determine

a. Hydraulic conductivity (cm/sec)

b. Discharge velocity (cm/sec)
c. Seepage velocity (cm/sec)

Solution:

a. Hydraulic conductivity

𝑉𝐿 350(30)
𝑘= = 𝜋 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝐴ℎ𝑡 ( ) (152 )(50)(300)
4

b. Discharge velocity

50
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖 = 3.96 𝑥 10−3 ( ) = 𝟔. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄
30

c. Seepage velocity

1+𝑒 1 + 0.46
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑣 ( ) = 6.6 𝑥 10−3 ( ) = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟗𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒄𝒎⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝑒 0.46

P a g e 73 | 103
2. Falling Head Test used to determine the coefficient of permeability of fine-grained soil.

𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= ln ( )
𝐴(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) ℎ2

Where

𝑎 = area of stand pipe

𝐴 = area of cross section of the soil specimen
ℎ1 = head at time 𝑡1
ℎ2 = head at time 𝑡2
𝑡 = time for the water to drop in the stand pipe

P a g e 74 | 103
Example

For a falling head permeability test,

L = 38 cm, area of specimen = 19.4 𝑐𝑚2 , and 𝑘 = 2.92 𝑥 10−3 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 .
Determine the area of the standpipe for the head to drop from 64 cm to 30 cm in 8 min?

Solution:

𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= ln ( )
𝐴(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) ℎ2

𝑎(38) 64
2.92 𝑥 10−3 = ln ( )
19.4(480 − 0) 30

𝑎 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟒 𝒄𝒎𝟐

3. Pumping Test

𝑟
𝑄 ln ( 1 )
𝑟2
𝑘=
𝜋(ℎ1 2 − ℎ2 2 )

where

𝑄 = discharge
𝑟1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 = distance of observation wells from pumping well
ℎ1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ2 = hydraulic heads
P a g e 75 | 103
6.3 Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil

A. The equivalent permeability in the horizontal direction (parallel flow) is:

1
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) = (𝑘 𝐻 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝐻2 + 𝑘𝐻3 𝐻3 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝐻𝑛 𝐻𝑛 )
𝐻 𝐻1 1

P a g e 76 | 103
B. The equivalent permeability in the vertical direction (normal flow) is:

𝐻
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) =
𝐻 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
( 1) + ( 2) + ( 3) + ⋯+ ( 𝑛)
𝑘𝑉1 𝑘𝑉2 𝑘𝑉3 𝑘𝑉𝑛

References

Carrier III, W. D. (2003). “Goodbye, Hazen; Hello, Kozeny-Carman,” Journal of Geotechnical

and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 129, No. 11, 1054-1056

Darcy, H. (1856). Les Fontaines Publiques de la Ville de Dijon. Dalmont, Paris.

Hazeon, A. (1930). “Water Supply.” in American Civil Engineers Handbook, Wiley, New York.

Tavenas, F., Jean, P., Leblond, F. T. P., and Leroueil, S. (1983). “The Permeability of Natural
Soft Clays. Part II: Permeability Characteristics,” Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 20, No.
4, 645-660.

P a g e 77 | 103
Assessing Learning__________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 8
Name: ____________________ Score: _________________
Section: __________________ Date: __________________

Directions: Read the problems carefully. Correct answers with NO/WRONG solution shall
not be considered.

1. For a constant laboratory permeability test on a fine sand,

Length of specimen = 16 cm
Diameter of specimen = 9.6 cm
Constant head difference = 50 cm
Volume of water collected in 4 min = 420 cc
Void ratio of the soil specimen = 0.55
Determine:
a. 𝑘 of the soil in cm/sec
b. Discharge velocity in cm/sec
c. Seepage velocity in cm/sec

2. For a falling head permeability test,

Length of specimen = 380 mm

Area of specimen = 6.5 𝑐𝑚2
Hydraulic conductivity of soil specimen = 0.175 cm/min

a. Determine the area of the standpipe for the head to drop from 650 cm to 300 cm in
8 min?
b. Compute the interstitial velocity under the test condition if the soil specimen has a
void ratio of 0.50 in cm/sec.
c. Compute the head difference at time equal to 6 min.

P a g e 78 | 103
________________________________________________________________
UNIT VII. SEEPAGE

Overview

The flow of water through soil is not uniform and travels in many directions. In this
unit, we will apply the Laplace’s equation of continuity and use graphs known as flow nets in
order to determine rate of seepage in isotropic and anisotropic soils.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. explain the difference between anisotropic and isotropic soil;
2. analyze and draw flow nets;
3. solve problems involving seepage; and
4. be familiarized with the flow line and equipotential line.

P a g e 79 | 103
Setting Up ____________________________________________________________________________________________
Name: ______________________ Date: ___________________
Section: ____________________

Directions: Solve the following problem.

Construct a flow net for a single row of sheet piles driven into a permeable layer as shown.

P a g e 80 | 103
Lesson Proper________________________________________________________________________________________

7.1 Flow Nets

Seepage losses through the ground or through earth dams and levees and related flow
pattern and rate of energy loss, dissipation of hydrostatic head, are frequently estimated by
means of graphical technique known as flow net.

Flow net is a combination of number of flow lines and equipotential lines.

Flow line is a path followed by a particle of water as it moves through a saturated soil
mass.

Equipotential line is a line connecting points of potential energy.

P a g e 81 | 103
For isotropic soil:

𝐻𝑁𝑓
𝑞=𝑘
𝑁𝑑

where

𝐻 = head difference
𝑁𝑓 = number of flow channels
𝑁𝑑 = number of equipotential drop

Example

Given that 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑧 = 𝑘 = 5 𝑥 10−3 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 , determine

a. How high (above the ground surface) the water will rise if piezometers are placed at
points 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and ?

b. What is the rate of seepage through flow channel II per unit length (perpendicular to
the section shown)?

P a g e 82 | 103
Solution

a. From Figure 7.7, we see that 𝑁𝑓 = 3 and 𝑁𝑑 = 6. The head difference is 3.33 m, so the
head loss for each drop is 3.33/6=0.555 m. Point 𝑎 is located on equipotential line 1, which
means that the potential drop at 𝑎 is 1 𝑥 0.555 𝑚. The water in the piezometer at 𝑎 will rise
to an elevation of 5 − 0.555 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝟓 𝒎 above the ground surface. Similarly, we can
calculate the other piezometric levels:

𝑏 = (5 − 2 𝑥 0.555) = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟗 𝒎 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞

𝑐 = (5 − 5 𝑥 0.555) = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝒎 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞

𝑑 = (5 − 5 𝑥 0.555) = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝒎 𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐠𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐞

b.
𝐻
𝛥𝑞 = 𝑘 = 5 𝑥 10−3 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 (0.555) = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟕𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒔𝒆𝒄⁄𝒎
𝑁𝑑

7.2 Flow Nets in Anisotropic Soil

P a g e 83 | 103
For anisotropic soil,

𝐻𝑁𝑓
𝑞 = √𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑧
𝑁𝑑

Example

A dam section is shown in Figure 7.9a. The hydraulic conductivity of the permeable layer in
the vertical and horizontal directions are 2 𝑥 10−3 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠 and 4 𝑥 10−3 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠 respectively.
Construct a flow net and calculate the seepage loss of the dam in 𝑚3 ⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦⁄𝑚 .

P a g e 84 | 103
Solution

𝑘𝑧 = 2 𝑥 10−2 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠 = 1.728 𝑚⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑘𝑥 = 4 𝑥 10−2 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠 = 3.456 𝑚⁄𝑑𝑎𝑦

2 𝑥 10−2
Horizontal scale = √ (vertical scale)
4 𝑥 10−2
= √12 (vertical scale)

2.5
𝑞 = √(1.728)(3.456)(6.1) ( ) = 𝟒. 𝟔𝟔 𝒎𝟑 ⁄𝒅𝒂𝒚⁄𝒎
8

References____________________________________________________________________________________________
CASAGRANDE, L. (1932). “Naeherungsmethoden zur Bestimmurg von Art und Menge der
Sickerung durch geschuettete Daemme,” Thesis, Technische Hochschule, Vienna.

DUPUIT, J. (1863). Etudes Theoriques et Practiques sur le Mouvement des Eaux dans les
Canaux Decouverts et a Travers les Terrains Permeables, Dunod, Paris.

GILBOY, G. (1934). “Mechanics of Hydraulic Fill Dams,” in Contributions to Soil Mechanics

1925–1940, Boston Society of Civil Engineers, Boston.

HARR, M. E. (1962). Ground Water and Seepage, McGraw-Hill, New York.

SCHAFFERNAK, F. (1917). “Über die Standicherheit durchlaessiger geschuetteter Dämme,”

Allgem. Bauzeitung.
TERZAGHI, K., and PECK, R. B. (1948). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, Wiley, New
York.

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY, Naval Facilities Engineering Command (1971). “Design
Manual—Soil Mechanics, Foundations, and Earth Structures,” NAVFAC DM-7, Washington,
D.C.

P a g e 85 | 103
Assessing Learning__________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 9
Name: ____________________ Score: _________________
Section: __________________ Date: __________________

Directions: Read the problems carefully. Correct answers with NO/WRONG solution shall
not be considered.

1. Refer to Figure 7.10 and use these values:

𝐻1 = 7 𝑚 𝐷 = 3.5 𝑚
𝐻2 = 1.75 𝑚 𝐷1 = 7 𝑚

Draw a flow net. Calculate the seepage loss per meter length of the sheet pile (at a right
angle to the cross section shown)

2. Draw a flow net for a single row of sheet piles driven into a permeable layer as shown in
Figure 7.10, given the following:

𝐻1 = 7 𝑚 𝐷 = 3.5 𝑚
𝐻2 = 1.75 𝑚 𝐷1 = 7 𝑚

3. Draw a flow net for the weir shown in Figure 7.11. Calculate the rate of seepage
under the weir.
P a g e 86 | 103
P a g e 87 | 103
________________________________________________________________
UNIT VIII. STRESSES IN A SOIL MASS

Overview

As described in Unit 3, soils are multiphase systems. We need to determine the

distribution of stress in a cross section of a soil mass considering that there are voids
occupied by air or water in order to analyze problems in bearing capacity, lateral pressure,
etc.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. Develop a full knowledge on the concept of effective stress;
2. Determine the fundamental difference between stresses on soil above and below
water table;
3. Solve problems involving stresses in soil mass; and
4. Be familiarized with stresses in different layers of soil profile.

P a g e 88 | 103
Setting Up ____________________________________________________________________________________________
Name: ______________________ Date: ___________________
Section: ____________________

Directions: Solve the following problems.

P a g e 89 | 103
Lesson Proper________________________________________________________________________________________

8.1 Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage

Intergranular Stress, 𝜎′ (Effective Stress) is the stress resulting from particle to particle
contact of soil.

𝜎′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢

where

𝜎 = total stress
P a g e 90 | 103
 𝑢 = pore water pressure (neutral stress)

Pore-water pressure, 𝑢 (neutral stress) is the stress due to water pressure.

𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ

where

𝛾𝑤 = specific weight of water

ℎ = height of water

For total stress, 𝜎

𝜎 = 𝜎′ + 𝑢

A.

Total stress at A:

𝜎 = 𝛾𝑑 ℎ1 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ2

Pore-water pressure or neutral stress:

𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ2

Effective stress at A:

𝜎′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢
𝜎 ′ = 𝛾𝑑 ℎ1 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ2 − 𝛾𝑤 ℎ2

Or

P a g e 91 | 103
 𝜎 ′ = 𝛾𝑑 ℎ1 + 𝛾′ℎ2

Where

𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤
𝛾 ′ = submerged/buoyant unit weight

B.

Total stress at A:

𝜎 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ1 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ2

Pore-water pressure or neutral stress:

𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 (ℎ1 + ℎ2 )

Effective stress at A:

𝜎 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 ℎ2 − 𝛾𝑤 ℎ2
𝜎 ′ = 𝛾′ℎ2

C.

P a g e 92 | 103
Total stress at A:

𝜎 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 (ℎ1 + ℎ2 )

Pore-water pressure or neutral stress:

𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 (ℎ1 + ℎ2 )

Effective stress at A:

𝜎 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 (ℎ1 + ℎ2 ) − 𝛾𝑤 (ℎ1 + ℎ2 )

𝜎 ′ = 𝛾′(ℎ1 + ℎ2 )

Example

Determine the σ, 𝑢, and 𝜎′at points A, B, C, and D.

P a g e 93 | 103
8.2 Effective stress in the Zone Capillary Rise

Capillary Rise:

𝐶
ℎ𝑚𝑚 =
𝑒𝐷10

where

ℎ𝑚𝑚 = capillary rise in mm

𝐶 = a constant from 10 to 50 𝑚𝑚2
𝐷10 = effective size (mm)
𝑒 = void ratio

Range of Capillary Rise Soil type

0.1-0.2 m Coarse sand
0.3-1.2 m Fine sand
1.3-7.5 m Silt
7.6-23 m Clay

Pore-water pressure caused by capillary action:

𝑢 = −𝑆𝛾𝑤 ℎ
where

𝑆 = degree of saturation
ℎ = capillary rise

P a g e 94 | 103
Effective stress right above A:

𝜎 ′ = 16(4) = 𝟔𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂

Effective stress right below A:

𝜎 ′ = 16(4)— 0.60(9.81)(1.2) = 𝟕𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝑷𝒂

Effective stress at B:

𝜎 ′ = 16(4) + 17(1.2) = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂

Effective stress at C:

𝜎 ′ = 16(4) + 17(1.2) + (18 − 9.81)(6) = 𝟏𝟑𝟑. 𝟓𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂

P a g e 95 | 103
8.3 Effective Stress in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage

At A,

 Total stress: 𝜎𝐴 = 𝐻1 𝛾𝑤
 Pore-water pressure: 𝑢𝐴 = 𝐻1 𝛾𝑤
 Effective stress: 𝜎′𝐴 = 𝜎𝐴 − 𝑢𝐴 = 0

P a g e 96 | 103
At B,

 Total stress: 𝜎𝐵 = 𝐻1 𝛾𝑤 + 𝐻2 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡

 Pore-water pressure: 𝑢𝐵 = (𝐻1 +𝐻2 + ℎ)𝛾𝑤
 Effective stress: 𝜎 ′ 𝐵 = 𝜎𝐵 − 𝑢𝐵
= 𝐻2 (𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 ) − ℎ𝛾𝑤
= 𝐻2 𝛾′ − ℎ𝛾𝑤

At C,

 Total stress: 𝜎𝐶 = 𝐻1 𝛾𝑤 + 𝑧𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡

ℎ
 Pore-water pressure: 𝑢𝐶 = (𝐻1 +𝑧 + 𝑧)𝛾𝑤
𝐻2
 Effective stress: 𝜎 ′ 𝐶 = 𝜎𝐶 − 𝑢𝐶
ℎ
= 𝑧(𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 ) − 𝑧𝛾
𝐻2 𝑤
ℎ
= 𝑧𝛾′ −
𝐻2
𝑧𝛾𝑤

And ℎ/𝐻2 = 𝑖

𝜎 ′ 𝐶 = 𝑧𝛾′ − 𝑖𝑧𝛾𝑤

For critical 𝑖,

𝛾′
𝑖𝑐𝑟 =
𝛾𝑤

8.4 Effective Stress of Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage

The condition of downward seepage is shown. The water level in the soil tank is held
constant by adjusting the supply from the top and the outflow at the bottom.

P a g e 97 | 103
𝜎𝐶 = 𝐻1 𝛾𝑤 + 𝑧𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡

𝑢𝐶 = (𝐻1 +𝑧 − 𝑖𝑧)𝛾𝑤

𝜎 ′ 𝐶 = 𝑧𝛾 ′ + 𝑖𝑧𝛾𝑤

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8.5 Seepage Force

𝑃′ 1 − 𝑃′ 2 𝑖𝑧𝛾𝑤 𝐴
= = 𝑖𝛾𝑤
(Volume of soil 𝑧𝐴

P a g e 99 | 103
Example

Given: 𝑒 = 0.52, and 𝐺𝑠 = 2.67.

a. Determine 𝜎, 𝑢 and σ′ at A and B.

b. Determine seepage force.

Solution

(a)
(𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒) (2.67 + 0.52)
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝛾𝑤 = (9.81) = 20.59 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚3
1+𝑒 1 + 0.52

At A:

Total stress, 𝜎 = (0.7)(9.81) + (1)(20.59) = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟒𝟔 𝒌𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐

2
Pore-water pressure, 𝑢 = [(1 + 0.7) + ( ) (1)] (9.81) = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟒𝟖𝟕 𝒌𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐
2

Effective stress, 𝜎 ′ = 27.46 − 26.487 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟑 𝒌𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐

At B:

Total stress, 𝜎 = (0.7)(9.81) + (2)(20.59) = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟎𝟓 𝒌𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐

Pore-water pressure, 𝑢 = [(2 + 0.7) + 2](9.81) = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒌𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐

Effective stress, 𝜎 ′ = 27.46 − 26.487 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟒𝟑 𝒌𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐

P a g e 100 | 103
 (b)

2
𝑖= =1
2

𝑖𝛾𝑤 = (1)(9.81) = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝒌𝑵⁄𝒎𝟐

References

SKEMPTON, A. W. (1960). “Correspondence,” Geotechnique, Vol. 10, No. 4, 186.

TERZAGHI, K. (1922). “Der Grundbruch an Stauwerken und seine Verhütung,” Die

Wasserkraft, Vol. 17, 445–449.

TERZAGHI, K. (1925). Erdbaumechanik auf Bodenphysikalischer Grundlage, Dueticke,

Vienna.

TERZAGHI, K. (1936). “Relation Between Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering:

Presidential Address,” Proceedings, First International Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Boston, Vol. 3, 13–18.

P a g e 101 | 103
Assessing Learning__________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 10
Name: ____________________ Score: _________________
Section: __________________ Date: __________________

Directions: Read the problems carefully. Correct answers with NO/WRONG solution shall
not be considered.

1. Given: 𝐻1 = 1.5 𝑚, 𝐻2 = 2.5 𝑚, ℎ = 1.5 𝑚, 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 18.6 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚3 , and 𝑘 = 0.13 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐.

a. What is the upward seepage force per unit volume of soil?

b. Determine upward seepage. Given area of tank = 0.52 𝑚2 .

2. Refer to figure 8.16. Calculate 𝜎, 𝑢, 𝜎′at A, B, C, and D for the following cases and plot the
variations with depth. (Note: 𝑒 = void ratio, 𝑤 =moisture content, 𝐺𝑠 = specific gravity of soil
solids, 𝛾𝑑 = dry unit weight, and 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = saturated unit weight.)

𝐻1 = 1.5 𝑚 𝐻2 = 1.83 𝑚 𝐻3 = 2.44 𝑚

𝛾𝑑 = 17.6 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚3 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 18.87 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚3 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 19.65 𝑘𝑁 ⁄𝑚3

P a g e 102 | 103
3. Refer to figure shown. Determine 𝐻.

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