PME 3320

Mechanical Vibrations
Spring 2023

Lecture 1
Fundamentals of Vibration

Ming-Huang Li

Department of Power Mechanical Engineering

National Tsing Hua University
Hsinchu, Taiwan
Basic concepts of vibration

Slide 1
 Definition
• Vibrations are oscillations of a mechanical or structural
system about an equilibrium position.
• Vibration = any motion that repeats itself after an interval of
time
• Vibrations are initiated when an inertia element is
displaced from its equilibrium position due to an energy
imparted to the system through an external source.
• Vibration system involves transfer of potential energy to
kinetic energy and vice versa
• Vibratory System consists of:
1. spring or elasticity
2. mass or inertia
3. damper

Slide 2
 Non-conservative forces
• Non-conservative forces can dissipate or add energy to
the system. The block below slides on a surface with a
friction force developed between the block and the
surface. The friction force is non-conservative and
dissipates energy. If the block is given a displacement
from equilibrium and released, the energy dissipated by
the friction force eventually causes the motion to cease.

Free body
Model
diagram (FBD)
Slide 3
 Number of Degrees of Freedom
• The minimum number of independent coordinates
required to determine completely the positions of all parts
of a system at any instant of time defines the number of
degrees of freedom of the system.

Can also be described S-DOF

by x and y
 but x, y are not
independent

Two-DOF

Slide 4
 Discrete and continuous systems
• Systems with a finite number of degrees of freedom are
called discrete or lumped parameter systems, and those
with an infinite number of degrees of freedom are called
continuous or distributed systems.
• Most of the time, continuous systems are approximated
as discrete systems, and solutions are obtained in a
simpler manner.
Finite Element Analysis or
Method (FEA/FEM)

Continuous model of a
cantilever beam

Slide 5
 Steps in modeling a mechanical system

Source: Prof. Luis San Andrés at TAMU Slide 6

 Procedures of modeling a mechanical syst.
• Establish the necessary assumptions, provide pictorial
representations, free body diagrams, determine
similarities/difference from other systems, etc., i.e. bring the
REAL PROBLEM into an ANALYTICAL MODEL
• MATHEMATICAL MODELING:
(1) identify constraints & establish degrees of freedom
(2) apply the fundamental principles of motion to the
analytical model (e.g., conservation of energy)
(3) derive equations of motion governing the response of
the system
(4) give attention to initial conditions and external forcing
functions
• Find the dynamic behavior, i.e. solve the mathematical
model within the range of parameters of interest and
determine the goodness or badness of proposed design.

Source: Prof. Luis San Andrés at TAMU Slide 7

 Procedures of modeling a mechanical syst.

Source: Prof. Luis San Andrés at TAMU Slide 8

 Example 1.1: Mathematical modeling
• Continuous vs. Discrete. What model is the most
adequate to select?
• This is determined by the type of behavior the system is
expected to show (or desired to perform) for the
conditions of interest. Simplicity is most desirable, but
model must always replicate the physics of the system.

How to simplify the model ?

Slide 9
 Notes
• In the study of mechanical systems, we will concentrate
on the dynamics of (lumped parameter) linear systems.
These systems are deterministic and where the principle
of superposition holds. In a system there is a specified
set of dynamic variables called INPUTs (or excitations)
and a dependent set called OUTPUTs (or responses).
• For nonlinear systems, whose behavior depends greatly
on their initial state, we will generally consider small
amplitude motions or changes about an equilibrium
position. This assumption brings, most often, linearity into
the dynamics of the system of interest.

Source: Prof. Luis San Andrés at TAMU Slide 10

Basic mechanical components:
Spring, mass, and damper

Slide 11
 Springs
• Several types of springs can be identified in engineering
applications. In fact, any elastic or deformable body or
member, such as a cable, bar, beam, shaft or plate, can be
considered as a spring.
• Spring is a stiffness (compliant/ elastic) element that
conservative store potential or strain energy; and relate
the element force (torque) to a translational (angular)
displacement.
• A translational spring is said to be linear if the elongation
or reduction in length x is related to the applied force F as

𝑭𝑭 = 𝒌𝒌 � 𝒙𝒙
(Hooke’s Law)

Slide 12
 Deformation of springs
𝒍𝒍 - free length of the spring, with no
forces acting
𝒙𝒙 - elongation
±𝑭𝑭 – external force applied

F
Slope = k

Compressive Energy
Restoring stored
force
Tensile x

𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏
Strain (Potential) energy: 𝑼𝑼 = � 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 = � 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒌𝒌 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 − 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏
𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
Slide 13
 Nonlinear springs
• In vibration analysis, nonlinear springs whose force-
deflection relations are given by 𝑭𝑭 = 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃𝒙𝒙𝟑𝟑 are
commonly used (a > 0).
• Other examples of nonlinear
springs

Nonlinear springs w/
Bilinear nonlinearity cubic nonlinearity
Slide 14
 Linearization

Taylor’s series ≈ 𝟎𝟎
expansion about x*

• In general, for small amplitude motions about an

equilibrium point (x*), a local or linearized stiffness is
defined as: 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒌𝒌 = �
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒙𝒙∗ Slide 15
 Spring Constants of Elastic Elements (1)
• Review: Mechanics of Materials
• What’s the spring constant of a cantilever beam?

• Key point: solve the deflection function y(x) and z(x)

Slide 16
 Spring Constants of Elastic Elements (2)
• Solve for direction Y

𝑭𝑭𝒚𝒚 � 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
• If the force Fy is applied at the tip: 𝒚𝒚 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝑰𝑰 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 − 𝒙𝒙
𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚

• The equivalent spring constant referenced to 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒍𝒍 is

𝑭𝑭𝒚𝒚 𝟑𝟑𝑬𝑬𝑰𝑰𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚 𝟏𝟏
𝒌𝒌𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆,𝒚𝒚 = = 𝑰𝑰𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚 = 𝒘𝒘𝒅𝒅𝟑𝟑
𝒚𝒚 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒍𝟑𝟑 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

Slide 17
 Spring Constants of Elastic Elements (3)
• Solve for direction Z

𝑭𝑭𝒛𝒛 � 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
• If the force Fz is applied at the tip: 𝒛𝒛 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 − 𝒙𝒙
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝑰𝑰𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛

• The equivalent spring constant referenced to 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒍𝒍 is

𝑭𝑭𝒛𝒛 𝟑𝟑𝑬𝑬𝑰𝑰𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 𝟏𝟏
𝒌𝒌𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆,𝒛𝒛 = = 𝟑𝟑 𝑰𝑰𝒛𝒛𝒛𝒛 = 𝒅𝒅𝒘𝒘𝟑𝟑
𝒛𝒛 𝒙𝒙 = 𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒍 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏

Slide 18
 Example 1.4
• Cantilever beam with tip mass

• The effect of the self weight (or mass) of the beam can
also be included in finding the spring constant of the
beam (see Chapter 2).

Slide 19
 Combination of springs
• Springs in parallel Analysis:
𝑾𝑾 = 𝒌𝒌𝟏𝟏 𝜹𝜹𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 + 𝒌𝒌𝟐𝟐 𝜹𝜹𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝑾𝑾 = 𝒌𝒌𝟏𝟏 + 𝒌𝒌𝟐𝟐 𝜹𝜹𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
Let 𝑾𝑾 = 𝒌𝒌𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝜹𝜹𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝒌𝒌𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 = 𝒌𝒌𝟏𝟏 + 𝒌𝒌𝟐𝟐
𝒌𝒌𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 = 𝒌𝒌𝟏𝟏 + 𝒌𝒌𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒌𝒌𝒏𝒏
• Springs in series Analysis:
𝜹𝜹𝟏𝟏 + 𝜹𝜹𝟐𝟐 = 𝜹𝜹𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝑾𝑾 = 𝒌𝒌𝟏𝟏 𝜹𝜹𝟏𝟏 = 𝒌𝒌𝟐𝟐 𝜹𝜹𝟐𝟐 Force balance
Let 𝑾𝑾 = 𝒌𝒌𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝜹𝜹𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝒌𝒌𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝜹𝜹𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒌𝒌𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝜹𝜹𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝜹𝜹𝟏𝟏 = and 𝜹𝜹𝟐𝟐 =
𝒌𝒌𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝒌𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
= + +⋯
𝒌𝒌𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒌𝒌𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝒌𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒌𝒏𝒏
Slide 20
 Example 1.6
• Determine the torsional spring constant of the steel
propeller shaft.
• Review: Mechanics of Materials https://mathalino.com/

𝒌𝒌𝜽𝜽𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝒌𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐
𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻
𝜽𝜽 =
𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮
𝒌𝒌𝜽𝜽𝟏𝟏 � 𝒌𝒌𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐 𝑻𝑻 𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮
𝒌𝒌𝜽𝜽,𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 = → 𝒌𝒌𝜽𝜽 = =
𝒌𝒌𝜽𝜽𝟏𝟏 + 𝒌𝒌𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐 𝜽𝜽 𝑳𝑳

Slide 21
 Equivalent spring coefficients (Ex. 1.9) (1)
Assume 𝜃𝜃 is small, horizontal displacements
of points A, B, and C can be approximated as
𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑙𝑙1 � 𝜃𝜃 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑙𝑙2 � 𝜃𝜃 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙 � 𝜃𝜃
(Assume the force of the spring only acts in
the horizontal direction since 𝜃𝜃 is small)
Consider the moment equilibrium about O

𝐹𝐹 � 𝑙𝑙 = 𝑘𝑘1 𝑥𝑥1 � 𝑙𝑙1 + 𝑘𝑘2 𝑥𝑥2 � 𝑙𝑙2

𝑥𝑥1 � 𝑙𝑙1 𝑥𝑥2 � 𝑙𝑙2

𝑭𝑭 = 𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑘𝑘2 = 𝒌𝒌𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒙𝒙
𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙
Assume the rod 𝑙𝑙1 � 𝜃𝜃 � 𝑙𝑙1 𝑙𝑙2 � 𝜃𝜃 � 𝑙𝑙2
is massless 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑘𝑘2 = 𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 � 𝑙𝑙 � 𝜃𝜃
𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙
2 2
𝑙𝑙1 𝑙𝑙2
𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑘𝑘2
𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙
Slide 22
Equivalent spring coefficients (Ex. 1.9) (2)
Energy method

𝑈𝑈 = 𝑈𝑈1 + 𝑈𝑈2
1 1 1
𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑘𝑘1 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑘𝑘2 𝑥𝑥22
2 2
2 2 2

Since 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑙𝑙1 � 𝜃𝜃 𝑥𝑥2 = 𝑙𝑙2 � 𝜃𝜃 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙 � 𝜃𝜃

1 2
1 2
1 2
𝑘𝑘 𝑙𝑙𝜃𝜃 = 𝑘𝑘1 𝑙𝑙1 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑘𝑘2 𝑙𝑙2 𝜃𝜃
2 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 2 2
2 2
𝑙𝑙1 𝑙𝑙2
𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑘𝑘2
𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙

Slide 23
 Masses
• The mass of a body is a fundamental material property and
thought as the amount of matter within a body. The mass
(m) is a constant (at velocities well below the speed of light)
and not to be confused with its weight (W = mg).
• Mass enters the system dynamics through the fundamental
laws of motion (linear and angular momentum conservation)
• For translational systems
𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒙𝒙
𝑭𝑭 = 𝒎𝒎𝒙𝒙̈ = 𝒎𝒎 𝟐𝟐 𝒎𝒎 = � 𝝆𝝆𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝒅𝒅𝒕𝒕
• For rotational systems
𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝜽𝜽
𝑴𝑴 = 𝑱𝑱𝜽𝜽̈ = 𝑱𝑱 𝟐𝟐
𝒅𝒅𝒕𝒕
Source: Prof. Luis San
J as the mass moment of inertia: 𝑱𝑱 = � 𝝆𝝆𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 Andrés at TAMU

Slide 24
 Review: Kinetic Energy
• The kinetic energy (due to motion) is associated to
masses and moments of inertia.
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
Assumed rigid body: 𝑻𝑻 = 𝒎𝒎𝒙𝒙̇ 𝟐𝟐
𝑻𝑻 = 𝑱𝑱𝜽𝜽̇
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
Translational Rotational

𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙

𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙̇ 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙̇ 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙
∆𝑾𝑾 = � 𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭𝑭 = � 𝒎𝒎 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = � 𝒎𝒎 𝒅𝒅𝒕𝒕
𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐
𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙
𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙̇ 𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
=� 𝒎𝒎 ̇
𝒙𝒙𝒅𝒅𝒕𝒕 = � ̇ ̇
𝒎𝒎𝒙𝒙𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙 = � 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎 𝒙𝒙̇
𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏
𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐
= 𝒎𝒎 𝒙𝒙̇ 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎 𝒙𝒙̇ 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏 = 𝑻𝑻 𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 − 𝑻𝑻 𝒙𝒙𝟏𝟏
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
Kinetic Energy (T) is independent of the path followed; it is a function of
the end and beginning states.  The mass element is energy-
conservative since, work performed = change in kinetic energy Slide 25
 Combination of Masses: Case 1 (1)

• In many practical applications, several masses appear in

combination. For a simple analysis, we can replace these
masses by a single equivalent mass
Slide 26
 Combination of Masses: Case 1 (2)

Bar: massless

By assuming small angular displacements for the bar:

By equating the kinetic energy of the three-mass system to that of the

equivalent mass system, we obtain

Slide 27
 Combination of Masses: Case 2

Find the equivalent translational mass

=
Total kinetic energy = Equivalent translational
kinetic energy

Find the equivalent (rotational) mass moment of inertia

Slide 28
 Combination of Masses: Case 3

Find the eq. mass

referred to x(t)
(2)

Assumption: small displacements,

the equivalent mass can be
(3)
determined using the equivalence
(4) of the kinetic energies of the two
systems.
(5)

(5)
(1) (2) (3) (4)

Slide 29
 Damping elements
• In many practical systems, the vibrational energy is
gradually converted to heat or sound.
• Due to the reduction in the energy, the response, such as
the displacement of the system, gradually decreases. The
mechanism by which the vibrational energy is gradually
converted into heat or sound is known as damping.
• Damping is caused by non-conservative force
• A damper is assumed to have neither mass nor elasticity,
and damping force exists only if there is relative
velocity between the two ends of the damper.
• It is difficult to determine the causes of damping in
practical systems.

Slide 30
 Types of damping
• Viscous damping
• Viscous damping is the most commonly used damping
mechanism in vibration analysis. When mechanical systems
vibrate in a fluid medium such as air, gas, water, or oil, the
resistance offered by the fluid to the moving body causes energy
to be dissipated.
• Coulomb or Dry-Friction Damping (Chapter 2.9)
• The damping force is constant in magnitude but opposite in
direction to that of the motion of the vibrating body. It is caused
by friction between rubbing surfaces that either are dry or have
insufficient lubrication.
• Material or Solid or Hysteretic Damping
• When a material is deformed, energy is absorbed and dissipated
by the material. The effect is due to friction between the internal
planes, which slip or slide as the deformations take place.
• Also known as structural damping

Slide 31
 Viscous damping
Example: Parallel plates with a
viscous fluid in between
According to fluid mechanics,
the velocities of intermediate
fluid layers are assumed to vary
linearly between 0 and v
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦
Based on Newton’s law of viscous flow, shear stress is 𝜏𝜏 = 𝜇𝜇 = 𝜇𝜇
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ

Since damping force is 𝑭𝑭𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 × 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯

= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Extensive reading: Example 1.15 and 1.16

Slide 32
 Combination of damping
• Dampers in parallel
𝑭𝑭 = 𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 + 𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐

𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝑭𝑭 = 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗 + 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗 = 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 + 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗 = 𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒗𝒗

𝑭𝑭 𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 = 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 + 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐
𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 = 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 + 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒄𝒄𝒏𝒏

• Dampers in series 𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗 − 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏

For equilibrium,
𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎𝟎 𝑭𝑭 = 𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐
𝑭𝑭 𝑭𝑭 = 𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒗𝒗 − 𝟎𝟎
𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏
𝑭𝑭 𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
Assume v > v1 𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 = 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 − = −
𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
= +
𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
= + + ⋯+
𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒏𝒏 𝒄𝒄𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 𝒄𝒄𝒏𝒏 Slide 33
Harmonic motion and analysis

Slide 34
 Harmonic motion
• Oscillatory motion may repeat itself regularly, as in the
case of a simple pendulum, or it may display considerable
irregularity.
• If the motion is repeated after equal intervals of time, it is
called periodic motion.
• The simplest type of periodic motion is harmonic motion.

Simple harmonic motion (SHM)

Source: Wikipedia

Slide 35
Harmonic motion based on a scotch yoke mechanism

Displacement

Velocity

Acceleration

It can be seen that the acceleration is directly

proportional to the displacement. Such a
vibration, with the acceleration proportional to
the displacement and directed toward the
mean position, is known as simple harmonic
motion.

Slide 36
Vectorial representation of harmonic motion

= 𝒂𝒂

Euler’s
formula

= 𝒃𝒃

Slide 37
 Euler’s formula
Based on Taylor series expansion,

Euler’s
formula

and

Reading: 1.10.3 Complex Algebra

Slide 38
 Complex-number representation

Displacement

Velocity

Acceleration

Slide 39
Vectorial plots

𝑋𝑋1 = 𝐴𝐴1 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡

𝑋𝑋2 = 𝐴𝐴2 𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖 𝜔𝜔𝑡𝑡+𝜃𝜃

𝑋𝑋 = 𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑋2
𝐴𝐴2 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝛼𝛼 = tan−1
𝐴𝐴1 + 𝐴𝐴2 cos 𝜃𝜃

Slide 40
Definitions and terminology of harmonic motions (1)
• Cycle
• The movement of a vibrating body from its undisturbed or
equilibrium position to its extreme position in one direction, then
to the equilibrium position, then to its extreme position in the
other direction, and back to equilibrium position is called a cycle
of vibration.
• The angular displacement of one revolution is 2π
• Amplitude
• The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from its
equilibrium position is called the amplitude of vibration.
• Period of oscillation
• The time taken to complete one cycle of motion is known as the
period of oscillation or time period and is denoted by τ

ω  circular/ angular frequency

[rad/sec]

Slide 41
Definitions and terminology of harmonic motions (2)
• Frequency of oscillation
• The number of cycles per unit time is called the frequency of
oscillation or simply the frequency and is denoted by f

[1/sec, or Hz]

• Phase angle
Two “synchronous” vector
 Same frequency

The maximum of the second vector would occur φ radians earlier than that
of the first vector.  φ is the phase difference
Slide 42
Definitions and terminology of harmonic motions (3)
• Natural frequency
• If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own,
the frequency with which it oscillates without external forces is
known as its natural frequency.
• Will be discussed in the next chapter
• Beats
• When two harmonic motions, with frequencies close to one
another, are added, the resulting motion exhibits a phenomenon
known as beats.

Slide 43
 Harmonic Analysis
• A periodic function can be expressed by Fourier series
representation

𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋⁄𝜏𝜏 is the fundamental frequency

Slide 44
Frequency spectrum

Slide 45