Basic Heat Transfer

Dr. Ammar Alkhalidi

C329
[email protected]

1
 Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Understand how thermodynamics and heat transfer are related to
each other,
• Distinguish thermal energy from other forms of energy, and heat
transfer from other forms of energy transfer,
• Perform general energy balances as well as surface energy
balances,
• Understand the basic mechanisms of heat transfer, which are
conduction, convection, and radiation, and Fourier's law of heat
conduction, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan–Boltzmann
law of radiation,
• Identify the mechanisms of heat transfer that occur
simultaneously in practice,
• Develop an awareness of the cost associated with heat losses,
and
• Solve various heat transfer problems encountered in practice.
Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy

• What is heat transfer?

Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature
difference.

• What is thermal energy?

Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation,
vibration and electronic states of the atoms and molecules
that comprise matter. It represents the cumulative effect of
microscopic activities and is directly linked to the temperature
of matter.
 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
• The science of thermodynamics deals with the
amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes
a process from one equilibrium state to
another, and makes no reference to how long
the process will take.
• The science of heat transfer deals
with the determination of the rates
of energy that can be transferred
from one system to another as a
result of temperature difference.
 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states
and changes from one equilibrium state to
another. Heat transfer, on the other hand, deals
with systems that lack thermal equilibrium, and
thus it is a nonequilibrium phenomenon.
• Therefore, the study of heat transfer cannot be
based on the principles of thermodynamics
alone.
• However, the laws of thermodynamics lay the
framework for the science of heat transfer.
 Heat Transfer
• The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence
of a temperature difference.
• The second law requires that heat
be transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
• The temperature difference is the driving force for
heat transfer.
• The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction depends
on the magnitude of the temperature gradient in that
direction.
• The larger the temperature gradient, the higher the
rate of heat transfer.
 DO NOT confuse or interchange the meanings of Thermal Energy, Temperature
and Heat Transfer
Quantity Meaning Symbol Units
Thermal Energy+ Energy associated with microscopic
U or u J or J/kg
behavior of matter

Temperature A means of indirectly assessing the

amount of thermal energy stored in matter
T K or °C

Heat Transfer Thermal energy transport due to

temperature gradients

Heat Amount of thermal energy transferred Q

over a time interval  t  0
J

Heat Rate Thermal energy transfer per unit time q W

Heat Flux Thermal energy transfer per unit time q  W/m 2

and surface area

+
U  Thermal energy of system
u  Thermal energy per unit mass of system
8
Modes of Heat Transfer

Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction: Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas or liquid) due to

the random motion of its constituent atoms, molecules and /or
electrons.

Convection: Heat transfer due to the combined influence of bulk and

random motion for fluid flow over a surface.

Radiation: Energy that is emitted by matter due to changes in the electron

configurations of its atoms or molecules and is transported as
electromagnetic waves (or photons).

• Conduction and convection require the presence of temperature variations in a material

medium.
• Although radiation originates from matter, its transport does not require a material
medium and occurs most efficiently in a vacuum.
Process Identification

Problem 1.87(a): Process identification for single-and double-pane windows

Schematic:

qconv,1 Convection from room air to inner surface of first pane

qrad,1 Net radiation exchange between room walls and inner surface of first pane
qcond,1 Conduction through first pane
qconv ,s Convection across airspace between panes
qrad,s Net radiation exchange between outer surface of first pane and inner surface of second pane (across airspace)
qcond,2 Conduction through a second pane
qconv,2 Convection from outer surface of single (or second) pane to ambient air
qrad,2 Net radiation exchange between outer surface of single (or second) pane and surroundings such as the ground
qs Incident solar radiation during day; fraction transmitted to room is smaller for double pane
 Conduction
Definition
• Transfer of energy from the more energetic to
the less energetic particles of a substance due
to interaction between the particles.

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 Heat Transfer Rates
Conduction:
General (vector) form of Fourier’s Law:

q   k T

Heat flux Thermal conductivity Temperature gradient

W/m 2
W/m  K °C/m or K/m
Application to one-dimensional, steady conduction across a
plane wall of constant thermal conductivity:

dT T T
qx   k  k 2 1
dx L
T1  T2
qx  k (1.2)
L

Heat rate (W): qx  qx  A

 Conduction
• Under steady state condition

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15
Heat Transfer Rates: Convection

Heat Transfer Rates

Convection
Relation of convection to flow over a surface and development
of velocity and thermal boundary layers:

Newton’s law of cooling:

q  h Ts  T  (1.3a)

h : Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2  K)

Convection Processes

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 Convection
Newton Low of Cooling
• q“ convective Heat flux,
(W/m2)
• h convective Heat
transfer coefficient
(W/m2.K)
• (Ts-T∞) temperature
difference
• q” presumed to be +ve in
the case of Ts is lower
than T∞
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Convection example

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Convection example

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Convection example, solution

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Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation

Heat Transfer Rates

Radiation Heat transfer at a gas/surface interface involves radiation
emission from the surface and may also involve the
absorption of radiation incident from the surroundings
(irradiation, G), as well as convection  if Ts  T  .
Energy outflow due to emission:
E   Eb   Ts4 (1.5)
E : Emissive power  W/m 2 
 : Surface emissivity  0    1
Eb : Emissive power of a blackbody (the perfect emitter)
 : Stefan-Boltzmann constant  5.67 10-8 W/m 2  K 4 

Energy absorption due to irradiation:

Gabs   G (1.6)

Gabs :Absorbed incident radiation (W/m 2 )

 : Surface absorptivity  0    1
G : Irradiation  W/m 2 
Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation (cont.)

Heat Transfer Rates

Irradiation: Special case of surface exposed to large
surroundings of uniform temperature, Tsur

G  Gsur   Tsur4

If    , the net radiation heat flux from the

surface due to exchange with the surroundings is:
   Eb Ts    G   Ts4  Tsur4 
qrad (1.7)
Heat Transfer Rates: Radiation (cont.)

Heat Transfer Rates

Alternatively,

  hr Ts  Tsur 
qrad (1.8)

hr : Radiation heat transfer coefficient  W/m2  K 

hr   Ts  Tsur  Ts2  Tsur2  (1.9)

For combined convection and radiation,

q  qconv   h Ts  T   hr Ts  Tsur 

  qrad (1.10)
Radiation example

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Alternative Formulations

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
(FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS)
• An important tool in heat transfer analysis, often
providing the basis for determining the temperature
of a system.

• Alternative Formulations
Time Basis:
At an instant
or
Over a time interval

Type of System:
Control volume
Control surface
 Conservation of energy requirement
• First low of thermodynamics
– Q is the net heat transfer
– W work done by the system

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First law of thermodynamics

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First law of thermodynamics

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CV at an Instant and over a Time Interval

APPLICATION TO A CONTROL VOLUME

• At an Instant of Time:

Note representation of system by a

control surface (dashed line) at the boundaries.

Surface Phenomena
E&in E&out :
, rate of thermal and/or mechanical energy transfer across the control
surface due to heat transfer, fluid flow and/or work interactions.
Volumetric Phenomena

E&g : rate of thermal energy generation due to conversion from another energy form
(e.g., electrical, nuclear, or chemical); energy conversion process occurs within the system.

E&st : rate of change of energy storage in the system.

Conservation of Energy
dEst (1.12c)
E in E out E g dt  E&st
&  &  & 
Each term has units of J/s or W.

• Over a Time Interval

Ein  Eout  Eg  Est (1.12b)

Each term has units of J.

Closed System

• Special Cases (Linkages to Thermodynamics)

(i) Transient Process for a Closed System of Mass (M) Assuming Heat Transfer
to the System (Inflow) and Work Done by the System (Outflow).

Over a time interval

Q  W  Esttot (1.12a)

For negligible changes in potential or kinetic energy

Q  W  U t
Internal thermal energy

At an instant
 dU t
q W 
dt
Open System
(ii) Steady State for Flow through an Open System without Phase Change or
Generation:

At an Instant of Time:
 2  •
m& ut  pv  V  gz   q m& ut  pv  V
2
 gz   W  0 (1.12d)
 2 in 
2
out
•  pv   flow work
•  ut  pv   i  enthalpy
• For an ideal gas with constant specific heat:
iin  iout  c p Tin  Tout 
• For an incompressible liquid:
uin  uout  c Tin  Tout 
 pv in   pv out  0
• For systems with significant heat transfer:

   
V
2
2 in
 V
2
2 out
0

 gz in   gz out  0
 First law of thermodynamics

Cp: specific heat at constant pressure

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 First law of thermodynamics

• Mass flow rate ρ density, V velocity and Ac

cross sectional area
• Volumetric flow rate

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Energy example

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Energy example

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Problem: Electronic Cooling

Problem 1.40: Power dissipation from chips operating at a surface temperature

of 85C and in an enclosure whose walls and air are at 25C for
(a) free convection and (b) forced convection.
Schematic:

Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Radiation exchange between a small surface and a large enclosure, (3)
Negligible heat transfer from sides of chip or from back of chip by conduction through the substrate.
Analysis:
Pelec  qconv  qrad  hA Ts  T    A Ts4  Tsur4 
A  L2   0.015m   2.25×10-4 m2
2

(a) If heat transfer is by natural convection,


qconv  CA Ts  T  = 4.2W/m 2  K 5/4 2.25 10-4 m 2
5/4
  60K  = 0.158W
5/4

qrad  0.60  2.25 10-4 m 2  5.67×10-8 W/m 2  K 4  3584  298  K = 0.065W

4 4

Pelec  0.158W  0.065W = 0.223W

(b) If heat transfer is by forced convection,

qconv  hA Ts  T   250W/m 2  K 4  2.25 10-4 m 2   60K   3.375W
Pelec  3.375W  0.065W  3.44W
Surface Energy Balance

THE SURFACE ENERGY BALANCE

A special case for which no volume or mass is encompassed by the control surface.
Conservation of Energy (Instant in Time):
E&in  E&out  0 (1.13)

• Applies for steady-state and transient conditions.

• With no mass and volume, energy storage and generation are not pertinent to the energy
balance, even if they occur in the medium bounded by the surface.

Consider surface of wall with heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation.

  qconv
qcond   qrad
  0

k
T1  T2
L
 
 h T2  T    2 T24  Tsur
4
0
Methodology

METHODOLOGY OF FIRST LAW ANALYSIS

• On a schematic of the system, represent the control surface by
dashed line(s).

• Choose the appropriate time basis.

• Identify relevant energy transport, generation and/or storage terms

by labeled arrows on the schematic.

• Write the governing form of the Conservation of Energy requirement.

• Substitute appropriate expressions for terms of the energy equation.

• Solve for the unknown quantity.

Example 1.4

Example 1.4: Application to thermal response of a conductor with Ohmic

heating (generation):

• Involves change in thermal energy and for an incompressible substance.

dU t dT
 Mc
dt dt

• Heat transfer is from the conductor (negative q )

• Generation may be viewed as electrical work done on the system (negativeW& )
Example 1.6

Example 1.6: Application to isothermal solid-liquid phase change in a container:

Latent Heat
of Fusion

Ut  U lat  Mhsf

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45
Problem: Silicon Wafer

Problem 1.57: Thermal processing of silicon wafers in a two-zone furnace.

Determine (a) the initial rate of change of the wafer
temperature and (b) the steady-state temperature.

KNOWN: Silicon wafer positioned in furnace with top and bottom surfaces exposed to hot
and cool zones, respectively.
FIND: (a) Initial rate of change of the wafer temperature from a value of Tw,i  300 K, and (b)
steady-state temperature. Is convection significant? Sketch the variation of wafer temperature
with vertical distance.

SCHEMATIC:

•
Problem: Silicon Wafer (cont.)
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Wafer temperature is uniform, (2) Hot and cool zones have uniform
temperatures, (3) Radiation exchange is between small surface (wafer) and large enclosure
(chamber, hot or cold zone), and (4) Negligible heat losses from wafer to pin holder.

ANALYSIS: The energy balance on the wafer includes convection to the upper (u) and lower
(l) surfaces from the ambient gas, radiation exchange with the hot- and cool-zones and an energy
storage term for the transient condition. Hence, from Eq. (1.12c),

E&in  E&out  E&st

or, per unit surface area
d Tw
 h  qrad,
qrad,  c  qcv,
 u  qcv,
 l   cd
dt
 4
 Tsur, 4
  4 4
 dT
h  Tw   Tsur,c  Tw  hu Tw  T   hl Tw  T    cd dt
w

(a) For the initial condition, the time rate of change of the wafer temperature is determined
using the foregoing energy balance with Tw  Tw,i  300 K,

   
0.65  5.67  108 W / m 2  K 4 15004  3004 K 4  0.65  5.67  108 W / m2  K 4 3304  3004 K 4

8W / m2  K  300  700  K  4 W / m2  K 300  700  K 

2700 kg / m3  875J / kg  K 0.00078 m  dTw / dt i

 dTw / dt i  104 K/s <

Problem: Silicon Wafer (cont.)
(b) For the steady-state condition, the energy storage term is zero, and the energy balance can
be solved for the steady-state wafer temperature, Tw  Tw, ss .


0.65 15004  Tw,ss
4
  
K 4  0.65 3304  Tw4, ss K 4

   
8 W / m 2  K Tw,ss  700 K  4 W / m 2  K Tw,ss  700 K  0

Tw,ss  1251 K <

To assess the relative importance of convection, solve the energy balances assuming no
convection. With  dTw / dt i  101 K/s and Tw, ss  1262 K , we conclude that the radiation
exchange processes control the initial rate of change and the steady-state temperature.

If the wafer were elevated above the present operating position, its temperature would
increase, since the lower surface would begin to experience radiant exchange with
progressively more of the hot zone. Conversely, by lowering the wafer, the upper surface
would experience less radiant exchange with the hot zone, and its temperature would decrease.
The temperature-distance relation might appear as shown in the sketch.
49
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister

Problem 1.64: Cooling of spherical canister used to store reacting chemicals.

Determine (a) the initial rate of change of the canister temperature,
(b) the steady-state temperature, and (c) the effect of convection
on the steady-state temperature.

535 J/kg·K

KNOWN: Inner surface heating and new environmental conditions associated with a spherical
shell of prescribed dimensions and material.

FIND: (a) Governing equation for variation of wall temperature with time and the initial rate of
change, (b) Steady-state wall temperature and, (c) Effect of convection coefficient on canister
temperature.
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister (cont.)

SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Negligible temperature gradients in wall, (2) Constant properties, (3) Uniform,
time-independent heat flux at inner surface.

PROPERTIES: Table A.1, Stainless Steel, AISI 302:  = 8055 kg/m3, c p = 535 J/kgK.

ANALYSIS: (a) Performing an energy balance on the shell at an instant of time, E&in  E&out  E&st .
Identifying relevant processes and solving for dT/dt,

    4

qi 4 ri2  h 4 ro2 T  T     ro3  ri3 c p
3
 dT
dt
dT

3  q r 2  hr 2 T  T   . <
 
 
dt  c r 3  r 3 
i i o
p o i
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister (cont.)

Substituting numerical values for the initial condition, find

 W W 
3 105  0.5m   500
2
 0.6m   500  300  K 
2
dT
  m2 m2  K 
J 
0.6    0.5   m3
kg
dt i 8055 535  3 3
m3 kg  K  
dT
 0.084 K/s <
dt i

(b) Under steady-state conditions with E&st = 0, it follows that

   
qi 4 ri2  h 4 ro2 T  T 

2 2
qi  ri  105 W/m2  0.5m  <
T  T     300K     439K
h  ro  2
500W/m  K  0.6m 

(c) Parametric calculations show a sharp increase in temperature with decreasing values of h < 1000
W/m2K. For T > 380 K, boiling will occur at the canister surface, and for T > 410 K a condition known
as film boiling (Chapter 10) will occur. The condition corresponds to a precipitous reduction in h and
increase in T.
Problem: Cooling of Spherical Canister (cont.)

Although the canister remains well below the melting point of stainless steel for h = 100 W/m2K, boiling
should be avoided, in which case the convection coefficient should be maintained at h > 1000 W/m2K.

COMMENTS: The governing equation of part (a) is a first order, nonhomogenous differential equation

 
with constant coefficients. Its solution is    S/ R  1  e  Rt  i e  Rt , where   T  T ,

   
S  3qi ri2 /  c p ro3  ri3 , R  3hro2 / c p ro3  ri3 . Note results for t   and for S = 0.
Units

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