Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem

Theorem: Suppose a two functions f(x) and g(x) satisfy the following conditions

1. f(x) and g(x) are continuous in closed interval [a, b]

2. f(x) and g(x) are differential in open interval (a, b)
3.
Then their exists at one point ‘c’ in the open interval ( a, b) such that

Proof: Let us consider a new function defined by

………………………….(1)

where k is constant to be chosen appropriately.

From the first two given conditions it follows that is continuous in [a, b] and
differentiable in (a, b). Also, we find that

Therefore, the condition holds if

Hence , if we chosen the constant ‘k’ as given by (2) , then satisfies all the three
conditions of Rolle’s theorem , there exist at least one point ‘c’ in the open interval (a, b) such
that

From (1) and (2), we find the result that is same as

…………………………………… (3)

This completes the proof.

Remarks

1) In the right band side of result (2), we have . Because if,

,

Then g(x) satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem and we get

For some ‘c’ in (a, b), which is not true. [It has been assumed that for all x in
(a, b)]
2) There may exist more than one c in (a, b)for which the result (3) holds.
3) If we take g(x) = x, then the result (3) becomes

which is the Lagrange Mean Value Theorem.

Example 1. Verify Cauchy’s Mean Value theorem for the functions f(x) = ex and g(x) = e-x in
[a, b]
Solution : Here f(x) = ex and g(x) = e-x , which yield f1(x) = ex and g1(x) = - e-x. Thus f(x) and
g(x) are differentiable and therefore continuous, and g 1(x) is not equal to zero for all x. Hence
f(x) and g(x) satisfy all the three conditions of the Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem in every
interval [a, b].

Now the result

Here , the result (1) holds, and ‘c’ lies between ‘a’ and ‘b’

Thus, for f(x) = ex and g(x) = e-x defined in the interval [a, b], the Cauchy’s Mean Value
Theorem is verified.
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Example 2. Verify Cauchy’s Mean Value theorem for the functions f(x) = x3 and g(x) = x2
in [1, 2]
Solution: Here f(x) = x3 and g(x) = x2, which yield f1(x) = 3x2 and g1(x) = 2x. Thus f(x) and
g(x) are differentiable and therefore continuous, and g1(x) is not equal to zero for all x. Hence
f(x) and g(x) satisfy all the three conditions of the Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem in every
interval [a, b].

Now the result

Here , the result (1) holds, and ‘c’ lies between 1 and 2

Thus, for f(x) = x3 and g(x) = x2 defined in the interval [1, 2], the Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem
is verified.

Exercise

Verify Cauchy’s Mean value theorem for the following functions. In each case, find an
appropriate ‘c’
1.

2.

3.

4.

Taylor’s Theorem

Theorem: Suppose a function f(x) satisfies the following conditions

1. and its n-1 derivatives are continuous in closed interval [a, b]

2. is differentiable in (a, b)

Then there exist at least one point ‘c’ in the open interval (a, b) such that

(1)
Remark: For n =1, The Taylor’s series reduces to the Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem.
For n = 2, 3, , . . ., we obtained second third, …. Mean Value theorems.

Aliter : Taking b - a = h and , where , the result (1) may be put

it in the following alternate form.

Note : The last term on the right hand side of the result (2) is known as reminder after n terms in
the Taylor’s theorem. This reminder is called the reminder in Lagrange form. The reminder can
be rewritten in other forms also.

Taylor’s Series

Taking in expression (2) we obtained

This expression gives the expansion of f(x) in powers of (x - a), and the expansion contains n+1
terms. Let us denote the sum of the first n terms by and the last term by that is,

The expression (3) may be put it in the form

(6)

Now suppose that possesses derivatives of all orders and that tends to zero as
. Then taking the limit as on both sides of equation (6), we get
(bearing in mind that the left hand side is independent of n)

The right hand side of (7) is an infinite series in ascending powers of x – a. This series is called
the Taylor’s Series of the function f(x) about the point a. It is also referred to as the Taylor’s
Series expansion of f(x) in powers series about x = a.

Note: Changing x to x+h and a to x in (7), we obtain

The right hand side of (8) is the Taylor’s series expansion of f(x+h) in ascending powers of h
about the point x.

Example.1 Expand in a series of powers of ( x-1) and hence evaluate

log(1.1) correct to four decimal places.

Solution: The series expansion of in powers of (x-1) is given by

For the given , we have , and

So that , using these in equation (i), we get

This is the expansion of logx in powers of (x - 1)
Taking x = 1.1 in this expansion, we get

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Example.2 Obtain the power series expansion of about . Hence find

the approximate value of

Solution: We are required to expand in powers of . This expansion is

given by the formula

We note that , and

Using this in equation (i), we get

This is the expansion of about the point

To determine , let us take radian. In this case

The above equation become

_____________________________________________________________________________
Example.3 Obtain the Taylor’s series expansion of about up to
fourth degree terms.
Solution: We are required to expand in powers of up to fourth
degree terms. This expansion is given by the formula

We note that , and

Using this in equation (i), we get

This is the expansion of about the point

Exercises
1. Expand in a power series of (x-1) upto the term containing the fourth degree.

2. Expand in a series of powers of up to the term containing .

Hence find an approximate value of

3. Using Taylor’s series find the value of correct to four decimal places.
Maclaurin’s Expansion

We know the Taylor’s Expansion’s of f(x) about x = a is given as follows

For a = 0, this expansion becomes

This result is known as Maclaurin' Theorem

If we suppose that f(x) possesses of all orders derivatives of all orders and that the reminder after

n terms tends to zero as , then the expression (2) becomes

This is the Taylor’s series expansion of f(x) about the point x = 0. This expansion is known as
the Maclaurin’s series expansion of f(x)

The right hand side of equation (3) , which is the power series in ascending powers of x
Suppose

The expression (3) takes the form

Some standard Maclaurin’s series

1. Exponential Series

Let us take

Hence, the Maclaurin’s series expansion of

The right hand side of above series known as exponential series.

2. Logarithmic Series
Let us take

Hence, the Maclaurin’s series expansion of

The right hand side of above series known as logarithmic series.

3. Cosine Series
Let us take

Hence, the Maclaurin’s series expansion of

The right hand side of above series known as cosine series.

Example.1 Expand tanx as ascending powers of x by using Maclaurin’s series up to 5th

degree terms.
Solution:

We find that
Hence the Maclaurin’s series expansion of upto 5th degree is

Example.1 Expand as ascending powers of x by using Maclaurin’s series up to

5th
degree terms.
Solution:

We find that

Differentiating equation (2) with respect to x n times by using Leibnitz’s theorem, we get

For x = 0, this becomes

Hence the Maclaurin’s series expansion yields

______________________________________________________________________________

Example.3 Prove that for

Solution : Recall the Maclaurin’s Theorem reads

For we find , and

The expression (1) becomes

For n =3 this yields

For n=5, expression (2) becomes

Since

In view of (3) and (4), these inequality yields

This is the required result

Exercises

I Obtain the Maclaurin’s series expansions for the following functions

II Prove the following by Maclaurin’s theorem

INDETERMINATE FORMS :

In connection with science and engineering we encounter the equations which are not
determined for particular values of a parameter. For example which is an
indeterminate form.

Then

which do not have

any definite value. Such an expression is called an indeterminate form.

The other indeterminate forms are

L’ Hospital ’s Rule

If f(x) and g(x) are two functions such that

Note :

(i)

(ii) Some times L’ Hospital Rule used repeatedly to get the value of the limit. But at each

step it has to be checked for indeterminate form before applying the rule.

(iii) While in the evaluation process some times we use

Examples : Evaluation of Indeterminate forms :

.
Sphere
Definition: A sphere is the locus of a point which remains at a constant distance from a
fixed point. The fixed point is called the centre and the constant distance is the radius
of the sphere.
Let be the centre and r be the radius of a sphere S. Consider a point
on the sphere. Then the equation of the sphere is given by

- (1)
If the center of the sphere is the origin the the equation is
.
General equation:
Expanding (1), we get

This equation is of the form -(2)

where .

Since is the centre and r is the radius of the sphere (2) represents the

equation of the sphere whose center is and radius is .

Example 1. Find the equation of the sphere whose centre is (3,-1,4) and which
passes through the point (1,-2,0).
Solution. Since (3,-1,4) is the centre, equation is
The sphere passes through the point (1,-2,0), we have

The required equation is .

2. Obtain the equation of the sphere which passes through the points (1,0,0), (0,1,0),
(0,0,1) and which has its centre on the plane .
Solution. Let be the required equation. Since it
passes through the given points, we have

⟹ .

Its centre lies on the plane .

⟹d=3.
Required equation is

3. a) Find the equation of the sphere which has and as the

extremities of a diameter.
b) Find the equation of the sphere having the points (2,1,-3) and (1,-2,4) as the
ends of a diameter Find its centre and radius.

Solution. Consider a point P(x,y,z) on the sphere S having the points A and

B as the extrimities of a diameter. Then AP and BP are at right angles. The

direction ratios of AP are and those of BP are

.
D

A B
C

is the required equation of the

sphere.
b) Given A=(2,1,-3), B= (1,-2,4)
Equation is .
⟹
Centre= .

And radius= = .

Intersection of a plane and a sphere:

Figure

Section of a sphere by a plane is a base circle and the section of a sphere by a plane
through its centre is called a great circle.
The equations

And

taken together represents a circle. Having center M and the radius

Sphere through a circle of intersection

The equation of a sphere that passes through the circle of intersection of the sphere and
the plane is given by S+kT=0 where S=0 is the equation of the sphere and T=0 is the
equation of the plane.

Example 1. Find the centre, the radius and the area of the circle
, .
Solution. Centre of the sphere,
And radius,

Let be the centre of the circle. Then the direction ratios of CM are
Since CM is perpendicular to the plane

⟹
Since M lies on the given plane, we have

⟹
⟹ t=1
and

Radius of the circle=

Area of the circle = .

2. Find the equation of the sphere that passes through the circle
, and has its centre on the plane
.
Solution. Equation of a sphere is

Centre=

Since the centre lies on the plane , we have

Required equation of a sphere is .

3. Find the equation of the sphere having the circle ,

as a great circle.
Solution. The equation of the sphere passing through the given circle is

The given circle is a great circle of this sphere if the centre of the sphere and the
centre of the circle coincide. This is possible if the centre of the sphere lies in the
plane of the given circle.
Center of the sphere is .

This centre lies on the plane if

⟹
Equation of the sphere is

Exercise.
1.Show that the plane cuts the sphere in a circle
of radius unity. Also find the equation of the sphere which has this circle as a great
circle.

2. Find the spheres passing through the circle , and

touching the plane .

Orthogonal spheres:
Two spheres are said to be Orthogonal if the tangent planes at a point of intersection
are at right angles. The radii of such spheres through their point of intersection P being
perpendicular to the tangent planes at P are also at right angles.

Figure

Thus the spheres cut orthogonally , if the square of the distance between their centers
equal to the sum of the squares of their radii.

1 . Show that the condition for the spheres

and to cut orthogonally is

.
Solution : The centers of the sphere are , and

Spheres will cut orthogonally if

.

Simplifying, is the required condition.

Tangent plane to a sphere:

A plane q touches a sphere S if the perpendicular distance of the centre C of S from q
is equal to the radius r of S. Then q is called a tangent plane to S.

Equation of the sphere S is , . Let

be the point of contact between S and q.

Then the direction ratios of CA= . Consider any point P(x,y,z) in the

tangent plane . The the direction ratios of .

Since the radius CA is perpendicular to q, we have

⟹
Since the point A lies on S, we have

This is the equation of the tangent plane q to S at the point .

Example 1. Find the equation of the tangent plane at a point to the sphere
.
Solution. , d=0
Equation of the tangent plane is
⟹ .

2. Find the tangent planes to the sphere which are

parallel to the plane .
Solution. Any plane parallel to the given plane is
This plane is a tangent plane to the given sphere S if the perpendicular distance p of
the centre C of S is equal to the radius r of S.

if =3

⟹ or -8.

Equation of the tangent plane are and .

Right Circular Cone :

Definition : A right circular cone is a surface generated by a straight line which passes
through a fixed point and makes a constant angle with a fixed line.
The constant angle θ is called the semi vertical angle, a fixed point is called a vertex
and the fixed line AP is called the axis.

Figure: A(vertex)

Generator

Axis

C B
p
Equation of a right circular cone:

Let be the co-ordinates of the vertex A and be the direction ratios

of the axis. Consider any point on the cone. Then the direction ratios of the
generator AP are and

Or

This equation holds for any point P on the cone and hence is the equation of the right
circular cone.

Example 1: Find the equation of the right circular cone whose vertex is the origin,

whose axis is the line and which has semi vertical angle of .

Solution. Given . Direction ratios of the axis are and

.
Then the required equation is

Example 2: Find the equation of the right circular cone generated when the straight
line revolves about z- axis.
Solution. Let be any point on the cone. The vertex is the point of
intersection of the line and the z- axis.

Therefore the vertex A is (0,0,2).

A generator of the cone is . Direction ratios of the generator are (0,3,2)

and the axis are (0,0,1). The semi vertical angle θ is given by

Let P(x,y,z) be any point on the cone so that the direction ratios of AP are (x,y,z-2).
Since AP makes an angle θ with AZ, we have

⟹ , which is the required equation of the cone.

Right circular cylinder:

Definition: A right circular cylinder is a surface generated by a straight line which is

parallel to a straight line and is at a constant distance from it. The constant distance is

called the radius of the cylinder.

Equation of a right circular cylinder:

P L

R Q
A
Let (l,m,n) be the direction cosines of the axis and A(x 0, y0,z0) be a point on L. Consider

an arbitrary point P(x,y,z) on the cylinder. If Q is the foot of the perpendicular from P

onto L, then PQ=R, the radius of the cylinder. Also AQ is the projection of AP on L.

Also

Then is the required equation of the cylinder.

Example 1. The radius of a normal section of a right circular cylinder is 2 units.

The axis lies along the straight line . Find its equation.

Solution.

Figure

R P
Z

A Q

Let P(x,y,z) be any point on the cylinder. Draw PN perpendicular to the axis AN. Then
PN=2.
AN is the projection of AP on AN. Directio ratios of AN are (2,-1,5).

Direction cosines of AN=

Then the required equation is

.
Example 2: Find the equation of the right circular cylinder having the circle
, as base circle.
Solution.

The axis of the cylinder is the line through the centre of S and perpendicular to the
plane q. We note that O(0,0,0) is the center of S and (1,-1,1) are the direction ratios of
the normal to q.

The direction cosines of the axis are . The perpendicular distance from O

on to the plane q is

If Q is a point common to S and q, then OQ= radius of the sphere=3.

Let P(x,y,z) be any point on the cylinder. Then ZP=

The equation of the cylinder is

⟹ .