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MODULE 2.3

ALBERT BANDURA
 born December 4, 1925, Mundare, Alberta, Canada—died July 26, 2021, Stanford, California, U.S.
 Canadian-born American psychologist and originator of social cognitive theory who is probably best
known for his modeling study on aggression, referred to as the “Bobo doll” experiment, which
demonstrated that children can learn behaviours through the observation of adults.

BANDURA'S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
 Social learning theory is based on the work of psychologist Albert Bandura. Bandura believed that the
conditioning and reinforcement process could not sufficiently explain all of human learning.
 For example, how can the conditioning process account for learned behaviors that have not been
reinforced through classical conditioning or operant conditioning According to social learning theory,
behaviors can also be learned through observation and modeling.

WHAT TO KNOW ABOUT SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

1. People Can Learn Through Observation

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
 A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
 A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films,
television programs, or online media.
 A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.

2. Mental States Are Important to Learning

 Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning
and behavior. And he realized that reinforcement does not always come from outside sources. 1Your
own mental state and motivation play an important role in determining whether a behavior is learned or
not.
 He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal rewards, such as pride, satisfaction, and a
sense of accomplishment.7 This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning
theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place social learning theory with
behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.

3. Learning Does Not Necessarily Lead to Change

 So how do we determine when something has been learned? In many cases, learning can be seen
immediately when a new behavior is displayed. When you teach a child to ride a bicycle, you can
quickly determine if learning has occurred by having the child ride his or her bike unassisted.
 But sometimes we are able to learn things even though that learning might not be immediately obvious.
While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning
demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.
 Bandura's child development theory suggests that observation plays a critical role in learning, but this
observation does not necessarily need to take the form of watching a live model. 4
 Instead, people can also learn by listening to verbal instructions about how to perform a behavior as
well as through observing either real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books or films.

Key Factors for Social Learning Success

It is important to note that not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Why not? Factors involving both
the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and
steps must also be followed.

The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process:3

 Attention: In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that distracts your attention is
going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model is interesting or there is a novel
aspect of the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.
 Retention: The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention
can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to
observational learning.
 Reproduction: Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to
actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to
improvement and skill advancement.
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 Motivation: Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to

imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in
motivation.
While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing others experiencing
some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another student rewarded with
extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes early each day.

Real-World Applications for Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory can have a number of real-world applications. For example, it can be used to
help researchers understand how aggression and violence might be transmitted through observational learning.
By studying media violence, researchers can gain a better understanding of the factors that might lead children
to act out the aggressive actions they see portrayed on television and in the movies.
But social learning can also be utilized to teach people positive behaviors. Researchers can use social
learning theory to investigate and understand ways that positive role models can be used to encourage
desirable behaviors and facilitate social change.

LEV VYGOTSKY
Lev Vygotsky was a seminal Russian psychologist best known for his sociocultural theory. He believed that
social interaction plays a critical role in children's learning—a continuous process that is profoundly influenced
by culture. Imitation, guided learning, and collaborative learning feature prominently in his theory.

VYGOTSKY'S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY

Psychologist named Lev Vygotsky proposed a seminal learning theory that has gone on to become
very influential, especially in the field of education. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children learn actively
and through hands-on experiences.5
His sociocultural theory also suggested that parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at large were
responsible for developing higher-order functions. In Vygotsky's view, learning is an inherently social process.
Through interacting with others, learning becomes integrated into an individual's understanding of the world.

History of Sociocultural Theory

Sociocultural theory grew from the work of psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who believed that parents,
caregivers, peers, and the culture at large are responsible for developing higher-order functions. According to
Vygotsky, learning has its basis in interacting with other people. Once this has occurred, the information is then
integrated on the individual level.
Vygotsky contended that children are born with basic biological constraints on their minds. Each
culture, however, provides "tools of intellectual adaptation." These tools allow children to use their abilities in a
way that is adaptive to the culture in which they live. 3
For example, one culture might emphasize memory strategies such as note-taking. Another might use
tools like reminders or rote memorization (a technique that uses repetition). These nuances influence how a
child learns, providing the "tools" that are appropriate to their culture.
Vygotsky, born in 1896, was a contemporary of other great thinkers such as Freud, Skinner,
and Piaget, but his early death at age 37 and the suppression of his work in Stalinist Russia initially left his
theories less well-known.4 As his work has become more widely published, his ideas have grown increasingly
influential in areas including child development, cognitive psychology, and education.

The Zone of Proximal Development

An important concept in sociocultural theory is known as the zone of proximal development. According
to Vygotsky, this is "the distance between the actual development level (of the learner) as determined by
independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving
under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers." 5
Essentially, it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person cannot yet understand or perform
on their own but is capable of learning with guidance. As children are allowed to stretch their skills and
knowledge, often by observing someone who is slightly more advanced than they are, they are able to
progressively extend this zone.
Some research has supported the validity of the zone of proximal development. For instance, one study
reported that whether a student experiences test anxiety is influenced, in part, by whether they have someone
available to provide assistance if needed.6 A 2013 case study connects this concept with how a student
develops writing abilities
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Applying Vygotsky's Theory

Sociocultural theory has gained popularity within certain settings. Here's how this theory can be put into
practice in the real world.

In the Classroom
Understanding the zone of proximal development can be helpful for teachers. 11 In classroom settings,
teachers may first assess students to determine their current skill level. Educators can then offer instruction that
stretches the limits of each child's capabilities.
At first, the student may need assistance from an adult or a more knowledgeable peer. Eventually, their
zone of proximal development will expand. Teachers can help promote this expansion by:
 Planning and organizing classroom instruction and lessons. For example, the teacher might
organize the class into groups where less-skilled children are paired with students who have a higher
skill level. 
 Using hints, prompts, and direct instruction to help kids improve their ability levels.
 Scaffolding, where the teacher provides specific prompts to move the child progressively forward
toward a goal.

In Socialization and Play

Vygotsky's theory also stressed the importance of play in learning. Vygotsky believed that through
playing and imagining, children are able to further stretch their conceptual abilities and knowledge of the world. 
Teachers and parents can use this concept by providing children with plenty of opportunities for play
experiences. Types of play that can foster learning include imaginary play, role-playing, games, and
reenactments of real events.13 Such activities help promote the growth of abstract thought.