Chp 4- Biological molecules

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Notes

4.1 Carbohydrates, fats & proteins

- Most of the molecules in living organisms fall into three categories: carbohydrates, proteins
and lipids.

Molecule:

Carbohydrate

Chemical elements:

Carbon, oxygen & hydrogen

Molecule:

Protein

Chemical elements:

All contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen & nitrogen & some contain small amounts of other
elements such as sulfur

Molecule:

Lipid

Chemical elements:

Carbon, oxygen & hydrogen

- Long chains of simple sugars

- Glucose is a simple sugar ( a monosaccharide)

- When 2 glucose molecules join together maltose is formed (a disaccharide)

- When lots of glucose molecules join together starch, glycogen or cellulose can form (a
polysaccharide)

Glucose :

- a sugar that is used in respiration to release energy

- made up of six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms & six oxygen atoms

- C₆H₁₂O₆

- it is the way carbohydrates are transported around the human body

- it dissolves in blood plasma, which delivers it to every cell

-cells need glucose for energy

Glycogen:-

- a carbohydrate that is used as an energy store in animal cells

- if there is too much glucose in the blood, the liver links glucose molecules to produce
glycogen.

- it is stored in the liver cells

- can be broken down to form glucose again

Starch:

- a carbohydrate that is used as an energy store in plant cells

- it is stored in plant cells

- can detect the presence of starch using the iodine solution ( a solution of iodine in potassium
iodide; it is orange-brown, & turns blue-black when mixed with starch)

*Most sugars can be detected using Benedict’s solution. (a blue liquid that turns
orange-red when heated with reducing sugar) Benedict’s solution is blue, & it changes
to orange-red when it is heated with reducing sugars ( sugars such as glucose, which turn
Benedict’s solution orange-red when heated together) such as glucose. The colour
change is gradual, so the blue solution becomes green & yellow before finally turning
orange-red.

Fats & Oils:

- contains 3 elements carbon, hydrogen & oxygen

- made up of two kinds of smaller molecules ( glycerol and fatty acids)

- important for making cell membrane

- used as energy stores

- do not dissolve in water

- Most fats (lipids) in the body are made up of triglycerides

- Their basic unit is 1 glycerol molecule chemically bonded to 3 fatty acid chains

- The fatty acids vary in size and structure

- Lipids are divided into fats (solids at room temperature) and oils (liquids at room temperature)

Proteins:

-Long chains of amino acids

-There are about 20 different amino acids, they all contain the same basic structure but the ‘R’
group is different for each one

-When amino acids are joined together a protein is formed

-Even a small difference in the order of the amino acids results in a different protein being
formed

- There are thousands of different proteins in the human body and other organisms

-Many of these proteins are different shapes and the shape often has an important effect on the
function of the protein.

-For example:

1) Enzymes have an area in them known as the active site – this is important as this is the place
where another molecule fits into the enzyme in order for a reaction to take place

2) If the shape of the active site does not match the shape of the molecule that fits into it,the
reaction will not take place

3) Every enzyme has a different shaped active site

4) Antibodies are proteins produced by certain types of white blood cell to attach to antigens on
the surface of pathogens

5) The shape of the antibody must match the shape of the antigen so that it can attach to it and
signal it for destruction

The different sequences of amino acids cause the polypeptide chains to fold in different
ways and this gives rise to the different shapes of proteins. In this way every protein has a
unique 3-D shape that enables it to carry out its function.

Describing Food Tests:

1) Test for glucose (a reducing sugar)

-Add Benedict’s solution into sample solution in test tube

-Heat at 60 – 70 °c in water bath for 5 minutes

-Take test tube out of water bath and observe the colour

-A positive test will show a colour change from blue to orange or brick red
2) Test for starch using iodine:

- We can use iodine to test for the presence or absence of starch in a food sample.

3) The iodine test for starch:

- Add drops of iodine solution to the food sample

- A positive test will show a colour change from orange-brown to blue-black

4) Test for protein:

- Add drops of Biuret solution to the food sample

- A positive test will show a colour change from blue to violet / purple

5) Test for lipids:

- Food sample is mixed with 2cm3 of ethanol and shaken

- The ethanol is added to an equal volume of cold water

- A positive test will show a cloudy emulsion forming

6) Test for vitamin C

- Add 1cm3( cube) of DCPIP solution to a test tube

- Add a small amount of food sample (as a solution)

- A positive test will show the blue colour of the dye disappearing

4.2 The structure of the DNA

- DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that contains the instructions for growth and
development of all organisms. It consists of two strands of DNA wound around each other in
what is called a double helix

- The individual units of DNA are called nucleotides ( molecules that are linked together
into long chains, to make up a DNA molecule.)

- All nucleotides contain the same phosphate and deoxyribose sugar, but differ from each other
in the base attached. There are four different bases, Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T)
and Guanine (G). The bases on each strand pair up with each other, holding the two strands of
DNA in the double helix
The bases always pair up in the same way:

o Adenine always pairs with Thymine (A-T)

o Cytosine always pairs with Guanine (C-G)

- DNA base pairs:

The DNA helix is made from two strands of DNA held together by hydrogen bonds. The
phosphate and sugar section of the nucleotides form the ‘backbone’ of the DNA strand (like the
sides of a ladder) and the base pairs of each strand connect to form the rungs of the ladder.

The DNA helix is made from two strands of DNA held together by hydrogen bonds. It is
this sequence of bases that holds the code for the formation of proteins