ELT Research Papers 13–01

Own-language use in ELT:

exploring global practices
and attitudes
Graham Hall and Guy Cook
 Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................................. 6

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................... 7

2 Own-language use in ELT: theoretical background and current debates ..................................................... 8

3 Research methodology .............................................................................................................................................. 11

4 Results ............................................................................................................................................................................ 14

5 Summary ....................................................................................................................................................................... 26

References .......................................................................................................................................................................... 28

Appendix 1 – The Questionnaire ................................................................................................................................... 30

Appendix 2 – Questionnaire participants, by country ............................................................................................. 38

Appendix 3 – Descriptive statistics for Section 2 (questions 10, 11 and 12) of the questionnaire –
‘Own-language use in your classroom’............................................................................................... 40

5 |  Contents
 Abstract
Throughout the 20th century, professional and
methodological discussion and debate within ELT
(English language teaching) assumed that English
is best taught and learned without the use of the
students’ own language(s). Recently, however, this
English-only assumption has been increasingly
questioned, and the role of own-language use is
being reassessed. However, there are substantial
gaps in our knowledge and understanding of the
extent to which, and how, learners’ own languages
are used in ELT classes, and the attitudes practising
teachers hold towards own-language use.

This paper reports on the project Own-language

use in ELT: exploring global practices and attitudes,
a survey of the extent to which, how, and why teachers
deploy learners’ own-language in English language
classrooms around the world. The findings offer clear
evidence of widespread own-language use within
ELT, and suggest that teachers’ attitudes towards
own-language use, and their classroom practices, are
more complex than usually acknowledged. Although
there is variation between individuals and groups of
teachers, the survey shows that own-language use
is an established part of ELT classroom practice, and
that teachers, while recognising the importance of
English within the classroom, do see a range of useful
functions for own-language use in their teaching.

Consequently, the report provides a resource for

teachers, confirming the validity of own-language
use and touching on a range of ideas as to how and
why learners’ own languages can play a role within
ELT classes. The findings also suggest that there is
a potential gap between mainstream ELT literature
and teachers’ practices on the ground.

6 |  Abstract
 1
Introduction
For much of the 20th century, professional discussion, A note on terminology
debate and research within ELT has assumed that In this research, the term ‘own language’ is used in
English is best taught and learned without the use preference to ‘first language’ (L1), ‘native language’
of the students’ own language(s), leading to the or ‘mother tongue’, all of which seem unsatisfactory.
promotion of monolingual, English-only teaching. For example, in many language classrooms, the most
In recent years, however, this monolingual assumption common shared language of the learners is not the
has been increasingly questioned, and a re-evaluation first or native language of all students (e.g. although
of teaching that relates the language being taught to German is the language used in German secondary
the students’ own language has begun. Furthermore, schools and therefore the language likely to be used
there is an increasing recognition that what has to assist the teaching of English, it is not the first
been fashionable in ELT theory and literature does language of all the pupils in those schools who may,
not necessarily reflect what actually happens in for example, be recent arrivals from Turkey or Poland).
classrooms around the world. However, despite this Furthermore, the term ‘native language’ is imprecise
recent interest, there is, as yet, very little data that – it mixes several criteria and can mean the language
documents the extent and purpose of own-language someone spoke in infancy, the language with which
use in English language teaching. Thus, stimulated they identify, or the language they speak best; these
by the current re-appraisal of the issue, this project are not always the same (see Rampton 1990 for
aimed to address this gap, while also providing a further discussion). Finally, ‘mother tongue’ is not only
useful resource for teachers who see a place for an emotive term but also inaccurate – for the obvious
the learners’ own language in their own teaching. reason that many people’s mother tongue is not their
The study therefore investigated the use of learners’ mother’s mother tongue!
own languages within ELT and the perceptions and
perspectives of own-language use held by English
language teachers around the world.

7 |  Introduction
 2
Own-language use in ELT: theoretical
background and current debates
For much of the 20th century, the use of learners’ of English (Jenkins, 2007; Seidlhofer 2011). In addition,
own languages in language teaching and learning was an increasing amount of communication is no longer
banned by ELT theorists and methodologists (Howatt face-to-face but via computer.
with Widdowson, 2004; G Cook, 2010; Littlewood and
Yu, 2011; Hall and Cook 2012), the assumption being Of course, what is fashionable in the literature does
that a new language should be taught and learned not necessarily reflect what happens in classrooms in
monolingually, without reference to or use of the all parts of the world, and, despite its disappearance
learners’ own language in the classroom. from ELT theory and methodological texts, the use
of learners’ own languages in ELT classrooms has
Within the ELT literature, grammar translation had survived. Adamson (2004) notes that the grammar
been rejected in the late 19th century, criticised translation method was employed in China until
for focusing exclusively on accuracy and writing the late 20th century while V Cook observes that
at the expense of fluency and speaking, and for the approach carries an ‘academic…seriousness
being authoritarian and dull. Consequently, Western of purpose’ which may seem appropriate in those
European and North American methodologists societies that maintain a traditional view of learner
promoted monolingual (Widdowson, 2003: 149–164) and teacher roles in the classroom (2008: 239).
or intralingual teaching (Stern, 1992: 279–299), based Thornbury (2006), meanwhile, notes that the
around the principle that only the target language continued survival of grammar translation may
should be used in the classroom. In effect, claims be a consequence of its ease of implementation,
against grammar translation were used as arguments especially with large classes. Similar translation-based
against any and all own-language use within ELT approaches also underpin self-study texts, such as
(Cook, 2010: 15, original emphasis). Hodder and Stoughton’s ‘Teach yourself …’ series
and the commercially highly successful language
Support for and acceptance of monolingual courses of Michel Thomas (see Block 2003).
approaches, which include such major current
approaches as communicative language teaching, However, beyond traditional grammar translation,
task-based learning and teaching, and content and a wider recognition and re-evaluation of the use of
language integrated learning, can be ascribed to the learners’ own language in the ELT classroom is
a number of factors including: classes in which now emerging, drawing upon a range of theoretical
learners speak a variety of own languages, the and pedagogical insights into the nature of language
employment of native-speaker English teachers learning and its broader social purposes. Indeed,
(NESTs in Medgyes’ [1992] terminology) who may according to V Cook (2001), those language teachers
not know the language(s) of their learners, and who can speak the learners’ own language use it
publishers’ promotion of monolingual course books in class ‘every day’, while Lucas and Katz (1994:
which could be used by native-speaker ‘experts’ and 558) argue that ‘the use of native language is so
be marketed globally without variation. Furthermore, compelling that it emerges even when policies and
the perceived goals of language teaching changed assumptions mitigate against it’. We shall now briefly
from the so-called traditional or academic aim of summarise key arguments for own-language use (for
developing learners’ abilities to translate written texts a more detailed review, see Hall and G Cook, 2012).
and appreciate literature in the original to the (often
unstated) goal of preparing learners to communicate Pedagogic functions of own-language use
in monolingual environments and emulate native Pedagogic arguments for own-language use include
speakers of the target language. It is worth noting, the efficient conveying of meaning, maintenance
however, that for many learners, this goal was, and of class discipline and organisation, and teacher-
is, not necessarily useful, desirable or obtainable learner rapport and contact between the teacher and
(Davies, 1995; 2003) in a world in which learners learners as real people (e.g. Polio and Duff, 1994; V
need to operate bilingually or use English in a lingua Cook 2001). Rolin-Ianziti and Varshney (2008) classify
franca environment with other non-native speakers these pedagogic functions in terms of teachers’

8 | Own-language use in ELT: theoretical background and current debates

 ‘medium-oriented goals’ and their ‘framework goals’, How much own-language use?
that is, teaching the new language (the medium) The idea of judicious own-language use has already
itself (e.g. explaining vocabulary items or teaching been touched upon, and there have been a number
grammar) and framing, organising and managing of calls for research to find an appropriate or optimal
classroom events (e.g. giving instructions or setting amount of own-language use in class (e.g. Stern,
homework). Meanwhile, Kim and Elder (2008) identify 1992; Macaro 2009), one which is ‘principled and
a similar distinction, additionally suggesting that the purposeful’ (Edstrom, 2006) and which identifies
learners’ own language is often used for the social when and why the learners’ own language might be
goal of expressing personal concern and sympathy. used (Turnbull and Arnett, 2002). While recognising
Similarly, a number of studies highlight the role of the reality of own-language use and its beneficial
own-language use in potentially establishing more effects in many ELT contexts, it is clearly important
equitable intra-class relationships between the that learners obtain new language input and practice
teacher and learners than via the exclusive use of opportunities. Too much own-language use may
the target language (e.g. Auerbach, 1993; Brooks- deprive learners of the opportunity to use the
Lewis, 2009). Indeed, Edstrom (2006) proposes that target language, and using the new language is
debates surrounding own-language use go beyond often motivating for learners who can quickly see its
concerns about language learning processes or usefulness and achieve immediate success (Turnbull,
classroom management and involve value-based 2001). There is therefore concern among some
judgments in which teachers have a moral obligation researchers that, in the absence of clear research
to use the learners’ own language judiciously in order findings or other sources of guidance, that teachers
to recognise learners as individuals, to communicate may be devising arbitrary rules concerning the use
respect and concern, and to create a positive of the learners’ own language. And yet, teachers are
affective environment for learning. also best placed to decide what is appropriate for
their own classrooms (Macmillan and Rivers 2011).
Theorising own-language use
Reference to the role of the learners’ own language Researching predominantly communicative
as a natural reference system and a pathfinder for language classrooms, Macaro (1997) has
learning new languages is widespread (e.g. Butzkamm, identified three perspectives that teachers
1989; Stern, 1992; Butzkamm and Caldwell, 2009). hold about own-language use:
Socio-cultural theories of learning and education ■■ the classroom is a virtual (and unattainable) reality
suggest that learning proceeds best when it is that mirrors the environment of first-language
‘scaffolded’ onto existing knowledge (Vygotsky, learners or migrants to a country who are
1978), while notions of compound or integrated immersed in the new language. Macaro points out
bilingualism (in which knowledge of two or more that these perfect learning conditions do not exist
languages is integrated in learners’ minds rather than in language classrooms.
kept separate) emerge from cognitive approaches to ■■ aim for maximal use of the new language in class,
second-language learning (V Cook, 2001; Widdowson, with own-language use being tainted, thereby
2003). Thus, because languages are said to interact leading to feelings of guilt among teachers.
and to be interdependent in the minds of language
■■ the optimal position, in which own-language
learners (who are bilingual language users), learning
use is seen as valuable at certain points during
is likely to be more efficient if teachers draw students’
a lesson, providing advantages to learners
attention to the similarities and differences between
and learning beyond using only the target
their languages (Cummins, 2007).
language. This optimal use of the learners’ own
Meanwhile, the potential benefits of own-language language requires principled and informed
use and translation as an effective language-learning judgments by teachers, but is also very difficult
strategy have been identified (e.g. Oxford, 1996), to define precisely or to generalise across
while the ways in which learners use their own contexts, classrooms and groups of learners.
language to guide and direct their thinking about
The current research draws upon Macaro’s analysis
the new language and during language tasks has
as we attempt to understand what kind of position
also been discussed (e.g. Anton and DiCamilla, 1999;
teachers hold about own-language use, and what
Centeno-Cortés and Jiménez Jiménez 2004). Similarly,
an optimal position might involve for participants in
own-language use has been identified as the most
this project.
effective way of learning vocabulary, via learners’
use of bilingual dictionaries and also as a teaching
strategy (e.g. Celik, 2003; Nation, 2003; Laufer and
Girsai, 2008).

9 | Own-language use in ELT: theoretical background and current debates

 Teachers’ and learners’ attitudes of reducing learners’ anxiety and creating a
Clearly, the extent to which own-language use occurs humanistic classroom (Harbord, 1992; Rolin-Ianziti
in a class depends on the attitudes of teachers and and Varshney, 2008; Brooks-Lewis 2009; Littlewood
learners towards its legitimacy and value in the ELT and Yu, 2011).
classroom, and many studies report a sense of guilt Thus, twelve years into the 21st century, the reality
among teachers when learners’ own languages are and value of learners’ own-language use in class
used in class (e.g. Macaro, 1997, 2009; Butzkamm and is now more widely recognised and researched.
Caldwell 2009; Littlewood and Yu 2011). Studies have ranged from those classrooms where
Beyond teachers’ guilt, however, a range of more own-language use is officially discouraged but
complex attitudes have been identified. Macaro in reality occurs (e.g. Littlewood and Yu, 2011),
reports that ‘the majority of bilingual teachers to classrooms where a balanced and flexible
regard code-switching as unfortunate and approach to own-language and new-language use
regrettable but necessary’ (2006: 68, emphasis is taken (e.g. Carless, 2008), to lessons that actively
added), while the studies previously noted in this encourage and employ translation exercises as a
review have elicited a more nuanced view of own- tool for second-language development (e.g. Kim,
language use from teachers, focusing on its role in 2011). Thus use of the learners’ own language has
classroom management, grammar and vocabulary been found to be prevalent within ELT classrooms,
teaching, empathy and rapport building with even in contexts where it is ostensibly discouraged
learners, its morality, and the search for an optimal (see also, for example, Kim and Elder, 2005).
position for new and own-language use in the
classroom. Summarising the literature, therefore, Justification for the study
Macaro notes ‘the overwhelming impression that Despite the recent focus upon this issue, however,
bilingual teachers believe that the L2 should be there remain substantial gaps in our knowledge
the predominant language of interaction in the and understanding of the extent to which, and how,
classroom. On the other hand, … [we do not find] learners’ own languages are used in ELT classes, and
a majority of teachers in favour of excluding the the attitudes practising teachers hold towards own-
L1 altogether’ (2006: 68, original emphasis). language use. A global survey of classroom practices,
teachers’ attitudes and the possible reasons for these
Clearly, however, not all teachers hold the same attitudes provide a wide-ranging empirical base for
attitudes to own-language use, and there is some further discussion about the role of own-language use
evidence that attitudes and beliefs might vary within ELT, while also allowing for and acknowledging
according to teachers’ cultural backgrounds and the differences in perspectives which may emerge as
the educational traditional in which they work. For a consequence of contextual factors.
example, while many studies report a belief that
the balance between own and new language use in
class is most consistently affected by learners’ and/
or teachers’ ability in English (e.g. Macaro, 1997, and
Crawford, 2004 for the former, Kim and Elder, 2008
for the latter), van der Meij and Zhao (2010) find that
English teachers working in Chinese universities
perceive no such link. Meanwhile, potentially differing
attitudes between teachers who do or do not share
the learners’ own language have been noted, Harbord
referring to ‘frequent differences of opinion’ between
NESTs and non-NESTs (1992: 50). Yet even here, the
picture is not clear cut; McMillan and Rivers (2011)
more recent study of NEST and non-NEST attitudes
in a specific Japanese teaching context finds little
difference of opinion between the two groups – both
favouring an ‘English mainly’ rather than ‘English only’
approach in the classroom.

Although learners’ attitudes will clearly affect the

extent and role of own-language use in the classroom,
there has been less research into learner perceptions
of the issue. That said, a number of studies have
uncovered positive attitudes, particularly as a way

10 | Own-language use in ELT: theoretical background and current debates