GROUP 2

LEAR N I N G
 Understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and
preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and
some machines. There is strategy that we can use to understand and
monitor our skills in learning. Learning is a change in behavior or in
potential behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

THREE MAJOR TYPES OF LEARNING

 Classical Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
 Observational Learning
CONDITIONED EMOTIONAL REPONSE
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
 can be used to describe either a particular learned behavior or a method
 Ivan Pavlov’s research on the digestive system of dogs unexpectedly led to frequently employed in Pavlovian or classical conditioning studies. It can
his discovery of the learning process now known as classical conditioning. also be referred to as "conditioned fear response" or "conditioned
Pavlov (1927) observed that the dogs began to salivate not only at the taste suppression.”
of food, but also at the sight of food, at the sight of an empty food bowl,
and even at the sound of the laboratory assistants' footsteps. Salivating to Cognitive psychologists explain the classical conditioning as the process of
food in the mouth is reflexive, so no learning is involved. learning a behavior in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an
unrelated unconditioned stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus will eventually
elicit the same response from the neutral stimulus.

 The discovery of classical conditioning happened by chance. When

studying dog digestion, Pavlov noticed that the dogs' physical responses to
food gradually changed over time. The dogs initially only slobbered when
their food was presented to them. Later, however, prior to receiving their
food, they slightly salivated. Pavlov noticed that they were drooling in
response to sounds that were always present before the food arrived, such
as the sound of an approaching food cart.
THORNDIKE and OPERANT CONDITIONING
 Shortly before Pavlov’s research, Edward L. Thorndike (1911/1970), a
Harvard graduate student, began training cats in a basement. Saying that
earlier experiments had dealt only with animal intelligence, not animal
stupidity, he sought a simple behaviorist explanation of learning. He put
cats into puzzle boxes from which they could escape by pressing a lever,
pulling a string, or tilting a pole.
GROUP 3 The Atkinson and Shiffrin modal model of memory was first developed by
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968. Atkinson and Shiffrin believed that
MEMORY
once information enters the brain, it must be either stored or maintained and that
WHAT IS MEMORY? the information which is stored goes into three distinct memory systems:

- the ability to take in, solidify, store, and use information; also the store of what
has been learned and remembered.
THREE STAGES OF MEMORY
1. ENCODING
 consist of placing a fact in memory.
 the process by which the brain attends to takes in and integrates new
information.
 is a verbal material, the dominant long-term memory representation is
neither acoustic nor visual; instead, it is based on the meaning of item.
2. STORAGE
 the facts are retained in memory
3. RETRIEVAL 1. SENSORY STORE MEMORY

 occurs when the fact is recovered  perceived and retains information that is received via the five senses for a
 is the process of getting information out of memory. very short number of time/ few seconds.
 Many cases loss forgetting from long-term memory result from loss access  Every sense has sensory register, but the only two that researchers have
to the information rather than from loss of the information itself. studied well are echoic memory (hearing) and iconic memory (visual)

EVIDENCE FOR RETRIEVAL FAILURE 2. SHORT - TERM MEMORY

 is where the information is in long term memory but cannot be accessed.  also called ‘’working memory’’
Such information is said to be available (i.e. it is still stored) but not  temporary stores a limited amount of information before it is either
accessible (i.e. it cannot be retrieved). transferred to long-term storage or forgotten (2 to 20 seconds)

Example: 3. LONG-TERM MEMORY

 having a word or name at the tip of the tongue but not being able to recall  has the capacity to store a vast amount of information for as little seconds
it is an example of retrieval failure. and as long as a lifetime. It is involved when information has to be
retained for interval as brief as a few minutes (such as a point made earlier
in a conversation) or as long as a lifetime (such as an adult's childhood
memories).
TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY
IMPLICIT MEMORY
 often referred to as nondeclarative memory, does not require the conscious
or explicit recollection of past events or information, and the individual is
unaware that remembering has occurred
 A kind of memory made up of knowledge based on previous experience,
such as skills that we perform automatically once we have mastered them.
PROCEDURAL MEMORY-
 a kind of memory made up of implicit knowledge for almost any behavior
or physical skills we have learned. SPERLING'S EXPERIMRNTS: THE PARTIAL-REPORT EXPERIMENT
In 1960, George Sperling published a seminal paper based on his Harvard
doctoral dissertation. Sperling began with the observation that when people were
CONCEPTUAL IMPLICIT MEMORY briefly presented with the large amount of information - say 12 digits typically
could only report about 4 or 5 of the digits. This amount, known as the span of
 demonstrated when, in the absence of explicit retrieval, performance on a
apprehension, had been known for almost a century and was assumed to represent
task requiring conceptual processing benefits more from prior conceptual
the maximum amount of information a person could acquire from such an
encoding than from prior nonconceptual encoding.
informational array. The first was that they were able to see more than they could
IMPLICIT MEMORY IN NORMAL INDIVIDUALS report but that they quickly forgot it. "By the time we are able to write down 4 or 5
digits’, they complain, 'we can't remember the rest of the display anymore". The
 studies using normal individuals also suggest that there are separated second intuition was that the image of the display appeared to persist longer than
system for explicit memories. the display itself.
EXPLICIT OR DECLARATIVE MEMORY
 conscious recall or facts and events.
SENMANTIC MEMORY
 a form of memory that recalls facts ang general knowledge, such as what
we learn in school
EPISODIC MEMORY
 the form of memory that recalls the experiences we have.
 CURRENT CONCEPTIONS OF WORKING MEMORY
 The existence of both phonological and visual codes led researchers to
argue that working memory consists of several distinct workspace of
buffers.
 One system is for storing and operating upon information and one acoustic
code. Information in this system may be rapidly forgotten but may be
maintained indefinitely through the process of rehearsal.
 A second is referred to as the visual-spatial sketchpad, which holds and
operates upon visual or spatial information.
 For example, try to figure out whether each object in the left or does not
match each of the right panel counterparts, that is whether the two objects
are identical or are mirror images of one another.

WORKING MEMORY
ENCODING

❖ Phonological Coding

 When information is encoded into memory it is entered in a certain code or

representation.
For example, when you look up a phone number and retain it until you have dialed
it, in what form do you represent the digits? is the representation visual- a mental
feature of the digits? is it phonological- the sounds of the names of the digits?
Research indicates that we can use both of these possibilities to encode
information into working memory, although we favor phonological code when we
are trying to keep the information active through rehearsal that is, by repeating an
item over and over.
❖ FORGETTING
Rehearsal is a particularly popular strategy when the information consists of
verbal items such as digits letters or words.  Information in working memory may simply decay as time passes. We
may think of the representation of an item as a trace that fades within a
❖ Visual Coding matter of seconds.
 The visual code in working memory, then is something short of a  One of the best pieces of evidence for this hypothesis is that our working
photograph. This makes complete sense when we think back about how memory span holds fewer words when the words take longer to say;
the retina of the eye is organized. The higher resolution central fovea
allows detailed perception only of the Central area of the scene.
  for example, the span is this for long words such as "harpoon" and
"cyclone" then for shorter words such as "cat" and "pen" try saying the
words to yourself to see the difference in duration.
 Presumably this effect arises because as the words are presented we say
them to ourselves, and the longer it takes to do this the more likely it is
that some of the words will have that faded before they can be recalled
(Braddeley Thompson and Buchanan 1975).

❖ RETRIEVAL

 A requires a search of working memory in which the items are examined

one at a time. This search presumably operates at a rate of 40 milli-seconds
per item, which is too fast for people to be aware of it (Sternberg, 1966).
 However, thinking of working memory assist of activation leads to a DIVISION OF BRAIN LABOR BETWEEN WORKING
different interpretation of their results. Retrieval of an item and working
memory may depend on the activation of that item reaching a critical level. MEMORY AND LONG TERN MEMORY
 That is one decides that a probe is in working memory if it is above a  It has been known for some time that working memory and long-term
critical level of activation and the more items there are in working memory are implemented by somewhat different brain structures.
memory, the less activation there is for any one of them. (Monsell 1979)  The hippocampus a structure located near the middle of the brain beneath
WORKING MEMORY AND THOUGHT the cortex, is critical for long term memory but not for working memory.
Much of the relevant evidence comes from experiments with monkeys and
 Working memory place and important role in thought. When consciously other non-human species.
trying to solve a problem, we often use working memory to store parts of  Experiment with the hippocampus and surrounding brain areas support a
the problem as well as information accessed from long-term memory that qualitative distinction between working memory and long-term memory.
is relevant to the problem.
INTERFERENCE
 It’s also crucial for language processes like following a conversation or  is a memory phenomenon in which some memories interfere with the
reading a text when reading a text. When reading for understanding, often retrieval of other memories.
we must consciously relate new sentences to some prior material in the
text. FORGETTING: LOSS OF INFORMATION FROM STORAGE
 forgetting can be described as the loss of information that is already stored
 This relating of new to old seems to occur working memory because in an individual's long-term memory. This process can happen immediately
people you have more working memory capacity score higher than the or over the course of time and results in the inability to recall old
other on reading comprehensions test (Daneman and Carpenter, 1980; Just memories from where they are stored.
and Carpenter, 1992)
INTERACTION BETWEEN ENCOURAGING AND RETRIEVAL
 in describing the encoding stage, we noted the operation carried out
during, such as elaboration make retrieval easier.
Two Factors Increase Chance of Successful Retrieval AMNESIA
(a). Organizing the information of the time of encoding.  refers to the loss of memories, including facts, information and
experiences.
(b). Ensuring the context in which information is encode is similar to that in which
it will be retrieved. MEMORY IN AMNESIA
FIVE DISTINCT OF EMOTIONAL FACTORS IN FORGETTING  Much of what is known about implicit memory has been learned from
people who suffers amnesia, or partial loss memory.
REHEARSAL
 the simplest idea is that we tend to think about emotionally charge  Amnesia may result from very different causes, including accidental
situation, negative as well as positive. injuries to the brain, stroke, encephalitis, alcoholism, electroconvulsive
shock, and surgical procedures.
RETRIEVAL INTERFERENCE VIA ANXIETY
SECONDARY SYMPTOMS OF AMNESIA
 The cases in which negative emotion hinder retrieval, which bring us to
the third way emotion can affect memory  is ability to remember events that occurred prior to the injury of disease.

FLASHBULB MEMORY SKILLS AND PRIMARY

 a vivid, enduring memory associated with a personally significant and -STRIKING

emotional event, often including such details as where the individual was
 aspect of amnesia is that not all kind of memory are disrupted
or what he or she was doing at the time of the event.
CHILDHOOD AMNESIA
REPRESSION
 One of the most stinking aspects of human memory is what everyone
 Which emotion can influence memory rely on principle already discussed.
suffers from a particular kind of amnesia.
CONTEXT EFFECTS
CONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY
 Emotion may also affect memory through a context effect.
 a type of recollection characterized by the utilization of basic insights
retained in the memory to build a more thorough and intricate report of an
experience of occurrence.
CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS AT THE TIME OF MEMORY ENCODING Stereotypes
 Memory encoding refers to process that occurred at the time that the long-  on which we will focus momentarily, are kind of schema because they
term memory representation of some event is being established. present class of people (for example women and athlete's).
TWO TYPES OF ENCODING
 Internally provided suggestions
❖ INITIAL PERCEPTION Post-event reconstruction
 (transfer of information into short term memory) and then whether process  may also occur as a result of information provided by others.
are entailed in the transfer of information from short-term memory in to
long-term memory. CONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY AND LEGAL SYSTEM

❖ CONSTRUCTIVE PERCEPTION, Constructive memory

 is the theory of perception in which the perceiver uses sensory information  is particularly important in the legal system where cases are frequently
and other sources of information to construct a cognitive understanding of won or lost, and defendant are or are not meted out punishment ranging
a stimulus. from prison sentence to death on the basis of a witness's memory of what
did or did not happen.
Perceptual interference
Confidence and accuracy
 emerged when proper mapping between analogically matching objects was
incoherent with their perceptual features.  A scientist studying memory in the scientific laboratory has the luxury of
knowing whether a particular's memory is correct and incorrect.
Generation of interference
SUGGESTIVE INFORMATION AND CHILDHOOD MEMORIES
 as we have pointed-out, perception is not sufficient to form a lasting
memory of some event.  Young children appear to be particularly susceptible to suggestive
information, particularly while they are being interviewed, Ceci and Bruck
POST-EVENT MEMORY RECONSTRUCTION (1993) describe of variety of studies demonstrating kind of suggestibility.
 Post-event Information Reconstructive theories of memory also claim that Force Confession's
people rely on information obtained after the event to reconstruct their
past. Information obtained after an event is known as postevent  A growing body of work has demonstrated that interrogation technique
information. Internally generated inference - in which people can make carried out by police and other investigation have been able to produce
inference which they incorporate into their memory. genuinely false memories of crime that the suspect can be objectively
shown not to have committed.
Schemas
Memory error and normal memory
 a term used to refer to a mental representation of a class of people, object,
event, or situation.  As the previous section, illustrates, memory is often far from accurate
recently psychologist and neurologist and neuroscientist have begun an
attempt to delineate the various mechanism.
IMPROVING MEMORY ORGANIZATION
CHUNKING AND MEMORY SPAN  Organization during encoding improves subsequent retrieval. These
principles can be put to great practical use. We are capable of storing and
 Chunking describes the process by which individual pieces of information
retrieving a massive amount of information if we organize it appropriately.
are broken down and grouped together.
 Other way to improve encoding (and subsequent retrieval) are to elaborate
 Also related to another aspect of memory known as memory span or digit
the meaning of the items and to organize the material during encoding
span (the latter term derives from tests that measure memory span by
(hierarchical organization seems preferable).
asking people to repeat back a list of digits that increase incrementally).
 Although we cannot increase capacity of working memory, we can use PRACTICING RETRIEVAL
recording schemes to enlarge the size of a chunk and thereby increase
 Another way to improve retrieval is to practice it - that is to ask yourself
memory span.
questions about what you are trying to learn.
IMAGERY AND ENCODING
Practicing Retrieval may be useful in implicit memory situations. The procedure,
 We can improve the recall of unrelated items by adding meaningful referred to as mental practice, consists of imagining the rehearsals of a perceptual
connections between them at the time of encoding, for these connections motor skill without moving any part of the body.
will facilitate later retrieval. Mental images have been found to be
Example:
particularly useful for connecting pairs of unrelated items, and for this
reasons imagery is the major ingredient in many mnemonic systems, or You might imagine yourself swinging at a tennis ball, making mental connections
systems for aiding memory. when the imagined swing seems faulty, without moving your arm.

 Imagery is also used in the key - word method for learning words in a Mental practice
foreign language.  can improve performance of the skill, particularly if the mental practice is
interspersed with actual physical practice ( Swets and Bjork, 1990).
 one way to improve encoding and retrieval is to use imagery, which is the
basic principle underlying mnemonic system such as the method of loci
and the keyword method.
ELABORATION AND ENCODING
 The more elaborate items, the more can subsequently recall or recognize
them. This phenomenon arises because the more connections we establish
between items, the larger the member of retrieval possibilities.
CONTEXT AND ENCODING
 Context is a powerful retrieval cue; we can improve our memory by
restoring the context in which the learning took place.
GROUP 4
Cognition: thinking, intelligence and language Concept
Cognition  Concepts are ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or
activities.
 Cognition refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring, processing,
 People use concepts to think about objects or events without having to
storing, and using information. It encompasses a wide range of mental
think about all the specific examples of the category.
activities, including perception, attention, memory, reasoning, problem-
 Concepts not only contain the important features of the objects or events
solving, decision-making, and language comprehension. Cognitive
people want to think about, but also they allow the identification of new
psychology is the branch of psychology that studies cognition.
objects and events that may fit the concept.
THINKING
For example, dogs come in all shapes, sizes, colors, and lengths of fur. Yet most
 Thinking is a process of mental activity that involves the manipulation of people have no trouble recognizing dogs as dogs, even though they may never
mental representations, such as concepts, images, and symbols. It includes before have seen that particular breed of dog. Friends of the author have a dog
processes like perception, memory, attention, and problem-solving. The called a briard, which is a kind of sheepdog. In spite of the fact that this dog is
study of thinking is often integrated with the study of cognition. easily the size of a small pony, the author had no trouble recognizing it as a dog,
albeit a huge and extremely shaggy one.

 Thinking, or cognition (from a Latin word meaning “to know”), can be

defined as mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is PROBLEM-SOLVING AND DECISION-MAKING STRATEGIES
processing information—organizing it, understanding it, and
 Problem solving occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and
communicating it to others. Thinking includes memory, but it is much
behaving in certain ways. Problems range from figuring out how to cut a
more. When people think, they are not only aware of the information in the
recipe in half to understanding complex mathematical proofs to deciding
brain but also are making decisions about it, comparing it to other
what to major in at college. Problem solving is one aspect of decision
information, and using it to solve problems.
making, or identifying, evaluating, and choosing among several
alternatives.
 Thinking also includes more than just a kind of verbal “stream of
consciousness.” When people think, they often have images as well as Several different ways in which people can think in order to solve problems.
words in their minds.
Trial and Error (Mechanical Solutions)

HOW PEOPLE THINK?  Trial and error refer to trying one solution after another until finding one
that works.
MENTAL IMAGES
Algorithms
 Mental images are representation for objects or events used in mental
activities  Algorithms are specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types
of problems. Algorithms will always result in a correct solution, if there is
 (Representations that stand in for objects or events and have a picture like
a correct solution to be found, and you have enough time to find it.
quality) are one of several tools used in the thought process.
Heuristics Three of the most common barriers to successful problem solving
 A heuristic, or “rule of thumb,” is a simple rule that is intended to apply to Functional Fixedness
many situations. Whereas an algorithm is very specific and will always
 One problem-solving difficulty involves thinking about objects only in
lead to a solution, a heuristic is an educated guess based on prior
terms of their typical uses, which is a phenomenon called functional
experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem.
fixedness (literally, “fixed on the function”).
Representativeness Heuristic
Mental Sets
 a representativeness heuristic is used for categorizing objects and simply
 Functional fixedness is a kind of mental set, which is defined as the
assumes that any object (or person) that shares characteristics with the
tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have
members of a particular category is also a member of that category. The
worked for them in the past. Solutions that have worked in the past tend to
representativeness heuristic can cause errors due to ignoring base rates, the
be the ones people try first, and people are often hesitant or even unable to
actual probability of a given event.
think of other possibilities.
Availability Heuristic
Confirmation Bias
 Another heuristic that can have undesired outcomes is the availability
 Another barrier to effective decision making or problem solving is
heuristic, which is based on our estimation of the frequency or likelihood
confirmation bias, the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s
of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from
beliefs while ignoring any evidence to the contrary.
memory or how easy it is for us to think of related examples
CREATIVITY
Working Backward
 Not every problem can be answered by using information already at hand
 A useful heuristic that does work much of the time is to work backward
and the rules of logic in applying that information. Sometimes a problem
from the goal.
requires coming up with entirely new ways of looking at the problem or
Subgoals unusual, inventive solutions. This kind of thinking is called creativity:
solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways
 Sometimes it’s better to break a goal down into subgoals, so that as each
subgoal is achieved, the final solution is that much closer. CONVERGENT THINKING
Insight  The logical method for problem solving that has been discussed so far is
based on a type of thinking called convergent thinking. In convergent
 When the solution to a problem seems to come suddenly to mind, it is
thinking, a problem is seen as having only one answer and all lines of
called insight.
thinking will eventually lead to (converge on) that single answer by using
In summary, thinking is a complex process involving the use of mental previous knowledge and logic
imagery and various types of concepts to organize the events of daily life. Problem
DIVERGENT THINKING
solving is a special type of thinking that involves the use of many tools, such as
trial-and-error thinking, algorithms, and heuristics, to solve different types of  Divergent thinking is the reverse of convergent thinking. Here a person
problems starts at one point and comes up with many different, or divergent, ideas or
possibilities based on that point
 ROBERT STERNBERG
 He is the one who is theorized that there are three kinds of intelligence.
Called the TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE, this theory
includes analytical, creative, and practical intelligence
STERNBERG’s triarchic theory of intelligence
ANALYTICAL INTELLIGENCE

INTELLIGENCE  Refers to the ability to break problems down into component parts, or
analysis, for problem solving. This is the type of intelligence that is
 The psychologists define "intelligence" as the ability to learn from one's measured by intelligence tests and academic achievement tests, or “book
experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting smarts” as some people like to call it.
to new situations or solving problems.
CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE
Charles Spearman
The ability to deal with new different concepts and to come up with new ways of
 saw intelligence as two different abilities. G Factor (general intelligence) solving problems. It is also referring to the ability to automatically process certain
is the ability to reason and solve problems while S Factor (specific aspects of information, which frees up cognitive resources to deal with novelty.
intelligence) is the task- specific abilities in certain areas such as music,
business or art. PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE

HOWARD GARDNER The ability to use information to get along in life. People with a high degree of
practical intelligence know how to be tactful, how to manipulate situations to their
 Is one of the later theorists to propose the existence of several kins of advantage, and how to use inside information to increase their odds of success.
intelligence. He originally listed seven different kinds of intelligence but
later added an eighth type and then a tentative ninth.
GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE MEASURING INTELLIGENCE
Alfred Binet (BEE NAY)
He was a French psychologist who is credited with inventing the first
reliable intelligence test. Binet is routinely considered one of the most
influential psychologists in history, largely as a result of his pioneering work in
measuring intelligence.
BINET’S MENTAL ABILITY TEST
Binet's work on intelligence began in 1904 when the French
government commissioned him to develop a test that would identify learning
disabilities and other academic weaknesses in grade-school students. At the
time, many students in the French education system showed signs of needing
additional help with their studies. Binet, with the help of a colleague named was a way of expressing the age at which the child was performing
Theodore Simon, took up the daunting task of trying to measure the mental intellectually. If that same child was able to achieve tasks that were age-
abilities of students appropriate for a 10-year-old, then the mental age would be 10.
By 1905, Binet and Simon developed their first in a series of tests The reference points of chronological and mental age established by
designed to measure intelligence. It was simply called the Binet-Simon Scale. Binet would eventually go on to be central in the development of intelligence
The scale included 30 tasks that were progressive in their difficulty. Some of quotients or IQ tests in later years. This simple formula for determining a
the easiest tasks required students to follow commands or repeat simple child's IQ was to divide the mental age by the chronological age and then
sentences. More difficult tasks included constructing sentences from given multiply that figure by 100. For example, 10 divided by 8 equals 1.25. Multiply
words or drawing images from memory. This test was given to students in 1.25 by 100, and it gives you an IQ score of 125. The average IQ is considered
Paris and acted as the reference point for future versions of the intelligence to be 100, so a child with an IQ of 125 would be considered above normal.
test.
Binet and Simon made two more revisions of their intelligence test
They noticed that the fast learners seemed to give answers to before Binet died in 1911. In 1916, Lewis Terman of Stanford University
questions that older children might give, whereas the slow learners gave incorporated the concept of IQ into the test, and it was renamed the Stanford-
answers that were more typical of a younger child. Binet decided that the key Binet Intelligence Scale. It formed the basis for the modern intelligence tests
element to be tested was a child’s mental age, or the average age at which used today.
children could successfully answer a particular level of questions
Lewis Terman (1916), a researcher at Stanford University, adopted
Age-Appropriate Scales German psychologist William Stern’s method for comparing mental age and
chronological age (number of years since birth) for use with the translated
In 1908, Binet and Simon revised their intelligence scale so that it
and revised Binet test. Stern’s (1912) formula was to divide the mental age
considered the age of the person being tested. This revision was a significant
(MA) by the chronological age (CA) and multiply the result by 100 to get rid of
step forward in their ability to accurately measure intelligence. It was based
any decimal points. The resulting score is called an intelligence quotient, or IQ.
upon new evidence that a person's intelligence increased with age. The new
(A quotient is a number that results from dividing one number by another.)
revision of the test was organized according to age levels ranging from 3-13.
IQ = MA/CA × 100
The new version of the test included a variety of tasks they thought
represented a child's abilities at various ages. For example, it was considered For example, if a child who is 10 years old takes the test and scores a mental
age-appropriate for a 5-year-old child to explain how a fork is used or a 12- age of 15 (is able to answer the level of questions typical of a 15-year-old), the
year-old to solve a particular mathematical problem. The child would then be IQ would look like this:
given an age-specific version of the test that also included easier and more
IQ = 15/10 × 100 = 150
difficult tasks, indicative of younger and older children's abilities. If an 8-year-
old boy, for example, passed all of the tasks for his age but none of the more The quotient has the advantage of allowing testers to compare the intelligence
advanced tasks, he would be considered average. levels of people of different age groups. While this method works well for
children, it produces IQ scores that start to become meaningless as the
Mental Age
person’s chronological age passes 16 years.
Based upon the test results, a child had both a chronological age (in
our example, eight years of age) and what Binet called the mental age, which
 original Stanford-Binet was composed predominantly of verbal items). While
still using both verbal and nonverbal items, the WISC-IV and WAIS-IV organize
items into four index scales that provide an overall score of intelligence and
index scores related to four specific cognitive domains—verbal
comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing
speed. Table 7.4 has sample items for each of the four index scales from the
WAIS-IV
Test Construction: Good Test, Bad Test?
All tests are not equally good tests. Some tests may fail to give the
same results on different occasions for the same person when that person has
not changed—making the test useless. These would be considered unreliable
tests.
STANFORD-Binet INTELLIGENCE TEST
Reliability of a test refers to the test producing consistent results each time it
It is a cognitive-ability and intelligence test that is used to diagnose is given to the same individual or group of people. For example, if Nicholas
developmental or intellectual deficiencies in young children. The test takes a personality test today and then again in a month or so, the results
measures five weighted factors and consists of both verbal and nonverbal should be very similar if the personality test is reliable. Other tests might be
subtests. The five factors being tested are knowledge, quantitative reasoning, easy to use and even reliable, but if they don’t actually measure what they are
visual-spatial processing, working memory, and fluid reasoning. supposed to measure, they are also useless. These tests are thought of as
“invalid” (untrue) tests.

The Wechsler tests Validity is the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to
measure. Another aspect of validity is the extent that an obtained score
An intelligence test that measures a child's intellectual ability and 5 accurately reflects the intended skill or outcome in real-life situations, or
cognitive domains that impact performance ecological validity, not just validity for the testing or assessment situation. For
David Wechsler (Wechsler, 2002, 2003, 2008) was the first to devise a example, we hope that someone who passes his or her test for a driver’s
series of tests designed for specific age groups. Originally dissatisfied with the license will also be able to safely operate a motor vehicle when they are
fact that the Stanford-Binet was designed for children but being administered actually on the road. When evaluating a test, consider what a specific test
to adults, he developed an IQ test specifically for adults. He later designed score means and to what, or to whom, it is compared. Take the hypothetical
tests specifically for older school-age children and preschool children, as well example of Professor Stumpwater, who—for reasons best known only to him
as those in the early grades. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV), —believes that intelligence is related to a person’s golf scores. Let’s say that he
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV), and the Wechsler develops an adult intelligence test based on golf scores. What do we need to
Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-IV) are the three versions look at to determine if his test is a good one?
of this test, and in the United States these tests are now used more frequently Standardization of Tests
than the Stanford-Binet. In earlier editions, another way these tests differed
from the Stanford-Binet was by having both a verbal and performance Standardization refers to the process of giving the test to a large group
(nonverbal) scale, as well as providing an overall score of intelligence (the of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed.
One aspect of standardization is in the establishment of consistent and EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE
standard methods of test administration. All test subjects would take the test
Another use of IQ tests is to help identify people who differ from those of
under the same conditions. In the professor’s case, this would mean that he
average intelligence by a great degree
would have his sample members play the same number of rounds of golf on
the same course under the same weather conditions, and so on. Another Individual differences
aspect addresses the comparison group whose scores will be used to compare
individual test results. Standardization groups are chosen randomly from the  intellectual disability
population for whom the test is intended and, like all samples, must be  giftedness
representative of that population.  emotional intelligence

Norms Intellectual disability

The scores from the standardization group would be called the norms,  formerly known as Intellectual developmental disorder, mental
the standards against which all others who take the test would be compared. retardation or developmentally delayed
Most tests of intelligence follow a normal curve, or a distribution in which the  is a term used when there are limits to a person's ability to learn at an
scores are the most frequent around the mean, or average, and become less expected level and function in daily life.
and less frequent the further from the mean they occur.
DIAGNOSIS
Diagnosis of intellectual disability is based on deficits in intellectual
functioning, determined by standardized tests of intelligence and clinical
assessment, which impact adaptive functioning across three domains:
conceptual, social, and practical.
CAUSES

 biological causes of intellectual disability are: Down syndrome, fetal

alcohol syndrome, and fragile X syndrome.
 Fetal alcohol syndrome is a condition that results from exposing a
developing embryo to alcohol,
Unhealthy living conditions can affect brain development. Lack of oxygen
birth, damage to the fetus in the womb from diseases, infections, or drug used
by the mother, and even diseases and accidents during childhood can lead to
intellectual disability.
GIFTEDNESS
 Giftedness is often merely based on intelligence and IQ scores, as it is
expressed that one could speak of giftedness when someone has an IQ
score higher than 130.
  Intellectual giftedness is an intellectual ability significantly higher than Signs of Emotional Intelligence
average. It is a characteristic of children, variously defined, that
Some key signs and examples of emotional intelligence include
motivates differences in school programming. It is thought to persist
as a trait into adult life, with various consequences studied in  An ability to identify and describe what people are feeling
longitudinal studies of giftedness over the last century.  An awareness of personal strengths and limitations
The various definitions of intellectual giftedness include either general  Self-confidence and self-acceptance
high ability or specific abilities. For example, by some definitions, an  The ability to let go of mistakes
intellectually gifted person may have a striking talent for mathematics without  An ability to accept and embrace change
equally strong language skills. In particular, the relationship between artistic  A strong sense of curiosity, particularly about other people
ability or musical ability and the high academic ability usually associated with  Feelings of empathy and concern for others
high IQ scores is still being explored, with some authors referring to all of  Showing sensitivity to the feelings of other people
those forms of high ability as "giftedness", while other authors distinguish  Accepting responsibility for mistakes
"giftedness" from "talent". There is still much controversy and much research  The ability to manage emotions in difficult situations
on the topic of how adult performance unfolds from trait differences in
childhood, and what educational and other supports best help the How Emotional Intelligence Is Measured
development of adult giftedness. A number of different assessments have emerged to measure levels of
Giftedness refers to children who have an IQ of 130 or higher (Lally & emotional intelligence. Such tests generally fall into one of two types: self-
Valentine-French, 2015). Having extremely high IQ is clearly less of a problem report tests and ability tests.
than having extremely low IQ, but there may also be challenges to being Self-report tests are the most common because they are the easiest to
particularly smart. It is often assumed that schoolchildren who are labeled as administer and score. On such tests, respondents respond to questions or
“gifted” may have adjustment problems that make it more difficult for them to statements by rating their own behaviors. For example, on a statement such as
create social relationships. To study gifted children, Lewis Terman and his "I often feel that I understand how others are feeling," a test-taker might
colleagues (Terman & Oden, 1959) selected about 1,500 high school students describe the statement as disagree, somewhat disagree, agree, or strongly
who scored in the top 1% on the Stanford-Binet and similar IQ tests (i.e., who agree.
had IQs of about 135 or higher), and tracked them for more than seven
decades (the children became known as the “termites” and are still being Ability tests, on the other hand, involve having people respond to situations
studied today). This study found that these students were not unhealthy or and then assessing their skills. Such tests often require people to demonstrate
poorly adjusted, but rather were above average in physical health and were their abilities, which are then rated by a third party.
taller and heavier than individuals in the general population. The students If you are taking an emotional intelligence test administered by a
also had above average social relationships and were less likely to divorce mental health professional, here are two measures that might be used:
than the average person (Seagoe, 1975).
 Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is an
Emotional intelligence ability-based test that measures the four branches of Mayer and
 Defined as the ability to understand and manage your own emotions, Salovey's EI model. Test-takers perform tasks designed to assess their
as well as recognize and influence the emotions of those around you. ability to perceive, identify, understand, and manage emotions.
  Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI) is based on an The four branches of this model are arranged by complexity with the
older instrument known as the Self-Assessment Questionnaire and more basic processes at the lower levels and the more advanced processes at
involves having people who know the individual offer ratings of that the higher levels. For example, the lowest levels involve perceiving and
person’s abilities in several different emotional competencies. The test expressing emotion, while higher levels require greater conscious involvement
is designed to evaluate the social and emotional abilities that help and involve regulating emotions.
distinguish people as strong leaders.
Impact of Emotional Intelligence
There are also plenty of more informal online resources, many of them free, to
Interest in teaching and learning social and emotional intelligence has
investigate your emotional intelligence.
grown in recent years. Social and emotional learning (SEL) programs have
Components of Emotional Intelligence become a standard part of the curriculum for many schools.
Researchers suggest that there are four different levels of emotional The goal of these initiatives is not only to improve health and well-
intelligence including emotional perception, the ability to reason using being but also to help students succeed academically and prevent bullying.
emotions, the ability to understand emotions, and the ability to manage There are many examples of how emotional intelligence can play a role in
emotions. daily life.

 Perceiving emotions: The first step in understanding emotions is to Thinking Before Reacting
perceive them accurately. In many cases, this might involve
Emotionally intelligent people know that emotions can be powerful,
understanding nonverbal signals such as body language and facial
but also temporary. When a highly charged emotional event happens, such as
expressions.
becoming angry with a co-worker, the emotionally intelligent response would
 Reasoning with emotions: The next step involves using emotions to
be to take some time before responding. This allows everyone to calm their
promote thinking and cognitive activity. Emotions help prioritize what
emotions and think more rationally about all the factors surrounding the
we pay attention and react to; we respond emotionally to things that
argument.
garner our attention.
 Understanding emotions: The emotions that we perceive can carry a Greater Self-Awareness
wide variety of meanings. If someone is expressing angry emotions,
Emotionally intelligent people are not only good at thinking about how
the observer must interpret the cause of the person's anger and what
other people might feel but they are also adept at understanding their own
it could mean. For example, if your boss is acting angry, it might mean
feelings. Self-awareness allows people to consider the many different factors
that they are dissatisfied with your work, or it could be because they
that contribute to their emotions.
got a speeding ticket on their way to work that morning or that they've
been fighting with their partner. Empathy for Others
 Managing emotions: The ability to manage emotions effectively is a
crucial part of emotional intelligence and the highest level. Regulating A large part of emotional intelligence is being able to think about and
emotions and responding appropriately as well as responding to the empathize with how other people are feeling. This often involves considering
emotions of others are all important aspects of emotional how you would respond if you were in the same situation.
management.
People who have strong emotional intelligence are able to consider the tell you, both verbally and non-verbally. Body language can carry a
perspectives, experiences, and emotions of other people and use this great deal of meaning. When you sense that someone is feeling a
information to explain why people behave the way that they do. certain way, consider the different factors that might be contributing
to that emotion.
How to Use Emotional Intelligence
Empathize
Emotional intelligence can be used in many different ways in your daily life.
Some different ways to practice emotional intelligence include:  Picking up on emotions is critical, but you also need to be able to put
yourself into someone else's shoes in order to truly understand their
1. Being able to accept criticism and responsibility
point of view. Practice empathizing with other people. Imagine how
2. Being able to move on after making a mistake
you would feel in their situation. Such activities can help you build an
3. Being able to say no when you need to
emotional understanding of a specific situation as well as develop
4. Being able to share your feelings with others
stronger emotional skills in the long-term.
5. Being able to solve problems in ways that work for everyone
6. Having empathy for other people Reflect
7. Having great listening skills
 The ability to reason with emotions is an important part of emotional
8. Knowing why you do the things you do
intelligence. Consider how your own emotions influence your
9. Not being judge mental of others
decisions and behaviors. When you are thinking about how other
“Emotional intelligence is essential for good interpersonal people respond, assess the role that their emotions play.
communication. Some experts believe that this ability is more important in
Why is this person feeling this way? Are there any unseen factors that might
determining life success than IQ alone. Fortunately, there are things that
be contributing to these feelings? How to your emotions differ from theirs? As
you can do to strengthen your own social and emotional intelligence.”
you explore such questions, you may find that it becomes easier to understand
Understanding emotions can be the key to better relationships, the role that emotions play in how people think and behave
improved well-being, and stronger communication skills.
Potential Pitfalls
Tips for Improving EI
Having lower emotional intelligence skills can lead to a number of
While some people might come by their emotional skills naturally, potential pitfalls that can affect multiple areas of life including work and
some evidence suggests that this is an ability you can develop and improve. relationships.
For example, a 2019 randomized controlled trial found that emotional
People who have fewer emotional skills tend to get in more arguments,
intelligence training could improve emotional abilities in workplace settings.3
have lower quality relationships, and have poor emotional coping skills.
Being emotionally intelligent is important, but what steps can you take to
Being low on emotional intelligence can have a number of drawbacks,
improve your own social and emotional skills? Here are some tips.
but having a very high level of emotional skills can also come with challenges.
Listen For example:
 If you want to understand what other people are feeling, the first step Research suggests that people with high emotional intelligence may
is to pay attention. Take the time to listen to what people are trying to actually be less creative and innovative.
 Highly emotionally intelligent people may have a hard time delivering In 1990, psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer published their
negative feedback for fear of hurting other people's feelings. landmark article, "Emotional Intelligence," in the journal Imagination,
Cognition, and Personality. They defined emotional intelligence as "the ability
Research has found that high EQ can sometimes be used for
to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate
manipulative and deceptive purposes.
among them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions."
History of Emotional Intelligence
In 1995, the concept of emotional intelligence was popularized after
Emotional intelligence as a term didn't come into our vernacular until the publication of Daniel Goleman’s book "Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can
around 1990. Despite being a relatively new term, interest in the concept has Matter More Than IQ."
grown tremendously since then.
The topic of emotional intelligence has continued to capture the public
Some researchers suggest that emotional intelligence can be learned and interest since and has become important in fields outside of psychology
strengthened; others claim it's an inborn characteristic. including education and business.

Early Growth
As early as the 1930s, the psychologist Edward Thorndike described
the concept of "social intelligence" as the ability to get along with other
people. During the 1940s, psychologist David Wechsler proposed that
different effective components of intelligence could play an important role in
how successful people are in life.
Later Developments
The 1950s saw the rise of the school of thought known as humanistic
psychology, and thinkers such as Abraham Maslow focused greater attention
on the different ways that people could build emotional strength.
Another important concept to emerge in the development of
emotional intelligence was the notion of multiple intelligences. This concept
was put forth in the mid-1970s by Howard Gardner, introducing the idea that
intelligence was more than just a single, general ability.

The Emergence of Emotional Intelligence

It was not until 1985 that the term "emotional intelligence" was first
used by in a doctoral dissertation by Wayne Payne. In 1987, an article
published in Mensa Magazine, Keith Beasley uses the term "emotional
quotient."
  Neuropsychologists play an important role in the care of individuals
with traumatic brain injury and other conditions where brain
functioning has been negatively impacted.
 Concussion, or mild traumatic brain injury, affects the lives of many
athletes and military personnel.
What is intellectual disability and what are its causes?
• Intellectual disability is a neurodevelopmental condition in which IQ falls
below 70 and adaptive behavior across conceptual, social, and practical
domains of life is severely deficient for a person of a particular chronological
age. Symptoms must also first be present during the developmental period.
•The four levels of intellectual disability are mild, moderate, severe, and
profound. These are determined by the level of adaptive functioning and level
of supports the individual needs in their daily life.
• Causes of intellectual disability include deprived environments as well as
chromosome and genetic disorders and dietary deficiencies.
What defines giftedness, and how are giftedness and emotional
intelligence related to success in life?
•Gifted persons are defined as those having IQ scores at the upper end of the
normal curve (130 or above).
How is intelligence measured, how are intelligence tests constructed, and •Emotional intelligence involves being able to reach goals and engage in
what role do these tests play in neuropsychology? productive thinking through accurate awareness and effective management of
our own emotions. It also involves our ability to understand what others feel.
 The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score that was once
determined by dividing the mental age of the person by the •Terman conducted a longitudinal study that demonstrated that gifted
chronological age and multiplying that quotient by 100 but now children grow up to be successful adults for the most part.
involves comparing a person’s score to a standardized norm
 The Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield four index scores derived from • Terman’s study has been criticized for a lack of objectivity because Terman
both verbal and nonverbal subtests and an overall score of became too involved in the lives of several of his participants, even to the point
intelligence. of intervening on their behalf.
 Standardization, validity, and reliability are all important factors in What is the influence of heredity and environment on the development
the construction of an intelligence test. of intelligence?
 Deviation IQs are based on the normal curve, defining different levels
of intelligence based on the deviation of scores from a common mean. • Stronger correlations are found between IQ scores as genetic
 IQ tests are often criticized for being culturally biased.
• In 1994, Herrnstein and Murray published The Bell Curve, in which they “listens” to the language input of the infant’s world and then begins to
made widely criticized claims about the heritability of intelligence produce language sounds and eventually words and sentences in a
pattern found across cultures. This pattern is discussed in greater
LANGUAGE
detail in the next chapter. to Learning Objective 8.6. Grammar includes
 It is a system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an phonemes (the basic sounds of language), morphology (the study of
infinite number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose the formation of words), rules for the order of words known as syntax,
of communicating with others. Language allows people not only to and pragmatics (the practical social expectations and uses of
communicate with one another but also to represent their own mental language).
activity,
Phonemes
 Language is a system for combining symbols (such as words) so that
an infinite* number of meaningful statements can be made for the  Phonemes are the basic units of sound in a language. The a in the word
purpose of communicating with others. caris a very different phoneme from the a in the word day, even though
 Language allows people not only to communicate with one another it is the same letter of the alphabet. The difference is in how we say the
but also to represent their own internal mental activity. In other sound of the a in each word. Phonemes are more than just the
words, language is a very important part of how people think. different ways in which we pronounce single letters, too. Th, sh, and au
are also phonemes. Phonemes for different languages are also
THE LEVELS OF LANGUAGE ANALYSIS
different, and one of the biggest problems for people who are trying to
The structures of languages all over the world share common learn another language is the inability to both hear and pronounce the
characteristics. They consist of the sounds that exist within a language, word phonemes of that other language. Although infants are born with the
meanings, word order, the rules for making words into other words, the ability to recognize all phonemes (Werker & Lalonde, 1988), after
meanings of sentences and phrases, and the rules for practical communication about 9 months, that ability has deteriorated, and the infant
with others. recognizes only the phonemes of the language to which the infant is
exposed (Boyson-Bardies et al., 1989).
Grammar
Morphemes
 Grammar is the system of rules governing the structure and use of a
language. According to famed linguist Noam Chomsky (Chomsky,  Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning within a language. For
2006; Chomsky et al., 2002), humans have an innate ability to example, the word playing consists of two morphemes, play and ing.
understand and produce language through a device he calls the
Syntax
language acquisition device, or LAD. He defined the LAD as an innate
“program” that contained a schema for human language. The children  Syntax is a system of rules for combining words and phrases to form
matched the language they heard against this schema and, thus, grammatically correct sentences. Syntax is quite important, as just a
language developed in a well-researched sequence (Chomsky, 1957, simple mix-up can cause sentences to be completely misunderstood.
1964, 1981, 1986). While humans may learn the specific language For example, “John kidnapped the boy” has a different meaning from
(English, Spanish, Mandarin, etc.) through the processes of imitation, “John, the kidnapped boy,” although all four words are the same
reinforcement, and shaping, to Learning Objectives 5.5, 5.9, and 5.12, (Lasnik, 1990). Another example of the importance of syntax can be
the complexities of the grammar of a language are, according to found in the lobby of a Moscow hotel across from a monastery: “You
Chomsky, to some degree “wired in” to the developing brain. The LAD are welcome to visit the cemetery where famous composers, artists,
 and writers are buried daily except Thursday.” So if people want to of language development. What kinds of games do adults play with
watch famous composers, artists, and writers being buried, they infants that also aid the development of language?
should not go to this monastery on Thursday.
Does language influence the way people think, and are animals capable
Semantics of learning language?
 Semantics are rules for determining the meaning of words and As with the controversy of nature versus nurture, researchers have
sentences. Sentences, for example, can have the same semantic long debated the relationship between language and thought. Does language
meaning while having different syntax: “Johnny hit the ball” and “the actually influence thought, or does thinking influence language?
ball was hit by Johnny.”
Two very influential developmental psychologists, Jean Piaget and Lev
Pragmatics Vygotsky often debated the relationship of language and thought (Duncan,
1995). Piaget (1926, 1962) theorized that concepts preceded and aided the
 The pragmatics of language has to do with the practical aspects of
development of language. For example, a child would have to have a concept
communicating with others, or the social “niceties” of language. Simply
or mental schema for “mother” before being able to learn the word “mama.” In
put, pragmatics involves knowing things like how to take turns in a
a sense, concepts become the “pegs” upon which words are “hung.” Piaget also
conversation, the use of gestures to emphasize a point or indicate a
noticed that preschool children seemed to spend a great deal of time talking to
need for more information, and the different ways in which one speaks
themselves—even when playing with another child. Each child would be
to different people (Yule, 1996). For example, adults speak to small
talking about something totally unrelated to the speech of the other, in a
children differently than they do to other adults by using simpler
process Piaget called collective monologue. Piaget believed that this kind of
words. Both adults and children use higher pitched voices and many
nonsocial speech was very egocentric (from the child’s point of view only, with
repeated phrases when talking to infants; such child-directed speech
no regard for the listener), and that as the child became more socially involved
plays an important role in the development of language in children.
and less egocentric, these nonsocial speech patterns would reduce.
Part of the pragmatics of language includes knowing just what rhythm
and emphasis to use when communicating with others, called Vygotsky, however, believed almost the opposite. He theorized that
intonation. When speaking to infants, adults and children are changing language actually helped develop concepts and that language could also help
the inflection when they use the higher pitch and stress certain words the child learn to control behavior—including social behavior (Vygotsky,
differently than others. Some languages, such as Japanese, are highly 1962, 1978, 1987). For Vygotsky, the word helped form the concept: Once a
sensitive to intonation, meaning that changing the stress or pitch of child had learned the word “mama,” the various elements of “mama-ness”—
certain words or syllables of a particular word can change its meaning warm, soft, food, safety, and so on—could come together around that word.
entirely (Beckman & Pierrehumbert, 1986). For example, the Japanese Vygotsky also believed that the “egocentric” speech of the preschool child was
name “Yoshiko” should be pronounced with the accent or stress on the actually a way for the child to form thoughts and control actions. This “private
first syllable: YO-shekoh. This pronunciation of the name means speech” was a way for children to plan their behavior and organize actions so
“woman-child.” But if the stress is placed on the second syllable (yo- that their goals could be obtained. Since socializing with other children would
SHE-ko), the name means “woman who urinates.” demand much more self-control and behavioral regulation on the part of the
 Pragmatics involves the practical aspects of communicating. This preschool child, Vygotsky believed that private speech would actually increase
young mother is talking and then pausing for the infant’s response. In as children became more socially active in the preschool years. This was, of
this way, the infant is learning about taking turns, an important aspect course, the opposite of Piaget’s assumption, and the evidence seems to bear
out Vygotsky’s view: Children, especially bright children, do tend to use more
private speech when learning how to socialize with other children or when concepts of a higher level. In one study, researchers showed pictures of two
working on a difficult task (Berk, 1992; Berk & Spuhl, 1995; Bivens & Berk, animals to preschool children (Gelman & Markman, 1986). The pictures were
1990). Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis The hypothesis that language shapes of a flamingo and a bat. The children were told that the flamingo feeds its baby
and influences thoughts was accepted by many theorists, with a few notable mashed-up food, but the bat feeds its baby milk. Then they were shown a
exceptions, such as Piaget. One of the best-known versions of this view is the picture of a blackbird (which looked more like the bat than the flamingo). Half
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (named for the two theorists who developed it, of the children were told that the blackbird was a bird, while the other
Edward Sapir and his student, Benjamin Lee Whorf ). This hypothesis assumes children were not. When asked how the blackbird fed its baby, the children
that the thought processes and concepts within any culture are determined by who had been given the bird label were more likely to say that it fed its baby
the words of the culture (Sapir, 1921; Whorf, 1956). It has come to be known mashed-up food than were the children who were not given the label,
as the linguistic relativity hypothesis, meaning that thought processes and indicating that the preschoolers were making inferences about feeding habits
concepts are controlled by (relative to) language. That is, the words people based on category membership rather than perceptual similarity—the word
use determine much of the way in which they think about the world around bird helped the children who were given that label to place the blackbird in its
them. One of the most famous examples used by Whorf to support this idea proper higher level category.
was that of the Inuit’s, Native Americans living in the Arctic. Supposedly, the
Research continues in the investigation of relationships between
Inuit’s have many more words for snow than do people in other cultures. One
language and thought and appears to support linguistic relativity and how
estimate was 23 different words, whereas other estimates have ranged in the
language can shape our thoughts about space, time, colors, and objects
hundreds. Unfortunately, this anecdotal evidence has turned out to be false,
(Boroditsky, 2001, 2009). However, researchers do not always agree, and for
being more myth than reality (Pullum, 1991). In fact, English speakers also
some studies that offer support, there are others that reinterpret the data, fail
have many different words for snow (sleet, slush, powder, dusting, and yellow
to replicate, or offer critiques of the original studies, so findings are
to name a few).Is there evidence for the linguistic relativity hypothesis?
sometimes still in question ( J. Y. Chen, 2007; January & Kako, 2007).
Neither Sapir nor Whorf provided any scientific studies that would support
their proposition. There has been numerous studies by other researchers, Psychologists cannot deny the influence of language on problem
however. For example, in one study researchers assumed that a language’s solving, cognition, and memory. Sometimes a problem can simply be worded
color names would influence the ability of the people who grew up with that differently to have the solution become obvious, and memory (to Learning
language to distinguish among and perceive colors. The study found that basic Objective 6.5) is certainly stored in terms of the semantics of language.
color terms did directly influence color recognition memory (Lucy & Shweder, Language can definitely influence the perception of others as well—
1979). Butan earlier series of studies of the perception of colors by Eleanor “computer geek” and “software engineer” might be used to describe the same
Rosch-Heider and others (Rosch-Heider, 1972; Rosch-Heider & Olivier, 1972) person, but one phrase is obviously less flattering, and the image brought to
had already found just the opposite effect: Members of the Dani tribe, who mind is different for the two terms. In the end, trying to determine whether
have only two names for colors, were no different in their ability to perceive language influences thoughts or thoughts influence language may be like
all of the colors than were the English speakers in the study. More recent trying to determine which came first, the chicken or the egg
studies (Davies et al., 1998a, 1998b; Laws et al., 1995; Pinker & Bloom, 1990)
support Rosch-Heider’s findings and the idea of a cognitive universalism Animal Studies in Language
(concepts are universal and influence the development of language) rather There are really two questions about animals and language. The first is
than linguistic relativity. Other research suggests that although the linguistic “Can animals communicate?” and the second is “Can animals use language?”
relativity hypothesis may not work for fine perceptual discriminations such as The answer to the first question is a definite “Yes.” Animals communicate in
those in the Rosch-Heider studies, it may be an appropriate explanation for many ways. They use sounds such as the rattle of a rattlesnake or the warning
growl of an angry dog. There are also physical behaviors, such as the “dance” of language development of a 3-year-old human child (Pinker, 1995). However,
of honeybees that tells the other bees where a source of pollen is (Gould & linguists still debate whether these animals are truly learning language if they
Gould, 1994). But the answer to the second question is more complicated, are not also learning how to use syntax—combining words into grammatically
because language is defined as the use of symbols, and symbols are things that correct sentences as well as being able to understand the differences between
stand for something else. Words are symbols, and gestures can be symbols. sentences such as “The girl kissed the boy” and “The boy kissed the girl.” As
But the gestures used by animals are instinctual, meaning they are controlled yet, there is no conclusive evidence that any of the animals trained in language
by the animal’s genetic makeup. The honeybee doing the “dance” is controlled have been able to master syntax (Demers, 1988; Johnson, 1995; Pinker, 1995).
completely by instinct, as is the growling dog. In human language, symbols are
Language
used quite deliberately and voluntarily, not by instinct, and abstract symbols
have no meaning until people assign meaning to them. (Although Chomsky’s How is language defined, and what are its different elements and structure?
innate language acquisition device might lead some to think that language for
humans is instinctual, it should be noted that the infant’s production of speech • Language is a system for combining symbols so that an infinite number of
sounds becomes quite deliberate within a short period of time.) Can animals meaningful statements can be created and communicated to others.
be taught to use symbols that are abstract? There have been attempts to teach •Grammar is the system of rules by which language is governed
animals (primates and dolphins) how to use sign language (as animals lack
the vocal structure to form spoken words), but many of these attempts were and includes the rules for using phonemes, morphemes, and syntax.
simply not “good science.” The most successful of these experiments (which is Pragmatics refers to practical aspects of language.
not without its critics as well) has been with Kanzi, a bonobo chimpanzee
Does language influence the way people think, and are animals capable
trained to press abstract symbols on a computer keyboard (Savage-Rumbaugh
of learning language?
& Lewin, 1994). Kanzi actually was not the original subject of the study—his
mother, Matata, was the chimp being trained. She did not learn many of the • Sapir and Whorf originally proposed that language controls and helps the
symbols, but Kanzi watched his mother use the keyboard and appeared to development of thought processes and concepts, an idea that is known as the
learn how to use the symbols through that observation. At last count, Kanzi linguistic relativity hypothesis.
could understand about 150 spoken English words. Trainers who speak to
•Other researchers have found evidence that concepts are universal and
him are not in his view, so he is not responding to physical cues or symbols. He
directly influence the development of language, called the cognitive
has managed to follow correctly complex instructions up to the level of a 2-
universalism viewpoint.
year-old child (Savage-Rumbaugh et al., 1998). The most recent studies with
Kanzi have him making sounds that seem to have consistent meaning across • Studies with chimpanzees, parrots, and dolphins have been somewhat
different situations (Tagliatatela et al., 2003). Nearly 100 videotaped hours of successful in demonstrating that animals can develop a basic kind of language,
Kanzi engaged in day-to-day activities were analyzed for these sounds. The including some abstract ideas.
researchers were able to identify four sounds that seemed to represent
banana, grapes, juice, and the word yes. (However, remember that four sounds •Controversy exists over the lack of evidence that animals can learn syntax,
do not come close to making an entire language.) which some feel means that animals are not truly learning and using language.

Other studies, with dolphins (Herman et al., 1993) and with parrots
(Pepperberg, 1998, 2007), have also met with some success. Is it real
language? The answer seems to be a qualified “yes.” The qualification is that
none of the animals that have achieved success so far can compare to the level
GROUP 5 INSTINCT THEORY
"Motivation and Emotion"  Instinct is a fixed, inborn behavior pattern acting as a drive. Instinct theory
postulates that certain behavior s occurs so we can satisfy basic survival
MOTIVATION
needs. Fear is an example of an instinctual drive, which allows people to
 As the process that determines the reinform cement value of an outcome. avoid dangerous situations.
In more everyday language, motivation is what makes you want something  Instinct theory of motivation, all living things are born with innate
more at one time and less at another. biological tendencies that help them survive. The idea is that this approach
finds parallel s between biological instinct s and motives. It declares that
Psychologists define human motivation as “the impetus that gives purpose motives are natural forces found in all living creatures
or direction to behavior and operates inhuman at a conscious or unconscious
level.” The idea is that motivation guides us to accomplish a goal and that goal- WILLIAM MCDOUGALL
directed behavior can be very satisfying.
 Was one of the first to write about theory of motivation According to him
Psychologist s have several theories on what forces can cause an instinct must be unlearned, uniform in expression, and universal species
individual to ac t. Some of these theories are based on need, while others are based
KEY ELEMENTS OF INSTINCT
on instinct and arousal. Motivation can rarely be narrowed down to a s ingle
driving force.  PERCEPTION
 BEHAVIOR
TYPES OF MOTIVATION:
 EMOTION
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
A MODEL OF MOTIVATION
 Comes from within the individual. When you are intrinsically motivated,
you do something for personal gratification. You are not motivated by Many motivated activities begin with a need, or internal deficiency. Needs
external incentives and ac t s imply because you gain internal satisfaction. cause a drive (an energized motivational state) to develop. The drive was hunger.
Instead of expecting external rewards for your behavior, the behavior itself Drives activate a response (an action or series of actions) designed to attain a goal
is the reward. (the “target” of motivated behavior) . Reaching a goal that satisfies the need will
end the chain of events.
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
Thus, a simple model of motivation can be shown in thi s way:
 Makes you do something to get rewards or avoid punishment. In this case,
motivation comes from something out s ide of yourself, such as external
awards or a good grade. Though you can enjoy the process of achieving a
goal, extrinsic motivation means that your motives are primarily external.
External fac tor s motivates you to take action – or avoid action altogether.
 Hierarchy of human needs: Abraham Maslow’s ordering of needs based on KEY ELEMENT OF THE AROUSAL AND INCENTIVES APPROACHES TO
their presumed strength and potency. MOTIVATION
3 TYPES OF NEEDS  Arousal can be mental (cognitive), emotional (affective) , or physical,
sometimes referred to as the three part s of arousal theory or the three
 BASIC NEEDS types of arousal.
 GROWTH NEEDS
 META NEEDS  Discuss how motivation can cause someone to want something, and the
BASIC NEEDS different between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as well as the arousal
theory and incentive approaches. Studied have shown that motivation
 the first four level of needs in Maslow’s hierarchy; lower needs tend to be engages with social, emotional, and biological forces that trigger different
more potent than higher needs. behaviors.
 this theory created by Abraham Maslow’s is based on how human inspired
to satisfy their needs in hierarchical orders. Starting from the bottom going THREE TYPES OF AROUSAL
upward, the five needs are the physiological, safety, love and belonging, 1.Cognitive or Intellectual Arousal- is about thinking and mental stimulation.
esteem and self-actualization. This is the state where we are exploring learning and discovering interesting
Example: Foods, clothing, shelter, water, and sleep. things. We are driven into this cognitively aroused stated by curiosity, novelty and
general interest.
GROWTH NEEDS
2.Emotional arousal- emotional responses can be define as reactions to evocative
 In Maslow’s hierarchy, he the higher needs as sociated with self - stimuli, in terms of identifying the emotional significance of a stimulus or
actualization. situation, producing an affective state, and regulating the affective state (Phillips,
 refer to people’s strivings for self -actualization, knowledge, Dravet’s, Rauch, & Lane 2003).
understanding, and beauty.
3.Physical. - Physiological arousals refer s to features of arousal reflected by
Example: emotional security, financial security, jobs, law and order, fearlessness, physiological reactions, such as escalation in blood pressure and rate of respiration
health and well-being. and lessened activity of the gastrointestinal system.
META NEEDS
 in Maslow’s hierarchy, needs associated with impulses for self -
actualization.
 in the humanistic psychology of Abraham Maslow’s, the highest level of
needs that comes into play primarily after the lower-level needs have been
met. Meta needs constitute the goal s of the actualizers.
Example: knowledge, beauty and creativity
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Researcher s believe certain genetic differences among individual s play a
role in hunger. The brain, the digestive system, and hormones are all involved in
influencing hunger at the biological level.
 OBESITY is the excessive accumulation of body fat. Physicians calculate
a body mass index, defined as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters
squared. A ratio over 25 is considered overweight, over 30 is obese, and over 40 is
extremely obese. Obesity increases the risk of diabetes, coronary heart disease,
cancer, sleep apnea, and other diseases although each by itself has only a modest
effect. But how do those genes alter behavior?
Many overweight people eat more than they admit, maybe even more than
they admit to themselves. In one admirably simple study, researcher s collected
supermarket receipt s and found that overweight families bought more food per
person than average and especially more high- fat food. However, in addition to
consuming more energy, they al so have low energy output, including a low
metabolic rate.

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON EATING

Physiological mechanisms account for only part of our eating habits. Social fac tor
s are important al so. When you eat with friends, you linger over the meal. You eat
a few more bites after you thought you were done, and then a few more.
Overeating has spread in other cultures as they became, as some people put it,
“Coca-Colonized” by Western culture.
EATING TOO MUCH OR TOO LITTLE
 Obesity has become widespread but not universal. Why do some people
become obese, whereas others do not? At the other extreme, why do some
people eat too little? Abnormal eating reflects s a combination of social
and physiological influences.
 Psychologist Carrol Izard (1977, 1990) was among the first to suggest that
the face does, indeed, affect emotion. According to Izard, emotions cause innately
programmed changes in facial expression. Sensations from the face then provide
cues to the brain that help us determine our emotions. This idea is known as the
facial feedback hypothesis. Sous signan (2002), stated another way, it says that
having facial expressions and becoming aware of them is what influences our
private emotional experience. Exercise, for instance, arouses the body, but we
don’t experience this arousal as an emotion because it does not trigger emotional
expressions.
Psychologist Paul Ekman takes this idea one step further. He believes that
“making faces” can actually cause emotion. In one study, participants were guided
as they arranged their faces , mus c le by mus c le, into expres s ions of surpri se, di
sgus t, sadnes s , anger, fear, and happines s . At the same time, each per son’ s
bodily reac tions were monitored. Contrary to what you might expect, “making
faces” can affect the autonomic nervous system, as shown by changes in heart rate
and skin temperature. In addition, each facial expression produces a different
pattern of activity. An angry face, for instance, raises heart rate and skin
temperature, whereas disgust lowers both. Other studies have confirmed that posed
expressions alter emotions and bodily activity. It appears, then, that not only do
emotions influence expressions, but expressions influence emotions, as shown
here:
CONTRACTED FACIAL MUSCLES FELT EMOTION:

 FOREHEAD SURPRISE
 BROW ANGER
 MOUTH (DOWN) SADNESS
 MOUTH (SMILE) JOY

 Emotional appraisal evaluates the personal meaning of a stimulus or

situation.
 Facial feedback hypothesis States that sensations from facial expressions
help define what emotion a per son feels.
A contemporary model of emotion. The appraisal gives rise to arousal and
cognitive labeling, behavior, facial/postural expressions, and emotional feelings.
Arousal, attribution, behavior, and expressions add to emotional feelings.
Emotional feelings influence appraisal, which further affects arousal, behavior,
expressions, and feelings.