Technical Report Writing

Submitted To:
Ma’am Anam Amin

Submitted By:
Kashif Khan
2021-MIN-10

University of Engineering and Technology

Lahore
Contents
To Determine the deflection and Modulus of Elasticity..................................................................2
Abstract:...........................................................................................................................................2
Introduction:....................................................................................................................................2
(a) Load:...............................................................................................................................2
(b) Beams:............................................................................................................................2
(c) Applications:..................................................................................................................3
(d) Deflection of beam:........................................................................................................3
(e) Slope of deflection:........................................................................................................4
(f) Second area of moment:.................................................................................................4
(g) Advantages and disadvantages of cantilever beam:.......................................................4
Objectives:.......................................................................................................................................5
Methodology:...................................................................................................................................5
Modulus of Elasticity:......................................................................................................................5
• Object's resistance to being deformed elastically when a stress is applied to it........................5
• Measure of the stiffness of a material.......................................................................................5
• How much a material is going to deformed under load............................................................5
• Very important in terms of design engineering.........................................................................5
Results:............................................................................................................................................5
Experimental Result:.......................................................................................................................6
Analytical Results:...........................................................................................................................7
Graph:..............................................................................................................................................7
Modeling and Simulations:..............................................................................................................8
Discussion:.......................................................................................................................................9
Conclusion:......................................................................................................................................9
References:......................................................................................................................................9

To Determine the deflection and Modulus of Elasticity.

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Abstract:
In this experiment the deflection of beams using three different sections has been explained.
Cantilever beam with one end fixed was used. The loads introduced were all periodic and the material
used was aluminum with 70GPa young’s modulus. The results have shown clearly that deflection and
young’s modulus vary inversely that is why the deflection in case of cantilever beam is found to be
greater. Steel on the other hand gave very low deflection. Second part of this report compares the
numerical and experimental results The analytical results showed a straight-line linear graph which
verified the experiment. The experiment was performed considering the ideal conditions as no such case
refers to real world, the results show a greater deflection than it was expected in theoretical results. The
load was applied at two positions one at the free end and other at the center of thee cantilever beam, both
results have been concluded. This experiment verified that the deflection of such beams depends on
different factors, and they may have a significant role in deflection. However, this experiment also
discussed the role of deflection according to the area, volume and found the price assuming the price of
aluminum per kg to be 900.
Introduction:
The cantilever beams are fixed and one end and are free at the other. A cantilever beam can be
product of aluminum or metallic, one end of which is solid or anchored to a vertical guide. It is a
horizontal beam structure, the free give up of that's uncovered to a vertical load. The cantilever beam is
subjected to moment and shear pressure while the structural load is implemented. The aim of any layout
system is to switch these stresses competently to the guide.
(a) Load:
Loads are applied on the beams perpendicularly; these loads can be applied at different position
from the fixed end. Cantilever production lets in overhanging structures without extra guide. Loads
carried out on beams are justified and are consistent with bearing capability of beams. These beams
deliver each bending moment and shear strain. These beams are typically used on bridge trusses and
other structural elements. It is connected to a wall or column at one end, the alternative aspect is
unfastened. A point load is described as a load acting at one point along the entire duration of the span.
(Barten 1944)
(i) Types of Loads:
 Point loads
 Distributed Loads
 Varying loads
The conditions for load depend on the types of beams which are discussed further.
(b) Beams:
A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads acting laterally to the axis of the beam.
Its mode of deflection is primarily bending. The loads acting on the beam led to reaction forces at the
support points of the beam. There are different types of beams some of which are discussed below.
(i) Types of Beams:
I. Cantilever Beam
II. Simply supported beam

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 III. Fixed beam
IV. Overhanging beam
V. Continuous beam
I. Cantilever beam:
The cantilever beams are fixed and one end and are free at the other. A cantilever beam can be
product of aluminum or metallic, one end of which is solid or anchored to a vertical guide. It is a
horizontal beam structure, the free give up of that's uncovered to a vertical load.(Kane, Ryan et al. 1987,
Beléndez, Neipp et al. 2002)
II. Simply supported beam:
A simply supported beam is a beam that rests on two supports and is free to move horizontally.
These beams can bear more loads, real world examples of simply supported beams include buildings,
machine tools and bridges.
III. Fixed Beam:
A fixed beam is supported between two fixed ends. Also called fixed end beam and tired beam.
This type of beam requires three unknowns to solve statistically, the strength of this beam is less than
cantilever and simply supported beam.
IV. Overhanging Beam:
If the end part of the beam extends beyond the support, then the beam is known as an
overhanging beam. The beam can be either fixed on both sides or free at one side.
V. Continuous Beam:
Continuous steel beams consist of two or more beams that are welded together and supported by
additional beams to form a stable yet flexible component for large-scale structures. In real world this
type of beam is used in bridges construction and for reliable and strengthened roofs.
(c) Applications:
• In Buildings
• Cantilever bridges
• Overhanging projections and elements
• Machinery and plants such as cranes
• Overhanging roofs like shelters and stadium roofs
• Shelving and Furniture

(d) Deflection of beam:

Deflection is defined as a deviation or a displacement from a starting point. In structural
engineering deflection is defined by an angle of such displacement. Deflection of beam refers to this
concept. Causes of deflection of beam may include weather, unbearable loads, extended shear stress or
increased forces. Deflection can be an angle or a distance also.(Kane, Ryan et al. 1987) Deflection is
more common in concrete structures whereas steel structures can handle the deflection in a better way.
Following are three main types of deflection of beam:
 Angular deflection

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  Lateral deflection
 Axial deflection
Figure 1 (Beam sections)

(e) Slope of deflection:

Slope deflection method was introduced in 1914, and it was widely used till distribution method
was found. It is a method in structural engineering to calculate the expected risks. In simply supported
beams the deflection is maximum at the supports whereas in cantilever beam the slope is maximum at
one end.
(f) Second area of moment:
Second area of moment also referred as moment of inertia “I” in beam deflection formula is the
measure of inertia at the arbitrary axis and it is used for two-dimensional plane.
(g) Advantages and disadvantages of cantilever beam:
(i) Advantages:
Following are the advantages of cantilever beam:
 These beams are easy to construct
 As they have one end free, they allow negative bending moment which helps to attack the
positive bending.
 Their trusses require less material which makes it economical and reliable.
 Cantilevered trusses are light weight and more presentable.
(ii) Disadvantages:
 They keep their shape by resistance to shear stress and compressible forces which makes
it massive.
 The rate of deflection in cantilever beams is higher as compared to simply supported
beams.
 The cantilever structures contain larger moments eventually.
 It cannot bear more loads as compared to simply supported beams whereas they bear
larger moments.

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Objectives:
 Deflection of Beam for different sections (I-Section, Rectangular Section and C Channel)
 Comparison of Experimental, Analytical and Numerical Results.

Methodology:
The material being used aluminum in this case was place in the cantilever beam whose one end
is fixed by a support and the other end is free. Then a knife slide hanger whose weight is 0.5lbs was
placed at a distance 30 mm from the fixed support, the digital gauge was set to zero from origin. The
loads(N) were added step by step first load was 20N,40N and so on till 200N. The values were recorded
one by one and was written for further calculations. Then the hanger was placed on another point this
time at 50 mm from the fixed point the loads were added, and the values were recorded. It is important
to note that conditions assumed here are ideal and that is why the deflection calculated further was
showing more deflection than the analytical results.(Sharma and P 2010) For the last reading the load
was considered at the free end of cantilever beam. After recording all these values of deflection, the
given three sections I-section, rectangular section and C-section were used to calculate the second
moment of inertia (I) in deflection formula. Three sections are shown below. The results recorded were
then used to find the percentage error between the experimental and analytical results. These errors were
high because of non-ideal system. The data recorded was solved using LDR the length, height, width
was found which were placed in deflection formula to find results. The area of each beam and the
volume of each beam considering their mass was also recorded. The results formed a linear graph as
shown. Increasing the distance from fixed support and load exponentially increases the deflection of
cantilever beam. The experimental and analytical values differ and there is a single trend of deflection.
Following are the three beams used to find the deflection of cantilever beam fixed at one end.
Modulus of Elasticity:
• Object's resistance to being deformed elastically when a stress is applied to it
• Measure of the stiffness of a material
• How much a material is going to deformed under load
• Very important in terms of design engineering

Results:
Following are the experimental, analytical, and modeling and simulations results respectively.
The experimental results were calculated using the experimental data, in this case the deflection is more
as it is not an ideal case and cantilever beam is assumed as linear elastic however the beam used in this
experiment was plastic. The graph of experimental results has also been attached there is no pattern
between the three sections provided. This result is far from the ideal one. In the next step the data which
was supposed as theoretical calculation was used to calculate the deflection this comes out to be nearly
perfect of what was required. The table of analytical data shows the percentage difference and the total
deflection occurred due to each load.it is important to understand that the following data has been
manipulated using the aluminum young’s modulus. At last, the numerical data is presented where all the
values of length, height, depth etc. are given which is used in this experiment. Where I xx is the second
moment of inertia.

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Experimental Result:
Load (W) Deflection (δ c W/δ c Modulus of Elasticity (E)
) of Copper
(From Graph)
(lb) (in.) (lb/in.) (psi)
0.0 0.003
0.1 0.019

0.2 0.037
5.598 18846743
0.3 0.053

0.4 0.075

0.5 0.091

E of Copper=18846743psi
Table 1(experimental)

Graph:

0.6

0.5 Linear: y = 5.598*x - 0.009378

0.4
Load (lb)

0.3

0.2

0.1
Actual Line from Experimental Data
0 Linear Trend Line

-0.1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Deflection (in.)

Analytical Results:

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   Modulus of Elasticity (E) of Copper
Load (W) Deflection (δ c)

(lb) (in.) (psi)

0.0 0.000
0.1 0.021

0.2 0.042 15954151.1

0.3 0.063  

0.4 0.084

0.5 0.105

Figure (experimental) 2

Graph:

0.5

0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3
Load (lb)

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Deflection (in.)
Figure(analytical) 3

Modeling and Simulations:

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Deflection:

Discussion:
The data provided shows clearly the deflection of I-section, Rectangular-Section, and C-Section
and their differences. It is important to note that, deflection is inversely proportional to the strength of

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the section. Greater the deflection lesser the strength of the section. In this specific experiment the
cantilever beam with one end fixed and another end free was used. The load(N) was applied on the free
end, maximum deflection was recorded in this case. The experimental and analytical values differ and
there is a single trend of deflection in analytical values (Figure(analytical) 2). This confirms that the
calculated value for each section verifies one another. The percentage difference of the three section is
high because we assumed the cantilever beam used in experiment as linear elastic, which is an ideal
case, in experimental work the cantilever beam is not linear elastic. The loads used were periodic to find
the most precise results. The material used to find the deflection was aluminum, it has shown more
deflection than steel because the young’s modulus of aluminum is less which is 70GPa. The analytical
deflection is always less than the experimental deflection. The results formed a linear graph as shown.
Increasing the distance from fixed support and load exponentially increases the deflection of cantilever
beam. This experiment also provided some of the important quantities such as area volume and we can
derive more results about costing and its efficiency with Aluminum which are discussed below:
Conclusion:
This experiment verifies itself as the graph for each beam is linear and corresponding. Hence, the
cantilever beam with different loads show deflection as discussed. The three beam sections I-beam,
rectangular section, and C-section show periodic deflection. The percentage difference of these beams
resulted to be more than expected as the experiment was done on non-ideal apparatus and conditions
where the beam act as plastic whereas. In ideal conditions the beam acts as a linear elastic material. It is
important to note that, deflection is inversely proportional to the strength of the section. Greater the
deflection lesser the strength of the section. In this specific experiment the cantilever beam with one end
fixed and another end free was used. The loads used were periodic to find the most precise results. The
material used to find the deflection was aluminum, The deflection in the case of aluminum is maximum
as the modulus of elasticity in aluminum is high and modulus in case of stainless steel was lower and so
is the deflection. In the discussion part the area volume and mass of each beam used was found. A price
analysis was also held considering aluminum per kg as 900Rs, it was found that rectangular beam was
least expensive, and I-section was most expensive. In three of them C-section beam was found most
suitable and appropriate considering its cost efficiency and strength. The objectives of this experiment
have been fulfilled.
References:
Barten, H. (1944). "On the deflection of a cantilever beam." Quarterly of Applied Mathematics 2(2):
168-171.

Beléndez, T., et al. (2002). "Large and small deflections of a cantilever beam." European journal of
physics 23(3): 371.

Hibbeler, R. C. (2016). Engineering Mechanics: Statics, Pearson Prentice Hall.

Kane, T., et al. (1987). "Dynamics of a cantilever beam attached to a moving base." Journal of
Guidance, Control, and Dynamics 10(2): 139-151.

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Nie, J., et al. (2004). "Stiffness and deflection of steel–concrete composite beams under negative
bending." Journal of Structural Engineering 130(11): 1842-1851.

Sharma, D. P. and S. D. P (2010). Engineering Mechanics, Dorling Kindersley.

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