AGGREGATES

Aggregates are the inert materials that are mixed in fixed proportions with a Binding Material to
produce concrete.
Generally Aggregates are the important constituents in concrete. They give body to the concrete,
reduce shrinkage and effect economy. Earlier, aggregates were considered as chemically inert
materials but now it has been recognized that some of the aggregates are chemically active and
also that certain aggregates exhibit chemical bond at the interface of aggregate and paste. The
mere fact that the aggregates occupy 70–80 per cent of the volume of concrete, their impact on
various characteristics and properties of concrete is undoubtedly considerable. To know more
about the concrete it is very essential that one should know more about the aggregates which
constitute major volume in concrete. Without the study of the aggregate in depth and range, the
study of the concrete is incomplete. Cement is the only factory made standard component in
concrete. Other ingredients, namely, water and aggregates are natural materials and can vary to
any extent in many of their properties.

QUALITIES OF AGGREGATES
1. It should be chemically inert, i.e., they should not react with cement or any other aggregate
or admixture.
2. It should possess sufficient hardness to resist scratching and abrasion in the hardened state.
3. It should possess sufficient toughness to bear impact and vibratory loads.
4. It should be strong enough to bear compressive and normal tensile loads in the ordinary
mixture.
5. It should be free from impurities, inorganic or organic in nature, which will affect adversely
on its quality.
6. It should be capable of producing an easily workable plastic mixture on combining with
cement and water.

CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES
(1.) Aggregate Types on the basis of Grain Size.
This is the most common classification, where in two types of aggregates are
distinguished: (Fine and Coarse).
(i) Fine Aggregates.
In the Fine Aggregates, the grain-size lies between 4.75 mm and  0.15 mm.
In other words, these pass-through from sieve with the mesh size of 4.75 mm and are retained on
a sieve of 0.15 mesh size.
Sand is the most universally available natural Fine Aggregate.

(ii) Coarse Aggregates:

Coarse aggregates are those that are retained on the sieve of mesh size 4.75 mm.
Their upper size is generally around 7.5 mm.
Gravels from river bed are the best coarse aggregates in the making of Common Concrete.
In those situations, if they are not easily available, Suitable rock types are crushed to the desired
particle sizes for maki4ng coarse aggregates.

(2.) Types on the Basis of origin.

There are three types on the Basis of Origin.

(i) Natural:
These include all those types of fine and coarse aggregates, that are available in almost ready to
use form, from natural resources.
Examples are sands from river beds, pits and beaches, and gravels from river banks.

(ii) Bye-product:
These include materials obtained as wastes from some industrial and metallurgical engineering
operations, which possess suitable properties for being used as aggregate.
Examples: Cinder obtained from burning of coal in locomotives and kilns.
And Slag is obtained from blast furnaces as Scum is the best example from this category.

(iii) Processed:
These form a special class in Aggregate. They are specifically manufactured for use in
making Quality Concretes.
Examples: They include burnt clay, Shales, vermiculite’s and perlite. They are
essential Ingredients of Lightweight Concrete.

(3.) Types on the Basis of Density.

Three types of aggregates are distinguished on the basis of their weight per unit volume.

(i) Standard or Normal:

These types of aggregates give strength and weighting to the Concrete of around  2300 to 2500
kg/m3.
Gravels, Sand and Crushed stone, are all classed as Standard or Normal Aggregates.

(ii) High-Density Aggregates:

These are that type of Aggregates, which is used in standard proportions yield in heavy weight
concretes.
Such concretes are especially useful as shields against X-rays and radiations in the atomic power
plant.
Examples: Baryle – a natural mineral with a specific gravity of 4.3 is an example.
Concretes with such aggregate usually weight above 4000 kg/m3.

(iii) Light weight Aggregate:

They consist of natural and artificial materials of very low density so that the resulting concrete
is also quite Light in weight, generally with in a range of 350 to 750 kg/m3.
They are specially used in sound proofing and fire proofing constructions.
They are also used extensively in the manufacture of light weight Pre-Cast concrete blocks

Quarrying
What is Stone Quarrying?
Quarrying is the process of collecting stones from the natural rock surfaces.

Quarrying of stone is completely different from mine. Mine belongs to underground operation
only whereas quarry is carried out on exposed surface of natural rocks.
So, the stones collected through quarrying is used for various engineering purposes. Stone
quarrying is generally done at hilly areas where large quantity of stone is available.
Site Selection for Quarrying of Stones
The quarry should be selected based on some conditions as
follows.
 The site should be near to human living areas where labor and tools are always available,
required materials also should be available.
 At least one of type transportation facilities (road or railway or port or all) should be
available.
 Clean water source should be available near the quarry site.
 Good quality and quantity of stone should be available.
 The site should be far from permanent structures like bridges, dams etc. because the
vibrations due to blasting in the site may cause harm to them.
 Non-living area should be available to dump the refuse obtained in quarrying.
 Proper drainage facility should be available.
 Geological information of site should be read.
 Considerations for Quarrying of Stones

Methods of Quarrying of Stones

Quarrying can be done by three methods as follows:

 Hand tools
 Machine quarrying
 Blasting

Quarrying of Stones using Hand Tools

In case of soft stones or for smaller works, quarrying is done by using hand tools. There are
various ways to quarry using hand tools and they are:
 Excavating
 Heating
 Wedging

Excavating is preferred in case of soft stone surfaces. Hammers, pick axes, shovels are used to
excavate the stones.
Heating
The top surface of rock is heated by placing wood with fuel on it. The fire will be allowed for
some hours and the top surface gets heated and separates from the rock. This separated portion is
removed by pick axes, crowbars etc.
The stones obtained by heating will be in good shape if the rock formation contains horizontal
layers at shallow depth. So, the stone obtained will be directly used for masonry works.

Wedging
This method is applicable when the rock contains cracks or joints in it. Steel wedges or steel
points are put in these cracks or fissures and hit them with hammer.
Then the rock portion separates from parent rock. If natural cracks are there, then artificial holes
are drilled in the rock and wedging is done.

Machine Quarrying of Stones

Machine quarrying is done by using channeling machines in the site. This type of machine is
driven by steam, compressed air or electricity.
A groove is made using this machine around the rock and the horizontal holes are drilled
underneath the block. Hence, the block gets separated from its bed.
A large groove of 24-meter length and 50 to 75 mm width and with a depth about 2 to 3.7 meter
can be made using channeling machine. So, larger blocks of stones can be obtained using this
method.
Marbles, lime stones, etc. are quarried using machine quarrying.

Blasting for Quarrying of Stones

In this method explosives are used to separate the stones from parent rock. This process is
applied in case of hard stone or hard rock which does not contain any cracks or fissures.
The holes are drilled in the rock and explosives are arranged in
the holes and blasted with proper safety measures. The stones obtained through this process are
not larger in size.
So, the main purpose of blasting is to obtain small stones which are used as ballast for railway
works, aggregate in concrete.

PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES
SURFACE TEXTURE
Surface texture is the pattern and the relative roughness or smoothness of the aggregate particle.
Surface texture plays a big role in developing the bond between an aggregate particle and a
cementing material. A rough surface texture gives the cementing material something to grip,
producing a stronger bond, and thus creating a stronger hot mix asphalt or Portland cement
concrete. Surface texture also affects the workability of hot mix asphalt, the asphalt requirements
of hot mix asphalt, and the water requirements of Portland cement concrete.

STRENGTH AND ELASTICITY

Strength is a measure of the ability of an aggregate particle to stand up to pulling or crushing
forces. Elasticity measures the "stretch" in a particle.
High strength and elasticity are desirable in aggregate base and surface courses. These qualities
minimize the rate of disintegration and maximize the stability of the compacted material.
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Density is the weight per unit of volume of a substance. Specific gravity is the ratio of the
density of the substance to the density of water.
The density and the specific gravity of an aggregate particle is dependent upon the density and
specific gravity of the minerals making up the particle and upon the porosity of the particle.
These may be defined as follows:
1) All of the pore space (bulk density or specific gravity)
2) Some of the pore space (effective density or specific gravity)
3) None of the pore space (apparent density or specific gravity)
Determining the porosity of aggregate is often necessary; however, measuring the volume of
pore space is difficult. Correlations may be made between porosity and the bulk, apparent and
effective specific gravities of the aggregate.
As an example, specific gravity information about a particular aggregate helps in determining the
amount of asphalt needed in the hot mix asphalt. If an aggregate is highly absorptive, the
aggregate continues to absorb asphalt, after initial mixing at the plant, until the mix cools down
completely. This process leaves less asphalt for bonding purposes; therefore, a more porous
aggregate requires more asphalt than a less porous aggregate. The porosity of the aggregate may
be taken into consideration in determining the amount of asphalt required by applying the three
types of specific gravity measurements.

AGGREGATE VOIDS
There are aggregate particle voids, and there are voids between aggregate particles. As solid as
aggregate may be to the naked eye, most aggregate particles have voids, which are natural pores
that are filled with air or water. These voids or pores influence the specific gravity and
absorption of the aggregate materials.
The voids within an aggregate particle should not be confused with the void system which makes
up the space between particles in an aggregate mass. The voids between the particles influence
the design of hot mix asphalt or Portland cement concrete.

HARDNESS
The hardness of the minerals that make up the aggregate particles and the firmness with which
the individual grains are cemented or interlocked control the resistance of the aggregate to
abrasion and degradation. Soft aggregate particles are composed of minerals with a low degree
of hardness. Weak particles have poor cementation.
PARTICLE SHAPE
The shape of the aggregate particles affects such things as:
1) The asphalt demands of hot mix asphalt
2) The workability and the strength of both Portland cement concrete and asphalt pavements
The best aggregates to use for strength are crushed stone or crushed gravel. Crushed aggregate
have irregular, angular particles that tend to interlock when compacted or consolidated.
The crushed stone or crushed gravel aggregate make the asphalt or concrete mix somewhat
difficult to place. To improve the workability, many mixes contain both angular and round
particles. The coarse aggregate particles are usually crushed stone or crushed gravel, and the
fine aggregate particles are usually natural sand
COATINGS
Coating is a layer of substance covering a part or all of the surface of an aggregate particle. The
coating may be of natural origin, such as mineral deposits formed in sand and gravel by ground
water, or may be artificial, such as dust formed by crushing and handling.
Generally when the aggregates are used in hot mix asphalt or Portland cement concrete mixes,
the aggregates are required to be washed to remove the coating (contaminant) left on the
particles. The coating may prevent a good bond from forming between the aggregate surfaces
and the cementing agent. The coating could even increase the quantity of bonding agent required
in the mixture. If the quantity of the coating varies from batch to batch, undesirable fluctuations
in the consistency of the mix may result. Deposits containing aggregates which display a history
of coating problems require decantation.

SILT TEST FOR SAND

Sand, also known as fine aggregate, is a vital construction material and is widely used in
construction work. Sand plays an essential role in concrete and mortar; hence it is necessary
always to choose the right quality sand for the construction work.
Always check sand for the silt, clay, gravel, moisture, and other harmful materials (coal, Salt,
Mica) that can affect structural member strength and generate avoidable rework.
Good quality sand contains particle size between 150 microns to 4.75mm. Particles below 150
microns are termed as silt. It is preferable to perform a silt content test for sand every 20 cubic
meters.

Why we measure Silt Content in Sand?

The excessive amount of silt in the sand can be harmful to the strength and durability of the
concrete. It is the simple test to find out the silt content in sand.
Fine material less than 150 Micron size found in the sand is called Silt. Excessive quantities of
silt in the sand not only reduce bonding between cement and aggregate but also increase water
demand, thereby reducing the strength of concrete.

Objective
To find out silt content in sand.

Apparatus
Graduated Measuring Cylindrical Jar
Water
Pinch of salt
Sand Specimen
Procedure
100 ml of the measuring jar is filled with sand.
Water is then poured till it reaches 150 ml of the jar.
Then a pinch of salt is added.
The jar has to be shaken vigorously by closing the mouth of the jar with pam and turning it up
and down repeatedly.
The mixture is then allowed to settle down by keeping the jar on a stable and flat surface for
about 3 to 4 hour.
The silt in the sand will settle at the top of the sand in the jar.
Then note down the volume of silt layer as V1 in ml.
The note down the volume of the sand layer as V2 in ml.
Repeat the procedure by taking two more samples and record their value in the observation sheet.
The average of three readings is taken as the final result.

Observation
Percentage of Silt  =  Volume of silt / Total volume of sample × 100
% of Silt =   V1/V2 × 100
Note – The silt content should not be more than 6% by volume with respect to the total volume
of the sand.

MOISTURE CONTENT
Following are the various methods available for the determination of water content of soil: 1.
Oven-Drying Method 2. Sand bath Method 3. Alcohol Method.
1. Oven-Drying Method:
The oven-drying method is the standard method of the determination of water content in the
laboratory.
Principle:
The principle of test is to determine the weight of a wet soil sample in a container, dry the
sample along with the container for 24 h in an oven and then determine the weight of the dry soil
sample.
The water content of the soil (, in percentage) is obtained from the relation
= (W2 -W1)/(W3 - W1) x 100
where W1 is the weight of the container, W2 is the weight of container + wet soil, and W3 is the
weight of container + dry soil.
Procedure:
Water content of a soil sample is determined in the following steps:
i. clean dry non-corrodible container with lid is taken and its weight is determined (W1) using a
balance. The balance should be of minimum sensitivity to weigh the samples to an accuracy of
0.04% of weight of soil taken.
ii. The required quantity of a representative undisturbed soil sample, is taken and placed loosely
in the container. The weight of the container with lid and wet soil is determined (W2).
iii. The container with wet soil is placed in the oven with its lid removed for 24 h, maintaining a
temperature of 110 ± 5C. The container now containing dry soil is then cooled in a desiccator
with the lid closed.
iv. The weight of dry soil with the container and lid (W3) is determined. The water content is
determined from Eq. above.
The oven-drying temperature of 110 ± 5C is suitable for most of the soils. Temperature more
than 110 ± 5C should not be used as it breaks the crystal structure of the soil and causes
evaporation of structural water,
The oven-drying method is the most accurate method of determining water content. The only
disadvantage of the method is that it takes minimum 24 h to know the test result.

2. Sand Bath Method:

The principle for determination of water content in this method is the same as in the oven-drying
method except that drying of the wet soil is done using a sand bath.
Procedure:
Water content is determined by sand bath method in the following steps:
i. clean dry non-corrodible container with lid is taken and its weight is determined (W1).
ii. The required quantity of a representative undisturbed soil sample, is taken and placed loosely
in the container. The weight of the container with lid and wet soil is determined (W2).
iii. The container with wet soil is placed on a sand bath and is heated until all the water has
evaporated. This takes about 0.5 to 1 h. The soil is mixed using a palette knife to ensure soil at
the bottom is not overheated. Care should be taken to ensure that the sand bath is not too hot and
does not exceed the temperature 110 ± 5C. The container now containing dry soil is then cooled
in a desiccator with the lid closed.
iv. The weight of dry soil with the container and lid (W3) is determined. The water content is
determined from Eq. (4.).
The sand bath method allows rapid determination of water content within 0.5 to 1 h. t is more
suitable as a field test. The result obtained is less accurate than that obtained by the oven-drying
method because there is no control over temperature during drying in this method. This method
should not be used if it is suspected that the soil contains significant quantities of gypsum,
calcareous matter, or organic matter.
3. Alcohol Method:
The principle of water content determination in the alcohol method is the same as in the oven-
drying method except that drying of wet soil is done with the help of a methylated spirit.
Procedure:
Water content is determined by alcohol method using the following steps:
i. clean dry non-corrodible container with lid is taken and its weight is determined (W1).
ii. The required quantity of a representative undisturbed soil sample, is taken and placed loosely
in the container. The weight of the container with lid and wet soil is determined (W2).
iii. The wet soil is mixed with a methylated spirit (1 m/g of soil). The methylated spirit is worked
well with the soil using a palette knife, and large lumps of soil, if any, are broken down.
iv. The wet soil with methylated spirit is then ignited. The contents are constantly stirred with a
spatula or knife, care being taken to ensure that none of the soil is lost.
v. after methylated spirit completely burns away, the container (now with dry soil) is taken and
cooled in a desiccator with the lid closed.
vi. The weight of the dry soil with the container and lid (W3) is determined. The water content is
determined from above.

CLEANLINESS
The concrete aggregates should be free from impurities and deleterious substances which are
likely to interfere with the process of hydration, prevention of effective bond between the
aggregates and matrix. The impurities sometimes reduce the durability of the aggregate.
Generally, the fine aggregate obtained from natural sources is likely to contain organic impurities
in the form of silt and clay. The manufactured fine aggregate does not normally contain organic
materials. But it may contain excess of fine crushed stone dust. Coarse aggregate stacked in the
open and unused for long time may contain moss and mud in the lower level of the stack. Sand is
normally dredged from river beds and streams in the dry season when the river bed is dry or
when there is not much flow in the river. Under such situation along with the sand, decayed
vegetable matter, humus, organic matter and other impurities are likely to settle down. But if
sand is dredged when there is a good flow of water from very deep bed, the organic matters are
likely to get washed away at the time of dredging. The organic matters will interfere with the
setting action of cement and also interfere with the bond characteristics with the aggregates. The
presence of moss or algae will also result in entrainment of air in the concrete which reduces its
strength.
To ascertain whether a sample of fine aggregate contains permissible quantity of organic
impurities or not, a simple test known as colorimetric test is made.
The sample of sand is mixed with a liquid containing 3 per cent solution of sodium hydroxide in
water.
It is kept for 24 hours and the colour developed is compared with a standard colour card. If the
colour of the sample is darker than the standard colour card, it is inferred that the content of the
organic impurities in the sand is more than the permissible limit. In that case either the sand is
rejected or is used after washing. Sometimes excessive silt and clay contained in the fine or
coarse aggregate may result in increased shrinkage or increased permeability in addition to poor
bond characteristics. The excessive silt and clay may also necessitate greater water requirements
for given workability.
The quantity of clay, fine silt and fine dust are determined by sedimentation method. In this
method, a sample of aggregate is poured into a graduated measuring jar and the aggregate is
nicely rodded to dislodge particles of clay and silt adhering to the aggregate particles. The jar
with the liquid is completely shaken so that all the clay and silt particles get mixed with water
and then the whole jar is kept in an undisturbed condition. After a certain time interval, the
thickness of the layer of clay and silt standing over the fine aggregate particles will give a fair
idea of the percentage of clay and silt content in the sample of aggregate under test.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
This is the name given to the operation of dividing a sample of aggregate into various fractions
each consisting of particles of the same size. The sieve analysis is conducted to determine the
particle size distribution in a sample of aggregate, which we call gradation. A convenient system
of expressing the gradation of aggregate is one which the consecutive sieve openings are
constantly doubled, such as 10 mm, 20 mm, 40 mm etc. Under such a system, employing a
logarithmic scale, lines can be spaced at equal intervals to represent the successive sizes. The
aggregates used for making concrete are normally of the maximum size 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm,
10 mm, 4.75 mm, 2.36 mm, 600 micron, 300 micron and 150 micron. The aggregate fraction
from 80 mm to 4.75 mm are termed as coarse aggregate and those fraction from 4.75 mm to 150
micron are termed as fine aggregate. The size 4.75 mm is a common fraction appearing both in
coarse aggregate and fine aggregate (C.A. and F.A.). Grading pattern of a sample of C.A. or F.A.
is assessed by sieving a sample successively through all the sieves mounted one over the other in
order of size, with larger sieve on the top. The material retained on each sieve after shaking,
represents the fraction of aggregate coarser than the sieve in question and finer than the sieve
above. Sieving can be done either manually or mechanically. In the manual operation the sieve is
shaken giving movements in all possible direction to give Set of Sieves assembled for
conducting Sieve analysis.
Chance to all particles for passing through the sieve. Operation should be continued till such time
that almost no particle is passing through. Mechanical devices are actually designed to give
motion in all possible direction, and as such, it is more systematic and efficient than hand-
sieving. For assessing the gradation by sieve analysis, the quantity of materials to be taken on the
sieve is given.
From the sieve analysis the particle size distribution in a sample of aggregate is found out. In this
connection a term known as “Fineness Modulus” (F.M.) is being used. F.M. is a ready index of
coarseness or fineness of the material. Fineness modulus is an empirical factor obtained by
adding the cumulative percentages of aggregate retained on each of the standard sieves ranging
from 80 mm to 150 micron and dividing this sum by an arbitrary number 100. The larger the
figure, the coarser is the material. Many a time, fine aggregates are designated as coarse sand,
medium sand and fine sand. These classifications do not give any precise meaning. What the
supplier terms as fine sand may be really medium or even coarse sand. To avoid this ambiguity
fineness modulus could be used as a yard stick to indicate the fineness of sand. The following
limits may be taken as guidance: Fine sand: Fineness Modulus: 2.2 - 2.6 Medium sand: F.M.: 2.6
- 2.9 Coarse sand: F.M.: 2.9 - 3.2 A sand having a fineness modulus more than 3.2 will be
unsuitable for making satisfactory concrete.
STONES
Stone is a naturally available building material’ which has been used from the early age of
civilization. It is available in the form of rocks, which is cut to required size and shape and used
as building block. It has been used to construct small residential buildings to large palaces and
temples all over the world.

REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES.

The following are the requirements of good building stones:
(i) Strength: The stone should be able to resist the load coming on it. Ordinarily this is not of
primary concern since all stones are having good strength. However in case of large structure, it
may be necessary to check the strength.
(ii) Durability: Stones selected should be capable of resisting adverse effects of natural forces like wind,
rain and heat.

(iii) Hardness: The stone used in floors and pavements should be able to resist abrasive forces caused by
movement of men and materials over them.

(iv)Toughness: Building stones should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations.
The vibrations may be due to the machinery mounted over them or due to the loads moving over them.
The stone aggregates used in the road constructions should be tough.

(v) SpecificGravity: Heavier variety of stones should be used for the construction of dams, retaining
walls, docks and harbours. The specific gravity of good building stone is between 2.4 and 2.8.

(vi) Porosity and Absorption: Building stone should not be porous. If it is porous rain water enters into
the pour and reacts with stone and crumbles it. In higher altitudes, the freezing of water in pores takes
place and it results into the disintegration of the stone.

Uses of Stones
Stones are used in the following civil engineering constructions:
(i) Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.
(ii) Stones are used for flooring.
(iii) Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.
(iv) Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings. Polished marbles and
granite are commonly used for face works.
(v) Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.
(vi) Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and
retaining walls.
(vii) Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads. When mixed with tar
they form finishing coat.
(viii) Crushed stones are used in the following works also: (a) As a basic inert material in
concrete (b) For making artificial stones and building blocks (c) As railway ballast.

Application of stones.
Common Building Stones The following are the some of commonly used stones:
(i) Basalt and trap (ii) Granite (iii) Sand stone (iv) Slate (v) Laterite (vi) Marble (vii) Gneiss
(viii) Quartzite.
Their qualities and uses are explained below:
(i) Basalt and Trap: The structure is medium to fine grained and compact. Their colour varies
from dark gray to black. Fractures and joints are common. Their weight varies from 18 kN/m3 to
29 kN/m3. The compressive strength varies from 200 to 350 N/mm2. These are igneous rocks.
They are used as road metals, aggregates for concrete. They are also used for rubble masonry
works for bridge piers, river walls and dams. They are used as pavement.
(ii) Granite: Granites are also igneous rocks. The colour varies from light gray to pink. The
structure is crystalline, fine to coarse grained. They take polish well. They are hard durable.
Specific gravity is from 2.6 to 2.7 and compressive strength is 100 to 250 N/mm2. They are used
primarily for bridge piers, river walls, and for dams. They are used as kerbs and pedestals. The
use of granite for monumental and institutional buildings is common. Polished granites are used
as table tops, cladding for columns and wall. They are used as coarse aggregates in concrete.
(iii) Sand stone: These are sedimentary rocks, and hence stratified. They consist of quartz and
feldspar. They are found in various colours like white, grey, red, buff, brown, yellow and even
dark gray. The specific gravity varies from 1.85 to 2.7 and compressive strength varies from 20
to 170 N/mm2. Its porosity varies from 5 to 25 per cent. Weathering of rocks renders it
unsuitable as building stone. It is desirable to use sand stones with silica cement for heavy
structures, if necessary. They are used for masonry work, for dams, bridge piers and river walls.
(iv) Slate: These are metamorphic rocks. They are composed of quartz, mica and clay minerals.
The structure is fine grained. They split along the planes of original bedding easily. The colour
varies from dark gray, greenish gray, purple gray to black. The specific gravity is 2.6 to 2.7.
Compressive strength varies from 100 to 200 N/mm2. They are used as roofing tiles, slabs,
pavements etc.
(v) Laterite: It is a metamorphic rock. It is having porous and sponges structure. It contains high
percentage of iron oxide. Its colour may be brownish, red, yellow, brown and grey. Its specific
gravity is 1.85 and compressive strength varies from 1.9 to 2.3 N/mm2. It can be easily quarried
in blocks. With seasoning it gains strength. When used as building stone, its outer surface should
be plastered.
(vi) Marble: This is a metamorphic rock. It can take good polish. It is available in different
pleasing colours like white and pink. Its specific gravity is 2.65 and compressive strength is 70–
75 N/ mm2. It is used for facing and ornamental works. It is used for columns, flooring, steps
etc.
(vii) Gneiss: It is a metamorphic rock. It is having fine to coarse grains. Alternative dark and
white bands are common. Light grey, pink, purple, greenish gray and dark grey coloured
varieties are available. These stones are not preferred because of deleterious constituents present
in it. They may be used in minor constructions. However hard varieties may be used for
buildings. The specific gravity varies from 2.5 to 3.0 and crushing strength varies from 50 to 200
N/mm2.
(viii) Quartzite: Quartzites are metamorphic rocks. The structure is fine to coarse grained and
often granular and branded. They are available in different colours like white, gray, yellowish.
Quartz is the chief constituent with feldspar and mica in small quantities. The specific gravity
varies from 2.55 to 2.65. Crushing strength varies from 50 to 300 N/mm2. They are used as
building blocks and slabs. They are also used as aggregates for concrete.