Addison Wesley Science & Technology 6 Earth and Space Systems Space Steve Campbell Jim Wiese Douglas Hayhoe Beverley Williams Doug Herridge Ricki Wortzman Lionel Sandner A ‘TorontoCoordinating & Developmental Editors Jen Lee Geller Lynne Gulliver Editors Researchers Susan Berg Paulee Kestin Jackie Dulson Louise MacKenzie Christy Hayhoe Karen Taylor Sarah Mawson Wendy Yano, Colborne Communications Centre Mary Reeve Keltie Thomas John Yip-Chuck Consultants Lynn Lemicux, Sir Alexander MacKenzie Sr. PS., Toronto District School Board Sidney McKay, Brookbanks Education Centre, Toronto District School Board Klaus Richter, formerly Edgewood PS., Toronto District School Board Katherine Shaw, Miller's Grove School, Peel Board of Education Pearson Education Canada would like to thank the teachers and consultants who reviewed and field-tested this material. Design Pronk&Associates Copyright © 1999 Pearson Education Canada Ine., ‘Toronto, Ontario All rights reserved. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permission, write to the Permissions Department. The information and activities presented in this book have been carefully edited and reviewed, However, the publisher shall not be liable for any damages resulting, in whole or part, from the reader's use of this material. Brand names that appear in photographs of products in this textbook are intended to provide students with a sense of the real-world applications of science and technology and are in no way intended to endorse specific products. ISBN 0-201-64990-X ‘This book contains recycled product and is acid free. Printed and bound in Canada, 8—TCP-07 RTS NestUnit ee you ever wondered what it would be like to travel through space? Well, you can stop wondering. Just by being here on Earth, you have already travelled at least ten billion kilometres through the Milky Way, in loops around the sun, Surprised? There are even more surprises to discover about space and the objects in it. Siem scatter Goa cum ent cir tacy create patterns and cycles on Earth enue Nee aries ee cit RT eR Ue CTC) SIM Onion e aan acdsee ea ane ut | Gretel Rie red tetT ente pulser eat lad Oia \Mabet st ce ise is ein Ensim ea ee Launch: Cosmic Journeys... eal 110); 12631) a On Oe a7 1: Time Tellersyi cine anent Bonne 11: Our Solar System . . . 30 2; Tracking Our Nearest Star.......8 12; Sky Pictures ce 3: That Glorious Old Sun.........10 13; What's Happening in Space? . . 37 4: Patterns of Light and Darkness . . 12 14; Living in Space, the New FOOSE cette eee 40 5; And the Seasons Go Round and Round . .14 Desing Project: Planetarium 6: The Moon's Changing Face. .... 17 Unit Review...... 7: The Moon on the Move ........19 Glossary....... + STEEEHERO SEA ERESURTS 8: Earth's Companion ...........21 9: Tides: The Mystery of the Moon... 2.22... 66 60005, 24Cosmic Journeys BS Tac CC Ce oc Re oR tte ment and wonder. You have probably looked to the sky and had Ce ee eee te ce UP SOUS RLU ee un cunt Read the questions and discuss the possible answers with your Cet felt see the moon een En 1. In your small grouy might find the You can do res 1 up models or sim- ulations, or observe the sky over a period of time. Scientists who study space are called astronomers. They look at object in the night sky using binoculars and telescopes, but that wasn’t always the cast You can leam a lot just by using your eyes. discuss how you TECHNOLOG ee keen Eee aang Re NC ectd 2. If your plan is to observe the night use the skywatching tips provided on the Pag ‘The ke atching the sky is to remem- ber that you are watching for patterns over time. To find them, you need to keep records of what you observe. Take a note- book with you and be sure to record the time (it should always be the same), thi date, weather conditions, equipment (if any), and who is with you. DrayTips for Being a Good Skywatcher SS ao at Reon Ad nd RU eae CCC Une ES eh Re oe m Tene enue Cr KR eR una aa g 2 Seen eee eT ee) Sega ioral Reine SIR Sn ee Raker TRU aN cr Reece eee eae ati uae ery Ceci o Seen . eee { Cert Sorted notes about what you see. Dae ge aa ER on wiatvouknow Fy you will be able to see Put your new knowledge to use by patterns that will help you understand observing the moon and other sky more about abjects in space, objects. Follow the tips for viewing and ording which you have already - learned, Remember to look for answei Communicate to the sky puzzles! 1. You started off by looking at some sk Start a Space Portfolio to record your puzzles. Which answers are you sure of? observations of the sky. You may also Write a statement that world convine wish to include drawings or photos of someone else that you know the answes objects you see in theme Time Tellers In this summer picture the sun is high in the sky. How do you think the position of the sun helped people in ancient civilizations know when to start planting crops? Get Have you ever wondered how people in ancient civilizations could tell time without clocks and watches? They used the sky. They watched the sun, moon, and stars. The moon’s changing shape told the time of the month. People noticed regular changes in the positions of the stars, and used the stars to measure the year and its seasons, They planned things like planting and festivals based on the motions of objects in the sky. People in ancient civilizations knew the sky well, and over time, their knowledge has been passed on to us. SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 6Of course, people in ancient civilization could figure out the time of the day, too. They used shadows cast by trees and natural objects, and later by taller buildings in towns. In the morning when the sun rose in the east, they would observe long shadows fall to the west. When the sun was highest at noon, they noticed that the shadow was shortest. As the day progressed and the sun moved toward the west, they noticed that the shadows lengthened and moved toward the east. What do you know about the shadows where. you live? Think about the objects that cast shadows—could they help you tell time? In this activity, you will begin by collecting data about shadows. You will collect your data every hour or so throughout the day. Then you will use what you leam to create your own device to tell time. What do you know about shadows? Materials for each student: a piece of cardboard a stick about 50 cm or shorter a piece of Plasticine Place the cardboard and stick, as shown, outside, Make sure that they are in a place where they won't be disturbed during the course of the day. Early in the day, mark the shadow by tracing it on the cardboard. Under the tracing, record the time. How do you think the shadow will change throughout the day? Draw what you think you will observe. Now test your prediction by tracing the position and the length of the shadow at least five other times during the day. ‘Try to observe the shadow at regular intervals, such as every hour, Graph your results. Write about how these results compare to your earlier prediction, ace FEBSundials were first sed in ancient Egypt, about 5500, years ago. However, it wasn’t Until the 13th century when Arabian scientists figured out how the markings on ‘the base should be spaced so sundials could measure real ‘equal hours (Our 60 min), An instrument used for telling time with shadows is called a sundial. In this activity, you will use what you have learned about shadows, as well as your imagination, to construct a device that could have been used to tell time before mechanical clocks were invented. ials for Students may use any of these materials: cardboard, wooden dowels, construction paper, cardboard tubes, tape, glue, straws, wood scraps, scissors, markers, Plasticine, nails, rulers, compass Procedure Make a plan. Include a list of the materials you will use. [Dy Mate a craving ofthe device, and label alll parts of it, Use your plan to make a working model of the device. [Ei] Ose vour time device for several days Make observations. What things do you notice? EER scence a recinorceer 6‘The world’s largest sundial is on, top of the Walt Disney World head- quarters in Orlando, Florida, The sundial has a diameter of 37.7 m. That's over halt the length of a hockey rink! Communicate 1, What do you use to measure and tell time? Write a list of time devices that are used to measure short periods such as minutes and hours, and longer periods such as weeks, months, and years. 2, Make a chart to show the advantages and disadvantages of the time-telling device you made. 3. Look at the sundials pictured on these pages. How do they compare to the timer you made? 4, How might you change your time device to make it work bette 5. Many objects around us work as sundials. On your way home, look to see what objects work as sundials. What is the smallest you can find? What is the largest you can find? Sketch some of the sundials you found. On What You Know | Ean | Astronomers learn a lot by making frequent and careful observations, Keep | observing and recording the night sky from the same location and against the same background. Begin to note how, over time, objects appear to move in the sky. How do you think the apparent movement of objects in the sky could | be useful to people in some way? | Record your observations in your Space | Portfolio. | saeFEY Tracking Our Nearest Star Get One of the most important objects in the sky is the sun, our nearest star. On the basis of your daily observations of the sun, how would you describe it? Create a web to show your thoughts. You've been learning about patterns and cycles in space by observing the night sky. But observing the sun—our nearest star—is very different. It is very important to understand that you must never look at the sun directly. The sun's rays are harmful to your eyes. You also never look at the sun through any kind of lens, Sun including a telescope or binoculars, or through coloured glass. The safest way to view the sun is to project its image onto something. KEM scunice ¢ trcinotoay 6In this activity, you will find out more about the sun’s apparent path of movement. Materials for each group: a small mirror, or mirror chip masking tape mural paper (one sheet for the whole class) Procedure [Ey 20% oun, use the masking tape to cover your mirror, leaving a peephole about 1.0-1.5 em in diameter. On a sunny day, take your mirror to a window sill. Practise using the mirror to catch the sun's light. Try to reflect the sun’s image on the wall. What happens to the image of the sun if you change the size of the peephole? the angle of the mirror? ‘Think about what you have observed. As a group, make a recommendation for the best place to set the mirror for long-term observations. Recommend as well the best size of the peephole. [Ey © information trom all the groups. Decide as a class where to set the mirror in a permanent position so that it can cast, an image of the sun on a large piece of mural paper. Work together to trace around the images of the sun on the piece of paper through the day. Remember to note the time of each tracing. [Gj Ker tee mitror in position so that you can track the sun on other sunny days. Use a different coloured pencil to trace the image for each day. Ree ection) Be careful when using your mirror not to direct the sun’s light into anyone's eyes. 1, How would you describe the sun’s apparent path of movement? Does the sun move in the same direction as the image it projects? How do you know? Discuss your answers with a partner. 2. How do you think the path of movement will change over a period of time? Write a prediction and explain how you could test it 3. Could you notice any features of the sun ing the small mirror or mirror chip? once [EMI2) That Glorious Old Sun Jearn about the sun. our weather, and not just on those warm. summer days. The sun also gives us wind and rain. The sun warms the air, and warm air moves—that's how we get wind, The sun also warms bodies of water, causing some of the What else does the sun do? It plays a role in What comes to mind when you think about the sun? Do you think about summer, and playing outside—or about stars and cereal? Stars and cereal—what's that all about? The sun fs actually a star. In fact, it's the nearest star to Earth—and that's why it seems a lot bigger than other stars. As for the cereal part, cereal is made from grains. The sun is the source of energy for every living thing on Earth, including the grain that is grown to make cereal. There is a lot more amazing information to water to tum into vapour, a gas. The gas floats into the air, where it condenses and turns into water again. Billions of water drops together in the sky create a cloud. When the water drops get large enough, they fall to Barth as rain, BG scnice a recinoiosy 6What about what we can see on the sun? In 1650, a Jesuit priest saw dark spots on the sun. These are sunspots. However, people at that time didn't want to believe that a pure symbol, the sun, could have markings on it. It ‘wasn't until many years later that the priest’s theory was proven. What are sunspots? They are cooler spots on the sun’s surface. They happen when the surface tears a bit because magnetic fields block out the heat of the sun, Some sunspots are even larger than Earth. If you use binoculars or a small telescope to project the image of the sun, you may be able to see sunspots. <— tape over cover one objective Set up a pair of binoculars on a tripod. Tape over (or cover one of the eyeholes. Place a piece of white tagboard in front of the set-up. To find the sun, adjust the binoculars until you see the smallest possible shadow on the ground. Move ‘the binoculars until the reflection of the sun is. on the tagboard, Do not look directly at the sun. through the binoculars, The disk on the screen should be round, Research in the library or on the Internet to prepare a detailed report on the sun. Include its importance to us on Barth, its four main areas, its chemical makeup, its dimensions, what type of star it is, its effect on other space bodies and Earth, and some unique features such as solar wind. Draw sketches, and present your report in an innovative way. Here are some quick facts to get you started. Quick Facts About the Sun Type of Star G2, ordinary mid- sized star Age 4.5 billion years Diameter 1390 000 km Surface 5 800 K Temperature Core Temperature 15 600 000 K Chemical Makeup i 75% hydrogen 25% helium Rotation (equator) 25.4 days Rotation (poles) 36 days Energy output by nuclear fusion 1, Listen to the reports of othe: What did you learn from them that you hadn't already found out? 2. What questions do you still have about the sun? How might you find answers to your questions? 3. What was the most interesting thing you Iearned about the sun? ceace JMPatterns of Light and. Darkness a Long ago people believed that Earth was fixed at the centre of the universe, and that the sun and the stars moved around it. Well, Earth may seem to you to be standing still, but it’s not. Earth is spinning and hurtling through space at high speeds—and you're going with it! In 1543, despite @ lot of opposition, Copernicus suggested that, while spinning like a top on its axis, Earth X revolves around the sun during ya the course of one year. | Eart revo 3s around sun. The path that Earth : ie | takes as it revolves is its orbit. I LAA Each day the sun appears to rise in the east. Then it appears to climb higher in the sky until midday. Later it seems to drop until it disappears below the horizon in the west, causing the sky to grow darker until night descends. This apparent movement of the sun above and below the horizon gives us our terms sunrise and sunset. But if Earth, and not the sun, is moving, then what is really happening to cause day and night? a $2 In this activity, you will set up a model of Earth in space to find out what really causes Materials for the class: day and night. You need to go outside with globe Plasticine: your class to do this activity. pin or toothpick compass (optional) BEI sconce ammcimorocr 6Procedure Set up a globe outs that no other objects its surface. de in the sunshine so shadows onto Jy Siw the globe so that its North Pole points north. If you wish, use your compass to find north, Rotate the globe so that the place where you live is on top. This models your place on Earth relative to the sun. Use a bit of Plasticine to fix a pin or toothpick to your location, This shows. you standing in your location on Earth. Now stand back and look at Barth as if you were looking at it from space. Answer these questions: a. How does the shadow of the tooth- pick on the globe compare with the shadows on the ground? b. Use the globe to represent Earth. Where is it dark on the globe right now? ¢. Where on Earth is the sun rising now? Where is it setting? d. What plac midnight? are having morning? After you have discussed your position on Earth, rotate the globe a quarter turn to the east. This is the direction in which Earth rotates on its axis. Look again at Earth from space and record how things have changed. Keep rotating a quarter tum and record what you notice, until you are back at your starting point. e Communicate b. cuss the following questions classmates, with your 1, Is there any place on Earth where the sun will not rise today? Why? 2. Is there any place on Earth where the sun will not set today? Why? Look at your wateh and note the time. Choose three other locations and tell what time you think it will be at those locations. 4, In summary, what causes Earth to have periods of light (day) and darkness (night)? Emilion What You Know tf Along with your other observations of the night sky, try to start watching the sunset, ‘The sun has set when the entire sun goes below the horizon, Where on the horizon does it appear to go down? You can sight this by lining up the sun with objects on the horizon such as trees or power poles. Keep a record of the sunset and compare your findings. Be sure to make all your observations from the same place. Does the position of the sunset. seem to shift on the horizon? If so, in what direction? If you like, make the same observations about the sunrise from the same place. Remember to record and compare your findings in your Space Portfolio. space [KJAnd the Seasons Go Round and Round You've been making recordings of the night sky and tracking the sun—maybe you have even started to find some patterns in the sky. The movement of Earth causes other patterns, too—the seasons. Obviously, it takes ct whole year to go through the cycle of the secsons. You've gone through that cycle enough times to know that, where you live, it is warmer in summer than it is in winter. Many people think that is because Earth, in its journey around the sun, is closer to the sun in summer. But Earth is actually closer to the sun in winter. So why is winter colder than summer? TT fe? Many objects rotate on an axis that is straight up and down, just like when you spin. a basketball on your finger. But Earth's axis large sheet of paper is tilted. In this activity, you will do a simula- tion with your class and then set up a model of the Earth-Sun system to find out how this tilted axis is related to Earth's seasons. Plasticine pin or toothpick tape or chalk FY science & TecHnoLoey 6Compare the lighted areas you have traced. In which season is the light more concentrated? Procedure From about a metre away, shine a flashlight directly onto a piece of paper. Hie around the area of light. Label this In the summer the sun's rays are more eee concentrated and it is warmer. Now you will set up the globe, to represent Earth, and the light, to represent the sun, to find out about Earth's seasons a) Cry Slant the flashlight and shine it onto the ‘Tape or chalk the orbit of Earth on the paper from the same distance. Draw floor. Label the seasons. Use a bit of around this lighted area. Label this Plasticine to fix a pin or toothpick to drawing “winter.” show the place on the globe where you live. This toothpick on the globe represents you as a stick person. See the photo below. , alias) wfDarken the room. What do you notice about the intensity of the light on the different parts of the globe? Record your observations. Walk the globe in an orbit around the light. Make sure the tilt of the axis and the direction of the globe always stay the same. Stop three times around the light—each time about a quarter of the way past the last. At each stop, slowly tum the globe around its axis so that your stick person faces the light. Note the shadow of your stick person. How do the shadows compare in each posi- tion? Record your observations by drawing the position of the globe and light and shadows at each stop. Discuss the following questions with your classmates. 1, How did the intensity of the light on your location change when you moved Barth through its orbit around the sun? What effect did this have on the shadow of your stick person? Why? 2, When it is summer in Canada, where might it be winter? 3. If you travelled to Australia now, what season would it be? Why do you think that? 4, What causes us to have seasons? Why are the days hotter in summer? 5. Do you think any other planets that orbit the sun have seasons like Earth? Explain your answer. Hime, Compare s that you di your space Portfolio, FBGA scence & recunonoey 6my 6 The Moon's Changing Face rs Pre ee! The beam of light shot from Earth would take only 1.3 s to reach the moon. That's a lot faster than any space probe could travel. Think about the observations you've made about the moon. Does it always look the same? Is there a pattern to the changes that occur? What do you think really causes the changing face or shape of the moon? a Most astronomers never travel in space. When they want to find answers, they often set up models. In this activity, you will set up a model of the Sun-Earth-Moon system to find out why the moon seems to change its shape. Materials for each pair: a light source a Styrofoam ball painted black or a small, dark-coloured play ball a pencil or knitting needle or something for a handle a darkened room Hold a light to represent the sun, while your partner holds a ball to represent the moon. ‘The person holding the ball is Earth. Take tums with your partner being Earth so that you can get a close and clear view of the moon's changing faces. space Jlem” a Procedure Make an “x” on one side of the balll. The “x” represents the face of the moon you would see from Earth, Push the pencil or needle slightly into the bottom of the ball So it serves as a handle. Ina dark room, hold the ball at arm’s length, as shown in the photos below. Slowly turn yourself counterclockwise on the spot. Make sure that the “x” is always facing you. HEGN scence & tecxnowoay 6 Watch carefully to see what happens to the lighted portion of the ball at various positions during one trip around. You might want to stop at 45°, 90°, 180°, 270°, and 360° to the light. After you and your partner have had the chance to be Earth in the model, work together to write a report on the different phases of the moon. Include labelled drawings. As you prepare your report, think about these questions: CIs the lighted portion of the moon facing toward the sun or away from it? ‘C When the moon is full, where is it in relation to the sun and Earth’ C Once the moon is full and you continue moving it in the same direction around your head, what do you notice about the lighted portion? (C How does the moon look from Earth when ctly in front of the ivi Discuss Write Communicate Discuss the following question partner. with your 1. Why does the moon appear to have a changing shape or phase as you view it over a month? . Does the changing shape or phase of the moon follow a pattern? Describe it 3. Why can't we see a lighted moon at one stage in the cycle? 4. If you lived on the moon, would you see phases of Earth? Can you figure out the answer by using a model of the Sun-Earth- Moon system? If necessary, draw a sketch to show your thinkingThe Moon on the Move win gibbos ff ee first quarter ay Do you know what these photos are? Of course you do—they're all photos of the moon, You would see these phases if you watched the moon for a month. In this activity, you will be watching the Procedure moon in the sky over the next couple of weeks, You will be noting the different. phases of the moon, and recording estimat for the altitude, or height, of the moon. phi | ob: Materials for each student: | the next page. chart for recording Before you start, predict how many days it will take the moon to change from one phase to another. Use the names of the son this page. Record your vations on a chart like the one on #8. sence [EIMoon Observations Shape | Direction | Altitude |Features| Astronomers estimate altitude in the sky by using a fist held vertically at arm's length with the thumb lying flat on the top of the fist. The height of the four fingers and thumb in the fist counts as 10° (each finger and thumb counts as 2°). ‘To use this method, line up your fist with the horizon, Place one fist on top of another and keep going until you reach the moon. This drawing shows @ measured altitude of 20°. Use these questions to help guide your observation. Discuss your answers with a partner. 1, How does the moon’s shape change over time? 2. Does the moon appear to be a different size when it is rising? when it has risen fully? when it's setting? 8. What features have you observed on the moon's face? Did these features change? 4, How does the moon appear to move across the sky? 5, Can you predict when the moon will be seen in the sky the next day or night? Where will it be in the sky? How can you tell? /hat You | Roe i all kinds of information for an ateur f astronomer to use. Check the ,ewspaper for the rising and setting times of the moon. Use these times to ee you eae Record cee itself in the moon is es. Does the t time wher i, oe also follow: a. patent? EB scxmice arrocimcxoay s* 8 Earth’s Companion The time it takes the moon to spin once on its axis equals the time it takes the moon to journey around Earth, As a result, we only see one side of the moon, Thanks to NASA's space program, we can see photos of the hidden side of the moon, taken as astronauts passed by this amazing sight. You've probably heard a lot about Earth's companion, the moon. Ever heard it's made of green cheese? Ever heard of the man in the moon? Well, you probably aren't surprised to find out that the moon is not made of cheese—green or otherwise—and that it doesn't have a human face. But there are markings on the surface of the moon. Have you ever noticed them? The dark markings are vast plains called maria. They're covered with dark-coloured dust. The pale marks are the lunar mountains. The tallest one is 8000 m high. If you look at the moon with a good pair of binoculars or a smalll telescope, you might see those mountains. You might also see the valleys, called rills, and craters of all sizes. The moon has craters within craters, craters on top of craters, and even connecting craters. They vary in size from a few metres to 1000 km wide. once EMCT «2 In this activity, you will set up a simulation of the moon's surface and see how asteroids, comets, and meteoroids have created craters on the moon. Materials for each student: flour cocoa powder shallow pans rocks of similar shape varying in sizes from 1 cm to 4 cm in diameter ruler or tape measure Rec keen Be careful when dropping the rocks. 7~, Make sure everyone is behind the student dropping the rocks. Procedure Place flour in the pan to a depth y of about 8 em. Sprinkle the cocoa powder over the flour. Drop one of the rocks from shoulder height into the pan. Remove the rock, EPA science & TECHNOLOGY 6 What do you see? Drop the same rock two more times. Sketch what you see. Measure your crater, and record any observations. Repeat steps 1 through 4 with each of the remaining rocks, Keep everything the same, but try a new twist. Drop one of the rocks from several different heights so that the rock impacts at greater force and speed. Measure the crater.What other variable could make a difference to the size of the crater? Remember to keep all other variables the same to make it a fair test. [Ey Recor your observations ina chart Variable Observations height ‘nal nal ‘inial3 Variable Observations ‘ral tal 2 ‘Moon rocks brought back by ‘astronauts are very much like rocks on Earth. They help Prove that Earth and the moon have a common origin. Rocks from both locations are estimated to be about 2.8 billion years old. (conimunteate | A 1. Using your sketches, describe what your simulated craters looked like. Label the sketches with the following term: Crater basin—the impression left on the surface Rim—the area around the edge of the basin Rays—streaks that radiate from the centre of the basin 2, How did the size of the rock (meteorite) affect the size of the crater? How many times greater would you judge the crater to be than the rock itself? 3. How did the height from which you dropped the rock affect the size of the crater? 4, What effect did the shape of the rock have on the shape of the crater? Did this surprise you? 5. What other questions do you have about. how craters are formed? How might you answer these questions?Do you know what tides are? If you live inland, they may not be part of your everyday vocabulary. But if you live along a seashore, tides—the regular rise and fall of ocean waters—are an important part of your day. Think of the ways in which this could be true. People in ancient civilizations were aware of tides but did not really understand what | caused them. Three hundred years ago, scientist Isaac Newton published a book called Principia. In it he described how the force of gravity decreases as the distance from a massive object increases. This, relationship helped scientists to figure out why tides occur. ‘The tides are a result of how Earth, the moon, and the sun interact. Let’s start with EBM sence tecanorocv 6 high tides. The moon exerts a force on Earth. Earth responds by moving toward te moon, as the diagram shows. Any water that is on the side of Earth facing the moon moves toward the moon faster than Earth can, That. creates what is called an aqueous bulge. On the side of Earth not facing the moon, Earth moves faster toward the moon than can the waters on that side, That creates another aqueous bulge. These larger bulges are what we call high tide.‘The waters on the side of Earth facing the moon move toward the moon more quickly than Earth does. On the side of Earth not facing the moon, Earth moves toward the moon more quickly than the waters do, Aqueous bulges are created on both sides of Earth, You can see low tides in this diagram, too. They are the narrower bulges. As Earth rotates on its axis, the tides rise and fall as | the seashores of the continents are pulled Pullof the Moon Pull of the sun ra into and out of the aqueous bulges. Imagine tuning Earth at the North Pole on the diagram, The bulges remain aligned with the moon's position. Now we come to the sun's role in the tides, ‘The sun also exerts a force on Earth. If the moon and the sun were at the same distance from Earth, the sun’s force would be 180 times as strong as the moon's. But remember what Newton said—the farther Earth is from a massive body, the lesser the pull of that body. Since the moon is so much closer to Earth than the sun, the moon actually exerts more force—two times as great as the force of the sun. ‘The pull of the sun creates aqueous bulges, too, but they are much smaller than the bulges created by the moon. The sun helps create what are called spring tides and neap tides. With spring tides, the pull of the sun and the moon are in step. Either the moon and the sun are lined up directly (new moon phase), or they are on exact opposite sides of Earth (full moon phase). All that pulling makes for higher than normal tides. Pull of ‘the Sun | Pull of the MoonMidright =p . 11 pm 10pm Spm 8pm 7pm Som Sem |e 4 om Som 2om . Vom ve ° Noon ° + Mam . ° 10am Time 9am Bam Tam ‘ 6am ° Sam ° fam | @ a 3am ° 2am ° tam ° to 11 12:13 Date 123456789 October Neap tides are lower than normal tides. They occur when the sun and the moon are out of step—when the pull of the sun and the pull of the moon are at right angles during the fin nd last quarter moons. Want to see tides in action? The best. place to see high and low tides is in shallow water along large stretches of seashore, BB scunce a memciosr 6 ° ° Legend ° ° L High Tide @ - ° lowTide @ | ° J ° ° ° ° ° ay e a | ° eee ° ° ° ° ° . ° e ° ° e ° ° ° ° ° ° 14-15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22.23 Communicate Use the chart to help you answer these questions. 1, In approximately how many hours might a seaside location experience low tide after high tide? 2, How many low tides and high tides would normally occur in a 24 h period? Check the chart to compare the time of high tide on two consecutive days, Can you figure out why this is so? Think about the movements of Earth and the moon in relation to one another.4°10 Blackout! Shadows are created when light is blocked by an object. That means they happen inside and outside. You can see shadows in the classroom right now. You can even make shadows. Go ahead and make some with your pencil. Try to make some shadows that are fuzzy, others that are very sharp, some that go in more than one direction, and others that have light and dark parts. When you look at these shadows, you will notice @ dark part (the umbra) and a lighter part (the penumbra). So, what do shadows have to do with space? Have you ever heard of a lunar eclipse or a solar eclipse? A lunar eclipse happens when Earth is directly between the sun and the moon. Earth blocks the sun's light. The moon, which is not a source of light, con't reflect the light of the sun, The result? You can't see the moon. umbra penumbra shadow A light from direction A shadow 8 A solar eclipse happens when the moon is between Earth and the sun. The moon blocks the sun’s light, forming a shadow on Earth, If alll three bodies are lined up, there is a total eclipse of the sun. Tumbra penumbra ‘Moon’ umbra penumbra SPACE EyIn this activity, you will use models and simulations to understand how eclipses happen. Solar Eclipse Materials for each student: small object, such as a marble Procedure ‘To see how a solar eclipse works, hold the marble at arm’s length in front of you. Find something in the room that you want to block out, or eclipse. The wall clock is a great choice Jy Sint with one eye and move the marble toward you until you have completely blocked out the clock. If the marble were the moon and the clock EY scnce 2 rxcamcxoay 5 were the sun, you, on Earth, would be in the shadow of the moon. None of the sun's light would reach you. ‘Try this with other objects in the classroom to see how you can eclipse an object as you line up the marble between you and that object. Lunar Eclipse Materials for each group: flashlight (to represent the sun) large ball (to represent Earth) small ball (to represent the moon) Procedure Now see what happens in a lunar eclipse. Set up the flashlight and the two balls as shown in the photo. What do you notice?6. Draw a picture to show what you would sauce! see if you were on the moon looking at 1, What must happen to cause an eclipse o Earth during an eclipse of the sun. the sun? Draw pictures to help explain, Communicate 7. A lunar eclipse is longer than a solar 1se, Give reasons to explain why. 2. What must happen to cause an eclipse of the moon? Draw pictures to help explain. 3. Which type of eclipse would you notice p33181) § On What You Know the least—a solar or lunar eclipse? Explain poubanamed Astronomers know when and where total solar eclipses will occur in the 4, During what phase of the moon could an | | years ahead, Will there be a solar eclipse of the sun occur? | eclipse near you in the next decade? | Check the map below. Record this 5. During what phase of the moon could an | | information in your Space Portfolio, eclipse of the moon occur? Total Solar Eclipses: 1996 - 2020 oon | aon Latitude Meo W ISO W ROW SOW gow SOW SE ot are Longitude Remember, do not look directly at the sky during an eclipse. Viewing even a small sliver of the sun can damage your eyes.You've been discovering more and more about the sun and the moon. But how about everything else that's up there? Earth—and eight other planets and their moons, thousands of asteroids, and even comets and mete- oroids—all revolve around the sun. We call the sun and all that revolves around it our solar system. The stars (including the sun) shine by their own light. The planets and their moons reflect the light of the sun. Ea scienceTT ac: There's a lot to find out about the solar system, As you read, write down new terms and any questions you have. Planet Power ‘There are two types of planets. Between the inner and outer planets is a belt of rocky asteroids. The inner planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars—are similar in that they are all small, dense, and rocky. But they are different in other ways. Mercury has no significant atmosphere. Venus has a very thick atmosphere made up of carbon dioxide. the heat of the sun like a greenhouse, making the planet extremely hot. LUEUCieg| Mercury Venus Earth — Mars fren ceed come ere rae Png (ken) 12756 6794 Cee 2247 3653 687 Pay days days. days enh " é reer) oe 243 days carbon dioxide nitrogen, ‘oxygen carbon dioxide Mars also has a carbon dioxide atmosphere but it is very thin, The atmosphere on Mars only about 1% as thick as Earth's. The outer planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. All except Pluto are giant balls of gas. (Not much is known about Pluto. It has been suggested that it is made up of a mixture of rock and ice.) The outer planets have no solid surface. They all rotate very rapidly and are not very dense. We are learning more about the planets every day. Check out this chart for some quick facts. * AU (astronomical unit) refers to the average distance from Earth to the sun. It is a short way of writing 150 000 000 km —the average distance Earth is from the sun. Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto 142980 120540 51 120 a4 years hydrogen, hydrogen, hydrogen, hydrogen, helium, methane helium — helium helium, ‘methane 18 8 yes space [EXare near thes sum, they usualy have the following 2, a bright, star-like centre or nucleus a nag sloud ‘of hydrogen gas. A comet's tall avey| Points Comets and Meteoroids So, what else is flying through space? is comets and meteoroids, About 878 comet have been identified. Comets are a mixture of frozen water, frozen gases, and dust that didn't get incorporated when the solar system was formed. That's why you'll sometimes hear them called “dirty snowballs’ or “icy mudballs.” Until they get near the sun, comets are invisible. Most comets have very unusual orbits that take them far beyond the orbit of our solar system's outer planets, These comets are seen once and disappear for thousands of years. Periodic comets, like Halley's Comet, have a more regular orbit, and will come back in a predictable amount of time. Halley's Comet takes about 75 years to complete its orbit. We can next see it from Earth in 2060. Ea IENCE & TECHNOLOGY 6 Canadian David Levy has spent many hours searching the sky and discovered 21 comet The most famous one he found was named after him and another amateur astronomer who sighted the same comet—it’s called Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, When the comet collided with Jupiter in July 1994, we saw the impact of the comet with help from the Jupiter probe that passed by. Other fragments of rock and dust appear in our sky, too. These are meteoroids. ometimes they even penetrate Earth's atmospere. (The term meteor, which you might have heard, refers to the streak of light a meteoroid produces when it enters Earth's atmosphere. Very bright meteors are called fireballs.) Most meteoroids are smaller than a pea. When larger fragments of rock fall to Earth, they are called meteorites. The burning gases can sometimes create large craters such as this one in Quebec.Communicate 1. Use the planet chart to: a, order the planets from the most to the least massive b. compare the composition of the inner planets to that of the outer planets ¢. create a list showing planets with and without rings order the planets according to their rotation period 2. Create a glossary for the terms: planet, comet, meteor, meteoroid, fireball, and meteorite. It takes 8.3 min for light to travel from the sun to Earth. Use the chart of quick facts about the planets (page 31) to calculate how long it would. take for a cellular phone call to go from Earth to Jupiter. 8. Use the information in this activity to do one or more of the following. Hint: The charts will help. a. Design a poster or brochure to describe the solar system. Use coloured drawings or printouts from the Internet. b. Prepare a report about one of the planets of the solar system. Use descriptions, pictures, and drawings. c, Create a game based on the information you have learned in this activity. . Create a travel brochure for one of the planets, Eitisnsans | Believe it or not, you can see Jupiter, | Satur, Mars, and Venus with the naked eye. You just need to know where to look and what to look for, You might want to get an almanac to help you out, but here are some tips: ** Jupiter is big and bright. Look in the southeastern sky in fall and the southwestern sky in winter. * Satum appears yellow, You can find it, in the southeastern sky in spring and the southwestern sky in winter. * Venus is very bright white and wan- ders a lot. It appears brighter than the other planets. Use a telescope and you might see how Venus has phases like our moon. * Mars shines red and moves very quickly. See if you can find these planets in the night sky.O u Get Sky Pictures Have you ever seen pictures in the clouds? What kinds of things have you imagined? What other natural sky objects have you used to do the same thing? rer Leo, the Lion: Leo is supposed to be the skin of a famous lion killed by Hercules and then flung up into the sky. The red outline of Leo has been computer-generated. Cassiopeia, the Queen: Cassiopeia forms an easily recognizable W shape in the sky. Cassiopela was a mythological Greek queen whose vanity made the gods angry. In the sky, Cassiopeia is close to her husband, Cepheus. EGY scnc E & TECHNOLOGY 6 eat Orion, the Hunter: Orion was in love with Diana, goddess of the hunt. Her brother, Apollo, god of archery, didn’t approve. He tricked Diana into shooting an arrow at a distant rock, which was. actually the head of Orion, who was swimming, Her arrow killed him. The god Jupiter gave Orion a place as a constellation in the sky.Long ago people saw groups of stars in the sky Different cultures—the Chinese, Arabs, and imagined that they made pictures—pictures Babylonians—all gave the constellations different. of hunters, queens, lions, rabbits, and more. ames. The names we use today are Latin and These star groupings, or constellations, inspired many are based on Greek and Roman myths. the creation of ancient myths, or stories. They also aided in navigation. EA owes 2g What stars and constellations can you find? sky map shown here a clear night sky Constellations help astronomers to find stat Amazingly, fewer than 50 constellations are visible in the sky at any one time. In the first part of this activity, you will use a sky map to help you find several constellations. eames SPACProcedure [Ey 02 2 clea night took out your window or go outside with an adult. Use this map. ‘The stars located around the poles of Earth are called eircumpolar stars. ‘These are the stars that. you can see during any season. The sky map shown on the previous page charts circumpolar stars, so you can use it during any season. Hold the map above your head and find the North Star (Polaris). It is the bright star on the end of the Little Dipper. The North Star appears to stay in the same spot. You will see that the other stars seem to rotate around it. Use the Little Dipper and the North Star to find some of the other constellations on the sky map. Constellation Pictures In this part of the activity, you will work with a group to make a lighted picture of a constellation. Materials for each group: coffee tin black paper window shoebox Procedure Decide as a group which constellation you will make a model of. Do some research to find out more about your constellation. Is there a story behind it? Do different cultures have different stories about it? ‘Think about the best way to make the model and what materials you will need. Gather your materials and make your lighted constellation. Share your picture with the class. commune |, A 1. What questions do you have about the constellations that the other groups made? Design a constellation of your own on paper. Create a myth or legend to explain how your constellation got its name and how it got into the sky. 3. Research a different constellation. Draw the constellation and write about how it got its name. Present your constellation to your classmates. 4. How might one constellation help you find and know another? PCy You, like We] ray look to the darl nd find your own. 1res in it. Be sure to dray and date other class EQ) scence « TECHNOLOGY 6Pay What's Happening _ in aa Gat Space has fascinated and inspired humans for thousands of years. This curiosity and thirst for knowledge has led us to keep making discoveries about space exploration—and to use the resulting technology on Earth. What do you know about space that we have studied so far? Take a few minutes to write down what you know, and what questions you may have about space science and the technology being used. Be ready to share your thoughts and questions with your classmates. So, just what have we learned from being in| What do you call a huge mechanical arm space? Experiments conducted in space have | created by Canadians for the space program? led to everything from convenience foods to | NASA calls it the Canadarm. Shuttle crews treatment for back pain. Take a look at what | operate it by remote control. Its job is to we're doing in space right now! reach out from the spacecraft to send oN space [EZout and bring back payloads, such as satellites. It has six joints that work roughly the same as a human arm, including a shoulder, an elbow, and a wrist. But there one major difference—this arm is over 15 m long and with all its attachments has amass of 450 kg! With the invention of the Hubble Space ‘Telescope (HIST), space pictures have taken a giant leap forward. The camera system on the HST can capture images more clearly than ever before. It can also capture images at the farthest edges of the universe, where humans can’t yet go. But. things weren't always rosy with the HST. Its first mirrors weren't curved correctly. NASA had to give it new mirrors—almost like giving it a pair of glasses! EY science « tecanoroey 5 Radar is a system for locating unseen objects by the reflection of high frequency radio waves. It is a great tool for mapping objects in space. But what if the weather doesn’t cooperate—what if it's cloudy, foggy, or just plain dark outside? Radarsat is an advanced radar system. It’s a remote sensing satellite that uses microwave instruments. These instruments are so powerful that they can send and receive signals through clouds, fog, smoke, and darkness. They help us see high-quality images of Earth no matter what the weather conditions are like. Just what are people looking at from space? The forestry and agriculture industries are mapping—and monitoring—renewable resources When Roberta Bondar shot into spa took Canadian pride with her. But her work in space is far more important than being a national hero. Bondar is a neurologist, a doctor who studies the human brain and how it works. She and her colleagues studied many things about space, including how humans respond to microgravity, when there is so little gravity you feel weightles: The work they did in space is now helping us lear to treat motion sickness, bone-loss diseases, and even cerebral palsy.Growing a crystal is pretty simple. You can do it by dissolving salt in water, then suspending a string in the water and observing the crystals grow. But growing crystals in the microgravity of space is different. There, the crystals are purer and have a better structure. ‘These crystals are used to create such things as precise, powerful lasers, microwave broadcast devices, efficient heat sensors, and high-resolution video cameras. The better the crystals created in space, the more advances we will see in high technology products on Earth, Space science leads to new discoveries every day. It creates a need for tools and skills and allows a country to compete globally in our high-tech, information age. And an under- standing of the origins of our universe will help us prepare for the future of humans, the planet, the solar system, and the galaxy But exploring space has a down side, too. Lost space probes, satellites that are no longer in use, and other “junk” floating around are creating a garbage problem in space that could get as bad as ours on Earth. Creating new technology means that space vehicles will need replacement tools and services. The space program has to have special missions just to do repairs. Scientists, engineers, and technicians are working on solutions to these problems. Who knows what we have yet to find in space? [communicate | With a partner or small group, research and present one of the following 1, Identify Canadian astronauts who have contributed to space science and the technology being used. Choose one astronaut and highlight what he or she has accomplished 2, Find out about some of the technological tools and devices needed for space exploration, Explain one of them in detail. 3. Indicate the ways in which the develop- ment of materials and technology for space exploration has resulted in the use of new technologies on Earth. Use your imagination and present your findings creatively. You may wish to present. a computer representation, a role play, an interview, a brochure, a game, or a time line. space [EQCan you imagine living in space? It may sound like a fantasy, but pay aattention—the possibility gets closer alll the time. Countries are working on space stations in which people can actually live. The International Space Station Mir was launched on February 20, 1986 by the then Soviet Union. Its mission was to see how astronauts performed during long stays in space. Travel agencies may soon take bookings for holidays in space. If you're planning to go, you'd better get prepared. In space, there is so little gravity that you feel weightless. This is a problem astronauts have to deal | with on every space mission. What things in day-to-day life do you think would have to change if you were an astronaut? How would you get ready to work—or to live—in space? EEG scuence a tecrnotoav 6In this activity, you will think about the challenges astronauts face living in microgravity, and research how they adapt to weightless environments. Materials for each group: paper and pencil reference books on space and space exploration Web sites (see the previous activity for suggested sites) Procedure With your group, brainstorm and record all your routines and needs during an average day. Dy Beets create a ist of the things you do to keep healthy. Now imagine going on a space mission where you would be living ina microgravity environment, Remember that your living quarters are not large. Make a list of the challenges you would face. [By Wor togetner to esearch tow astronauts adapt to weightless environments. Each member of your group may wish to research several needs. You may use print resources or the Internet to make informed decisions, You can then meet to share the information you have collected. You might think about: + Food—How much and what kind of food will you need for a week? How will it be packaged” How will you eat it? How will you clean up? + Rest—What adaptations will you need to make for sleeping? How will you deal with a “night” that might only last an hour? * Work—How will you be able to stay at your work station? How will you move from experiment to experiment? Exercise—What kinds of exercises: can you do to keep your muscles from shrinking and weakening? When and how will you do them? ‘* Hygiene—How will you keep clean? ‘+ Other—What adaptations will you need to make so you don't feel disoriented? How will you keep yourself amused? How will you breathe if you have to work outside the space shuttle? Plan a presentation to help others understand the adaptations. Use your imagination—don't forget illustrations, sound, and other creative ideas. 1. Are you interested i on a space mission? Explain your answer. What do you think would be your greatest personal challenge living in a weightless environment? 3, What do you still want to find out about carrying out a space mission? 4, What is happening with Mir now? Research on the Internet or in the library to find out. Would you like to travel to Mir? Why or why not? space [EX]Seats | The Edmonton Space Centre El sowsce e racinoxocr 6Gah ae Your group will create a planetarium using all the information you have learned in this unit about the solar system, its visiting bodies, and the stars. Your planetarium can be physical or virtual (using the computer), but it must show as much as possible about what you have leamed Materials for each group: paper, pencil, computer (optional) various materials for constructing a planetarium such as: construction paper, Styrofoam balls, plastic, paper, cardboard boxes, markers, string, elastic bands, mini-lights, scissors, tape, glue Procedure [fy © your group, think about the following: © Review the components of the solar system and visiting objects to help you decide what objects to include. © Decide whether your planetarium will be physical or virtual. ¢ IFit’s physical, will it be enclosed within a fixed structure? If so, what will the structure be made of? © Will you use sources of light within your planetarium? © What research will you need to do before beginning to design your planetarium? © What materials do you need? How will you get them? © How will you divide the work among the members of your group? sence EE© Design By Project % g On large sheets of paper, draw a plan of Loe your planetarium. Make sure to label the | Communicate Present Discuss various parts and space objects that will | 1. tn your group, present your planetarium be featured. to the class. Make sure to explain clearly what each part is, and what special features your planetarium includes. Don’t forget to prepare a list of questions to ask other groups about their projects. Working with your group, draw up a schedule for building the planetarium and putting the whole show together. Get to work and build or create your 2 pena . What was the most challenging aspect of planeta designing and creating your planetarium? 3. What did you learn from the presentations of the other groups? 4, What could you do to improve your planetarium? & TECHNOLOGY 6Now it’s time to show how much you have learned about space. Read over what your tasks are, and talk to your teacher if you are unclear about what to do. In 1997 scientists sent the Sojourner robot to Mars to find out more about the planet. Your task is to design a robotic device to send to the planet of your choice. First, list the most important features of your planet. Make sure to include the nature of the surface, temperature, atmosphere, and day and night patterns. What challenges will your robot have to overcome? What special features will help your robot to overcome these challenges on the planet? Describe these features and how they will work to allow the robot to do its job. Then decide what aspects of the planet your robot will investigate, and how it will go about investigating it. Explain why humans have sent the robot on this trip. Draw your robot performing its task on the planet. Describe what your robot might find out and how this information might be useful for life on Earth. Now check your work. The challenges my robot will face and how it will overcome them are clearly identified. My sketch clearly shows my robot, its special features, and what my robot will investigate. My description of my planet is clear. My description of what my robot might find out clearly explains how science and technology can help us in our daily lives. space EQCommunicate Now it's time to think about how well you did. Use this chart to help you score your work. Four stars is the highest score for each. 1 Star 2 Stars 3 Stars 4 Stars * kkk tik totktok + How much do you know about space? Look at your description of your robot and your planet. Does your work show you know Alittle about space Some information _—A lot of information All about about space about space space? * Look at the design for your robot, its special features, and the task your robot will investigate. Does your work show you have applied A few of the skills Some of the skills Most of the skills All of the skills learned in this unit learned in this unit _learned in this unit __ learned in this unit? Now look again at your descriptions. Will they be clear and precise to a reader? Not very clear or Somewhat clear Mostly clear Very clear precise and precise and precise and precise You wrote about how the information your robot gathered might be useful for life on Earth. How much do you think it shows about how technology and science can help us in our daily lives? Not much Some A good A complete understanding understanding understanding understanding 1 how well you think you did. Ed scence a recinonoay 6What did you learn about space? 1. Describe some ways you could safely observe the image of the sun without looking at it directly. 2. If it is light now where you live, where on arth is it dark? 8, Use the photo below to explain why we have warmer days in the summer than in the winter, even though Earth is slightly closer to the sun in the winter. ibe the origins of the names of three constellations you have learned about in this unit. 5. What causes seasons to occur on Earth? 6, Draw and name the phases of the moon in the order you would sce them over the course of a month, 7. What causes craters on the moon? 8, What are tides? 9. Explain what happens during each Include diagrams. a. a lunar eclipse b. a solar eclipse 10. What are the nine planets that make up the solar system? Which are the inner planets? The outer planets? 1. Explain briefly how humans have improved tools and technology used in space exploration. Choose one tool, technology, or strategy to describe in fuller detail. 12. Identify some ways in which the development of materials and technology has led to the use of new technologies and materials on Earth, 13. explain how astronauts meet their basic needs in space. space J1. List three things you didn't know before this unit started. 2. Describe what you liked best in this unit, 3. Give yourself a pat on the back! What did you do well in this unit? 4, List three questions you still have about space. Now you know a lot about space! Here are some of the things you have learned: © The word solar means “sun.” In our solar system each of the nine planets moves in its orbit around the sun which is at the centre. Other components of the solar system include comets, asteroids, and meteoroids. ‘The sun is a star and like other stars, emits its own light. Other objects in space, such as planets, moons, comets, meteoroids, and asteroids, reflect light. from the sun. Your vision can be harmed by looking directly at the sun with the naked eye. There are various ways to project the sun's image onto a surface so as to safely view its image. Earth's till and movement around the sun causes the change of seasons. Both Earth and the moon are lighted by the sun. How much of the moon we see lighted depends upon its position in relation to Earth and the sun, These regular changes in lighting are called phases of the moon. BM scrnce s tecimotoay Eclipses of the sun and moon occur due to shadows in space. A total solar eclipse occurs when there is an exact alignment of Barth, the moon, and the sun, with the moon casting its shadow on Earth. A lunar eclipse occurs when the moon's orbit is parallel to Earth's orbit and the moon passes through Earth's shadow. Stars are huge balls of hot gases. Stars form patterns in the sky that we call constellations. Astronomers have mapped about 88 constellations. People in ancient civilizations used the positions of the sun, moon, and stars to tell time, plant crops, and plan festivals. Canadians have contributed to space technology through tools such as the Canadarm, ‘The development of technology such as the Canadarm, the Hubble Space Telescope, and space probes have led to new discoveries and scientific knowledge about space. ‘The development of materials and technology for space has proven very useful to us on Earth The moon’s surface is not smooth. It has markings such as maria, rills, and craters on it. You can now recognize major constellations in the night sky and describe the origins of their names.altitude height above ground level aqueous bulge a bulge in ocean water created by the pull of gravity of the moon; high tide asteroid a small rocky object orbiting the sun; most asteroids are found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter astronomers scientists who study space atmosphere the air or gases surrounding a planet axis an imaginary line extending through Earth from the North Pole to the South Pole around which Barth rotates circumpolar stars the stars located around the North and South Poles in the sky comet a frozen chunk of ice and dust that orbits the sun constellation a group of stars in the sky that make a picture crater a large, bowl-shaped hole with a rim on the surface of a moon or planet caused by an impact crater basin the inside of a crater fair test an investigation carried out under con- trolled conditions. In a fair test, all variables are controlled except the one under investigation fireball a very bright meteor laser beam a narrow and very powerful ray of light lunar eclipse occurs when Earth is directly between the sun and the moon and Earth blocks the sun's light maria the vast plains on the moon covered dark-coloured dust meteor the streak of light in the night sky that results from a meteoroid entering Earth's atmo- sphere; a shooting star meteorite a meteoroid that does not completely burn up in the atmosphere and lands on Earth's surface meteoroid a fragment of space rock that enters Earth’s atmosphere, that causes a meteor when friction with air heats it to a bright glow microgravity in space, when there is so little gravity you feel weightless neap tides lower than normal tides that occur when the sun and the moon are out of step (when the pull of the sun and the pull of the moon are at right angles during the first and last, quarter moons) orbit the path of an object in space around another object Payload the load carried by an aireraft or spacecraft Penumbra the lighter part of a shadow Phases of the moon the different shapes of the moon as seen from Earth planetarium a theatre that simulates space and the objects in space (plural: planetaria) radar a device that uses radio waves to locate objects and determine their speeds rays the streaks that radiate from the craters on. the moon revolution the movement of one object around another object wills the valleys on the surface of the moon rim the area around the edge of a crater basin solar eclipse occurs when the moon is between Earth and the sun; the moon blocks the sun's light, forming a shadow on Earth cossary EEsolar wind the steady stream of high-energy, very small units of matter (particles) from the sun into space solar system the sun, the planets and their moons, and other objects that orbit the sun space probe an automated spacecraft that is, sent out into space and does not orbit planets or other objects spring tides higher than normal tides that ‘occur when the moon and the sun are lined up (new moon phase) or they are on the opposite sides of Earth (full moon phase) sundial an instrument used for telling time with shadows sunspots the dark spots on the sun; they are regions of cooler temperature tides the regular rise and fall of ocean waters umbra the dark part of a shadow vapour tiny drops of liquid in air; water in gas form variable anything in an investigation that can be changed BBO scrnce e recinvorccr sAcknowledgments ‘The publisher wishes to thank the following sources for photographs, illustrations, articles, and other ‘materials used in this book. Care has been taken to determine and locate ownership of copyrighted material used in this text, We will gladly receive information enabling us to rectify any errors or omissions in credits. Photography p.1 (top) NASA, p. 1 (bottom) Bill & Sally Fletcher/Tom Stack, p. 4 Westlight/Ron Watts/First Light, p.5 (let) Westlight/W. Cody/First Light, p.5 (right) Ray Boudreau, p. 6 Warren Stone/Viswals Unlimited, p. 7 (left) John D. Cunningham/Visuals Unlimited, p. 7 (right) Visuals Unlimited, p. 8 PhotoDise, Inc. p. 9 Ray Boudreau, p. 10 Corbis, p. 11 Jisas/Lockheed/Science Photo Library/Publiphoto, p. 13 Ray Boudreau, p. 14 John Sylvester/First Light, p. 15 Ray Boudreau, p. 16 Ray Boudreau, p. 17 PhotoDise, Ine, p. 18 Ray Bouxlreau, p. 19 (eft) ‘Thomas W. Chase/New England Stock Photo, p. 19 nd from left) Clark Linehan Photography/New England Stock Photo, p. 19 (2nd from right) Pat LynclNew England Stock Photo, p. 19 (right) Craig Blouin/New England Stock Photo, p. 20 Ray Boudreau, p. 21 NASA, p. 22 Ray Boudreau, p. 23 World Perspectives/Explorer/Publiphoto, p. 24 Steve Kaufman/Peter Arnold, Inc, p. 24 (inset) First Light, p. 28 Ray Boudreau, p. 32 Gordon Garradd/Seience Photo Library/Publiphoto, p. 38 Fred Klus/Publiphoto, p. 37 NASA, p. 38 (top left) NASA, p. 38 (bottom left) Canadian Space Agency, p. 38 (right) Canadian Space Agency, p. 30 Karl Hartmann/Sachs/Phototake NYC/First Light, p. 40 NASA/Science Photo Library/Publiphoto, p. 40 (inset) PhotoDise, Inc,, pp. 42-43 Henry Kalew/Ivy Images, p. 44 Ray Boudreau, p. 45 (left) NASA, p. 45 (right) PhotoDisc, Inc., p. 47 Ray Boudreau IMlustration Stove Attoe: p. 17 ‘Ted Nasmith: pp. 2-8, p. 80, pp. 34-35 ‘Theresa Sakno: p. 11, p. 12, p. 15, p- 19, p. 25, p. 27, p. 29 Cover Photograph PhotoDise, Inc.