CHAIN SURVEYING

Instruments used for chain surveying:

The various instruments used in chain surveying are as follows.

1. chain
2. arrows
3. pegs
4. ranging rods
5. offset rods
6. plumb bob

1. Chain:

Chains are used to measure horizontal distances. Chains are formed of straight links of galvanized
mild steel wire called links. The ends of each link are bent into a loop hand connected together by
means of three oval rings which afford flexibility to the chain.

The chain s made of mind steel. The ends of the chin are provided with brass handles for
dragging the chain on the ground. the outside of the handle is the zero point or the end point of the
chain and the length of the chain measured from the outside of one handle to the outside of the
other. The length of a link is the distance between the centers of the two consecutive middle rings.
The end links include the handles. Metallic tags are indicators of the chain to facilitate quick
reading of fraction of a chain in surveying measurements. Metric survey chains are available in
lengths of 20m and 30m. The 20m chain contains 100 links whereas 30m. Chain contains 150
links. One link of both the type of chain measure 20cm.

2. Arrows:

Arrows or making pins are made of tempered steel wire 4mm in diameter and generally 10 arrows
are supplied with a chain. An arrow is inserted into the ground after the chain length is measured
on the ground. Usually the length of an arrow is 40cm and one end of it is made sharp and the
other end is bent into a circle for facility of carrying.
3. Pegs:

Wooden pegs are used to mark the positions of the stations terminal points of a survey line. They
are made of hard timber, generally 2.5cm or 3 cm square and 15cm long, tapered at the end.

4. Ranging Rods

The ranging rods are used for making the positions of stations and for ranging the lines. They are
made of ell seasoned straight grained timber teak. They circular in cross section of 3cm diameter
and have a length of either 2 or 3cm, lengh being more common. They are shod at the bottom with
a heavy iron points. In order to make them visible at a distance, they are pained alternatively black
and white or red and white.
5. Offset

Offset rod is similar to that of ranging rod. They are should with pointed iron shoe at one end, and
provided with a notch or a hook at the other for pulling or pushing the chain through a hedges or
other obstructions.

6. Plumb Bob

While chaining along sloping ground, a plump is required to transfer the points to the ground. It is
also used for accurate centering of the theodolite compass, plane table etc over a station mark and
for testing the vertically of ranging poles

7. Cross staff

This is the instrument used for setting out right angles to a chain line. It consists of either a frame
or box with two pairs of vertical slits and is mounted on a pole shod for fixing in the ground
1. Open cross staff
2. French cross staff
3. Adjustable cross staff
Wooden cross staff

Ranging Out Survey Lines

While measuring the survey lines, the chain or the tape has to be stretched along the survey line
along that joins two terminal stations. When the line to be measured has a smaller length
compared to the chain, then the measurement goes smooth. If the length of the line is greater, the
survey lines have to be divided by certain intermediate points, before conducting the chaining
process. This process is called ranging.

The process of ranging can be done by two methods:

1. Direct Ranging

2. Indirect Ranging
1. Direct Ranging
Direct ranging is the ranging conducted when the intermediate points are intervisible. Direct
ranging can be performed by eye or with the help of an eye instrument.
Ranging by Eye

As shown in figure-1 below, let A and B are the two intervisible points at the ends of the survey
line. The surveyor stands with a ranging rod at the point A by keeping the ranging rod at the
point B. The ranging rod is held at about half metre length.

Fig.1.Direct Ranging
The assistant then takes the ranging rod and establishes at a point in between AB, almost in line
with AB. This is fixed at a distance not greater than one chain length from point A.

The surveyor can give signals to the assistant to move traverse till the rod is in line with A and B.
In this way, other intermediate points are determined.

Ranging by Line Ranger

The figure-2 below shows a line ranger that has either two plane mirror arrangement or two
isosceles prisms that are placed one over the other. The diagonals of the prism are arranged and
silvered such that they reflect incident rays.
 Fig.2. Ranging by Line Ranger

In order to handle the instrument in hand a handle with hook is provided. The hook is to enable a
plumb- bob to help transfer the point to the ground.

In order to range the point 'P', initially two rods are fixed at points A and B. By eye judgment,
the surveyor holds the ranging rod at P almost in line with AB.

The lower prism abc receives the rays coming from A which is then reflected by the diagonal ac
towards the observer. The upper prism dbc receives the rays from B which is then reflected by
the diagonal bd towards the observer. Hence the observer can see the images of the ranging rods
A and B, which might not be in the same vertical line as shown in figure-2(c).

The surveyor moves the instrument till the two images come in the same vertical line as shown
in figure-2(d). With the help of a plumb bob, the point P is then transferred to the ground. This
instrument can be used to locate the intermediate points without going to the other end of the
survey line. This method only requires one person to hold the line ranger.

2. Indirect Ranging
Indirect ranging is employed when the two points are not intervisible or the two points are at a
long distance. This may be due to some kind of intervention between the two points. In this case,
the following procedure is followed.

As shown in figure-3, two intermediate points are located M1 and N1 very near to chain line by
judgment such that from M1, both N1 and B are visible & from N1 both M1 and A are visible.

Fig.3. Indirect Ranging

At M1 and N1 two surveyors stay with ranging rods. The person standing at M1 directs the
person at N1 to move to a new position N2 as shown in the figure. N2 must be inline with M1B.

Next, a person at N2 directs the person at M1 to move to a position M2 such that it is inline with
N2A. Hence, the two persons are in points are M2 and N2.
The process is repeated until the points M and N are in the survey line AB. Finally, it reaches a
situation where the person standing at M finds the person standing at N in line with NA and vice
versa. Once M and N are fixed, other points are fixed by direct ranging.

Method Of Chaining On Level Ground

1. Before starting the chaining operation, two ranging rods should be fixed on the chain line,
at the top stations.
2. The opposite ranging rod, should be fixed near the top of every chain length, during the
ranging operation.
3. To chain the line, the leader moves forward by dragging the chain and by taking with him
a ranging rod and ten arrows.
4. The follower stands at the starting station by holding the opposite end of the chain.
5. While the chain is completely elongated, the leader holds the ranging rod vertically at
arm's length.
6. The follower directs the leader to maneuver his rod to the left or right until the ranging
rod is precisely in line.
7. Then the follower lays the zero end in the chain by touching the station peg. The leader
stretches the chain by moving it up and down with both hands, and at last places it on the
road .
8. He then inserts an arrow on the bottom at the end of the chain and marks with a cross
('x').
9. Again, the leader moves forward by dragging the chain with 9 arrows and therefore the
ranging rod. To the end of the chain, he fixes another arrow as earlier.
10. As the leader moves therewithal, the follower picks up the arrows which were inserted by
the leader.
11. And during chaining, the surveyor or an assistant should conduct the ranging operation.
12. In this way, chaining is sustained . When all the arrows are inserted and therefore the
leader has none left with him, the follower hands them over to the leader; this could be
noted by the surveyor.
 13. To measure the remaining fractional length, the leader should drag the chain beyond the
station and also the follower should hold the zero end of the chain at the last arrow.
14. Then the odd links should be counted.
Method Of Chaining On Sloped Ground
Horizontal distances have required in surveying. So, in chaining toward a sloping ground, the
horizontal distances between two stations are measured carefully by applying some convenient
methods.

The following are the various methods that are generally employed:

1. Direct method or stepping method, and

2. Indirect method.

1. Direct Method
This method is applied when the slope of the surface of earth is extremely steep.
During this method, the sloping ground is split into a number of horizontal and vertical strips,
like steps.
So, this method is additionally referred to as the stepping method.
The lengths of horizontal portions are measured and added to induce the full horizontal distance
between the points.
The steps might not be uniform, and would depend upon the nature of the earth surface
Procedure
1. Suppose the horizontal distance between points A and B in Fig. 1.10 is to be measured.
2. The line AB is first ranged properly. Then, the follower holds the zero end of the tape at
A.
3. The leader selects a suitable length API so that PI is at chest height and API is just
horizontal. The horizontality is maintained by eye estimation, by tri-square or by wooden
set-square.
4. The point P2 is marked on the ground by plumb-bob so that P1 is just over P2. The
horizontal length AP1 is noted.
 5. Then the follower moves to the position and holds the zero end of the tape at that point.
6. Again the leader selects a suitable length P2P3 in such a way that P2P3 is horizontal and
P4P5 vertical. Then the horizontal lengths P2P3 and P4P5 are measured.

So, the total horizontal length, AB =AP1 + P2P3 + P4P5

Chain triangulation

Triangulation surveying is the tracing and measurement of a series or network of triangles to

determine distances and relative positions of points spread over an area, by measuring the length
of one side of each triangle and deducing its angles and length of other two sides by observation
from this baseline. Triangulation is preferred for hills and undulating areas, since it is easy to
establish stations at reasonable distances apart, with intervisibility. In plane and crowded areas it
is not suitable as the intervisibility of stations is affected. For the triangle, the length of the first
line, which is measured precisely is known as Base line. The other two Computed sides are used
as new baselines for two other triangles interconnected with the first triangle. By extending this
process, a chain or network of triangles can be spread over the entire area. Check line joins the
apex of main triangle with any fixed point on other two sides of triangles. It measures accuracy
of the framework.

Tie line joins two fixed points on main survey lines and it checks the accuracy of surveyinf as
well as it helps in showing the details of the surveyed field. Lines joining the tie stations are
known as tie lines.

The lateral measurement taken from an object to the chain line is known as 'offset'. Offsets are
taken to locate objects with reference to the chain line. They may be of two kinds -
perpendicular and oblique. By setting a right angle by cross-staff or optical square.
Types of offsets

The offsets are classified according to direction and length, according to direction it is of two
types i.e., perpendicular offsets and oblique offsets, according to length i.e., short offsets and
long offsets.

1. According to Direction:
(i) Perpendicular offsets, and

(ii) Oblique offsets.

(i) Perpendicular Offsets:

The distances measured at right angles to the chain line from the objects are known as
perpendicular or rectangular or right offsets such as CD (Fig. 3.3.) Usually the offsets are
perpendicular offsets. In the strict sense, an offset means a perpendicular offset.

(ii) Oblique Offsets:

All offsets which are not at right angles to the main survey lines are known as oblique or tie line
offsets such as CD and CE (Fig. 3.4.) When the object to be plotted is at a long distance apart
from the chain line or it is an important one such as a corner of a building, oblique offsets are
taken. These are also taken to check the accuracy of right angled offsets and to locate the
position of stations in various surveys. Sometimes they help in reducing the number of main
survey lines.

2. According to the Length:

(i) Short offsets and

(ii) Long offsets.

Generally the offsets are called short when they are less than 15 m in length and long when their
length exceeds 15 m.

The Offsets should as far as possible be short ones as they are less liable to be erroneous due to
incorrect length of tape or incorrect direction than if they are long. Also short offsets can be
measured more quickly and accurately than long ones. Tie lines should be drawn to avoid long
offsets.

Obstacles in Chaining

Agor (1993) classified the various types of obstacles encountered in the course of chaining into
three ·

1. Obstacles which obstruct ranging but not chaining

2. Obstacles which obstruct chaining but not ranging
3. Obstacle which obstruct both ranging and chaining

Obstacles that obstruct ranging but not chaining Such a problem arises when a rising ground or a
jungle area interrupts the chain line. Here the end stations are not intervisible.

Obstacles which obstruct chaining but not ranging: Water bodies like lakes, ponds and rivers are
typical examples of obstacles in this category. It is possible to chain around these obstacles by
using the following methods.
Obstacle which obstruct both ranging and chaining: Buildings

Errors in chain survey

In general, the distance measurement obtained in the field will be in error. Errors in the distance
measurement can arise from a number of sources:

1. Instrument errors:

A tape may be faulty due to a defect in its manufacturing or from kinking.

2. Natural errors.

The actual horizontal distance between the ends of the tape can vary due to the effects of

• temperature,

• elongation due to tension

• sagging.

3. Personal errors.

Errors will arise from carelessness by the survey crew:

1. poor alignment

2. tape not horizontal

3. improper plumbing

4. faulty reading of the tape