JAR-FCL 1 Subpart J AMC FCL 1.470(a),(b) and (c) and AMC FCL 2.470(a),(b) and (c) (continued) SECTION 2 Helicopter 062 00 00 00 RADIO NAVIGATION x]x]x 062 01 00 00 RADIO AIDS. [062 01 01 00) [Ground DVF (including classification of bearings) | principles | presentation and interpretation |- coverage - range J errors and accuracy J- factors affecting range and accuracy (062 01 02 00 [ADF (including associated beacons and use of the radio magnetic indicator) J principles | _ presentation and interpretation | coverage range J errors and accuracy | factors affecting range and accuracy [062.01 03 00 VOR and Doppler-VOR (including the use of the radio magnetic indicator) principles | presentation and interpretation - coverage |- range J errors and accuracy | factors affecting range and accuracy [062 01 04 00| [DME (distance measuring equipment) | principles | presentation and interpretation | coverage range errors and accuracy factors affecting range and accuracy (082 01 05 00) ILS (instrument landing system) principles | presentation and interpretation | coverage - range | errors and accuracy | factors affecting range and accuracy [062 01 06 00) MLS (microwave landing systems) principles = presentation and interpretation ~ coverage - range J errors and accuracy |= factors alfecting range and accuracy 01.08.00 20-58 ‘Amendment 1‘SECTION 2 ‘AMC FCL 1.470(a),(b) and (c) and AMC FCL 2.470(a),(b) and (c) (continued) JAR-FCL 1 Subpart J c ‘Aeroplane. a }962020000 | BASIC RADAR PRINCIPLES x[xfx x} x 062.0201 00 _| Pulse techniques and associated terms x x|x Jos2.020200 [Ground ragar x x x |x - principles J presentation and interpretation - coverage - range J- errors and accuracy J _ factors affecting range and accuracy (082020300 [Airborne weather radar x x - principles presentation and interpretation - coverage - range J- errors and accuracy J factors affecting range and accuracy application for navigation 062020400 [SSR secondary surveillance radar and transponder x |x x |x principles | _ presentation and interpretation |- modes and codes, including mode 962.02.05.00 Use of radar observations and application to in-fight x x navigation 62.05 0000 | AREA NAVIGATION SYSTEMS x x x [x 1082.05 01.00 [General philosophy x x | _use of radio navigation systems or an inertial navigation system (062.05 02.00 [Typical fight deck equipment and operation x x | _mezns of entering and selecting waypoints and desired course information (keyboard entry system) j= means of selecting, tuning and identifying ground stations J instrumentation for en-route course guidance for some types of systems, instrumentation for resenting distance travelled, distance to go and, if necessary, ground speed information ~ __ instrumentation for presenting current position data 1062.05 03.00 _ [instrument indications x x 062.05 04.00 [Types of area navigation system inputs x x J- self-contained on-board systems (inertia navigation systems, doppler) external sensor systems (VOR/DME, LORAN-C, Decca) = __air data mputs (true arspeed, altitude, magnetic heading) 06205 05.00 | VOR/OME area navigation (RNAV) x x J principie ot operation ~ advantages and disadvantages ~ accuracy, reiabilty, coverage = _fhgnt geck equipment 2-59 01.06.00 Amendment 1JAR-FCL 1 Subpart J AMC FCL 1.470(@),(b) and (c) and AMG FCL 2.470(a),(b) and (c) (continued) t SECTION 2 A ‘Holicopt [062 05 06 00 Flight director and autopilot coupling }062 08 00 00 SELF-CONTAINED AND EXTERNAL-REFERENCED NAVIGATION SYSTEMS: [062 06 01 00 Doppler principles of operation (airborne system) | _ground speed and drift calculation |- advantages and disadvantages | accuracy and reliability | fight deck equipment [062 06 03 00 [Loran-c |- principle of operation (062 06 04 00 [Decca navigation system |— principle of operation (062 06 05 00 [Satelite assisted navigation : GPSIGLONASS/DGPS | principle of operation |. _ advantages and disadvantages 01.06.00 INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK 2-60 Amendment 4JOINT AVIATION A UTHORITIES AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT’S LICENCE Theoretical Knowledge Manual g NAVIGATION 2FOREWORD Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) pilot licences were first introduced in 1999. By the end of 2002, all 33 JAA member states will have adopted the new, pan-European licensing system. Many other countries world-wide have already expressed interest in aligning their training with the syllabi for the various JAA licences. These syllabi and the regulations governing the award and the renewal of licences are defined by the JAA’ licensing agency, known as “Joint Aviation Requirements-Flight Crew Licensing”, or JAR- FCL. ‘The introduction of JAA licences is, naturally, accompanied by associated JAR-FCL practical skill tests (tests of flying ability) and theoretical knowledge examinations corresponding to each level of licence: Private Pilot Licence, Commercial Pilot Licence (CPL), CPL with Instrument Rating and Air Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL). The JAR-FCL skill tests and the ground examinations, though similar in content and scope to those conducted by many national authorities, are inevitably different in detail from the tests and examinations set by any individual JAA member state under its own national scheme. Consequently, students who wish to train for JAA licences need access to study material which has been specifically designed to meet the requirements of the new licensing system. As far as the JAA ATPL ground examinations are concerned, the subject matter to be tested is set out in the ATPL training syllabus contained in the JAA publication, ‘JAR-FCL | (Aeroplanes)’. Inevitably, this syllabus represents a compromise between the differing academic contents of the national ATPL training syllabi it replaces. Thus, it follows that the advent of the new examinations has created a need for completely new reference texts to cover the requirements of the new syllabus. This series of manuals, prepared by Oxford Aviation Training and published by Jeppesen, aims to cover those requirements and to help student pilots prepare for the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations. (Oxford Aviation Training (OAT) is one of the world’s leading professional pilot schools. It has been in operation for over thirty years and has trained more than 12, 000 professional pilots for over 80 airlines, world-wide. OAT was the first pilot school in the United Kingdom to be granted approval to train for the JAA ATPL. As one of the most active members of the European Association of Airline Pilot Schools, OAT has been a leading player in the pan-European project to define, in objective terms, the depth and scope of the academic content of JAA ATPL ground training as outlined in ‘JAR-FCL 1 (Aeroplanes)’. OAT led and coordinated this joint-European effort to produce the JAA ATPL Leaming Objectives which are now published by the JAA itselfas a guide to the theoretical knowledge requirements of ATPL. training, In less than two years since beginning JAA ATPL training, and despite the inevitable teething problems that national aviation authorities have experienced in introducing the new examination system, OAT has achieved an unsurpassed success rate in terms of the passes its students have gained in the JAA ATPL examinations. This achievement is the result of OAT’s whole-hearted commitment to the intreduction of the new JAA licensing system and of its willingness to invest heavily in the research and development required to make the new system work for its students. OAT has not only been at the forefront of the effort made to document JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge requirements, but it has also produced associated academic notes of the highest quality and created computer-generated and web-based ATPL lessons which ensure that its students are as well-prepared as possible to succeed in the ground examinations. OAT’s experience and expertise in the production of JAA ATPL training material make this series of manuals the best learning material available to students who aspire to hold a JAA ATPL. continued. (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedJeppesen, established in 1934, is acknowledged as the world’s leading supplier of flight information services, and provides a full range of print and electronic flight information services, including navigation data, computerised flight planning, aviation software products, aviation weather services, ‘maintenance information, and pilot training systems and supplies. Jeppesen counts among its customer base all US airlines and the majority of international airlines world-wide. It also serves the la-ge general and business aviation markets. ‘The combination of Jeppesen and OAT expertise embodied in these manuals means that students aiming to gain a JAA ATPL now have access to top-quality, up-to-date study material at an affordable cost. Manuals are not, of course, the complete answer to becoming an airline pilot. For instance, taey cannot, teach you to fly. Neither may you enter for the new JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations as a “self-improver” student. The new regulations specify that all those who wish to obtain a JAA ATPL must be enrolled with a flying training organisation (FTO) which has been granted approval by a JAA- authorised national aviation authority to deliver JAA ATPL training. The formal responsibility to prepare you for both the flying tests (now known as “skill tests”) and the ground examinatiors lies with your FTO. However, these OAT/Jeppesen manuals represent a solid foundation on which your formal training can rest. For those aspirant airline pilots who are not yet able to begin formal training with an FTO, but intend to do so in the future, this series of manuals will provide high-quality study material to help them prepare themselves thoroughly for their formal training. The manuals also make excellent reading for general aviation pilots or for aviation enthusiasts who wish to further their knowledge of aeronautical subjects to the standard required of airline pilots. All those who buy the complete set of OAT/Jeppesen manuals have the opportunity to subscribe to our regular amendment service, Atpresent, the JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge examinations cre in their infancy. The examinations will inevitably evolve over the coming years. As the system evolves, syllabus or question modifications, as well as OAT’s rapidly growing experience in preparing its students for the examinations, will inevitably lead to the need for changes or updates to the content of the books. If you choose to subscribe to the amendment service, you will receive periodie amendments which will reflect changes to the published JAA ATPL Leaning Objectives. You will also be sent amendments that Oxford judges to be necessary based on its continual review of the Learning Objectives and on the feedback it receives from the hundreds of Oxford students who pass the examinations, every year. OAT's knowledge of and involvement in JAR-FCL developments are second to none. You will benefit from OAT’s expertise both in your initial purchase of this text book series and in your subscription to the amendment service. OAT and Jeppesen have published what they believe to be the highest quality JAA ATPL theoretical knowledge manuals currently available. The content of these manuals enables you to draw on the vast experience of two world-class organisations, each of which is an acknowledged expert in its field of the provision of pilot training and the publication of pilot training material, respectively. ‘We trust that your study of these manuals will not only be enjoyable but, for those of you undergoing training as airline pilots, will also lead to success in the JAA ATPL ground examinations. Whatever your aviation ambitions, we wish you every success and, above all, happy landings. Oxford, England. March 2001 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedTexthook Series Book [THe TAR Ret. No. Swed 1 foto airLaw 2 11020 Aircratt General Knowledge 1 024 01, Alrames & Systems 021 01.01/04 | Fuselage, Wings & Stablising Surfaces o2to1a7 | Hydraulics 0210105 — | Landing Gear 0210106 | Flight Controls 021.01 08/09 | Air Systems & Air Conditioning 021.01 09/10 | Anthicing & De-icing 0210400 | Emergency Equipment 0210111 | Fuel Systems 3 020 Aircraft General Knowedge 2 | 021.02 Electrics Electronics 0210201 | Direct Curent 0210202 | Alternating Current 0210205 | Basic Radio Propagation. 4 |020 Aircraft General Knowledge 3. | 021 00 Powerplant 0210301 | Piston Engines 0210302 — | Gas Turbines 5 020 Aircraft General Knowledge 4 | 22 Instrumentation 02201 Flight instruments, 02203, Warning & Recording 022 02, ‘Automatic Flight Control 022.04 Power Plant & System Monitoring Inetruments 6 —|'030 Flight Performance & Planning + | 031 Mass & Balance 032 Performance 7 }030 Flight Performance & Planning 2 | 033, Flight Planning & Monitoring 8 | 040 Human Performance & Umiations 9] 050 Meteorology 10} 060 Navigation 1 061 General Navigation 11 [060 Navigation 2 062 Radio Navigation 12 [070 Operational Procedures 13. [080 Principles of Flight 14 [090 communications 15 _| Reference Material (© Oxfor Aviation Services LimitedLChapter I Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 NAVIGATION 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction Doppler VDE NDB and ADF VOR ILS MLS Radar Theory Ground ATC Radars Airbome Weather Radar Secondary Surveillance Radar DME ‘Area Navigation Systems EFIS Global Navigation Satellite Systems LORAN C DECCA Practice Papers 18 Orford Aviation Serves LimitedAmendment Service An amendment service is available to purchasers of the entire set of JAA ATPL Theoretical Knowledge Manuals, To subscribe, please contact: Jeppesen GmbH Frankfurter Strasse 63263 Neu-lsenburg, Germany Tel.: +49 61 02 50.82.50 Fax: +49 61 02 50 82 82 Email: [email protected] AMENDMENT RECORD Edition Number: 1 Amendment Number Date of Issue Date Book Updated12 13 CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION ... REVISION ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE Contents REVISION QUESTIONS .... (© Oxford Aviation Servicas LitesRADIO NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 12 13 INTRODUCTION ‘The radio navigation syllabus encompasses the radio navigation facilities available for the navigation of aircraft during departure, en-route and approach and the radar facilities used for the control of aireraft and for in-flight safety. The ground and airborne radars will continue to be an essential feature of aviation, kowever, it is intended in the medium term to replace all other radio navigation facilities with global navigation satellite systems (GNSS). Overall the syllabus is essentially practical, however, previous knowledge from phase 1, as detailed below, and some theory, to assist in understanding how the equipments operate, is inevitably unavoidable. REVISION ‘The radio theory studied in phase 1 (021 02 05) is essential knowledge for the unders‘anding of the reasons why particular frequencies are used for particular radio navigation facilities and the advantages and limitations they impose. Central to this is understanding of the nature of electro- ‘magnetic radiation and knowledge of the frequency bands in the radio part of the electro- magnetic spectrum. Also essential is a knowledge and understanding of the different propagation modes used and available within the radio band. A summary of this is provided in the table at the end of this chapter. ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE ‘The relevant points to note, from phase 1, are: 1, Phase angle and that phase comparison can only be carried out between two radio waves at the same frequency, and that the measurement is made from the reference wave to the variable wave. To determine the phase difference diagrammatically, start from an easily identifiable point on the reference wave, in this case 0 phase (point A) and measure the change in phase angle of the reference wave between this point and the 0 phase poiat on the variable wave (point B). The change in phase of the reference wave between the two points is 270°, so the phase difference is stated as 270° 11 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION Reference Wave nes - Variable Wave Figure 1.1. Phase Comparison 2. The factors affecting propagation especially attenuation, reflection, refraction and the causes of fading. 3. Propagation: It should be noted that space wave exists at all frequencies and that in LF and MF both skywave and groundwave exist, since the presence of all propagation modes affects the problems that arise with the systems operating in these fiequency bands. An understanding of the properties of the ionosphere and its effect on the transit of radio waves is essential for both terrestrial and space based systems. 4. The two types of modulation (AM and FM) are relevant, when discussing bandwidth it should be noted that the specified bandwidth is at a specified power level and, that outside the specified frequencies, power is still being radiated which can interfere with other transmissions. For example; a broadcast station, emitting on 107.9 MHz has a bandwidth of 150 KHz. The transmitted frequencies will be 107.825 - 107.975 MHz, within the specified power levels, however, emissions at lower power levels will be made both above and below these frequencies. This is a factor in ILS, DME and SSR. 5. The knowledge of polar diagrams for various aerial types is fundamental to the use of ADF, VOR, ILS and radars, 1-2 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedSasi avy suds ‘un 1-01 ZH9 00€-0€ sropea oder sepes t9}ddog “UNV * anv eovdg wo [-01 ZHD 0F-€ suuped 08 B00] “A WNLVS ‘WOOLYS ° “edepin st] 2avqy eondg 9 01-001 ZHI 0005 anv ay aoedg wor ZHIN 00€-0€ 1A) Kouanbaxg y8tpy A124, (eavan eoupMg) suoneoiunuruos ef $107] aarays 01-001 ZHI Of (aE) Aouanborg yt (enems) suoneajununtos Bun 80] yay | aavm aoeying ut 001-0001 ZED O00E-00€ (IN) Aouonbasg wumpayy, (eavatigy ONVUOT ‘vooga PABA BORING UY 1-01 ZH 00€-0F (aD) Aouanbary Moy s9sn AIO ON Bunong WEOF-00T THA OF (GTA) Souonbarg mor] ay SONSHIOIOBAN sasq, edorg smpBuapPAEAA sosuanbaay, pug Aouanbany WAULIAdS OLLANDVI-OULITTA AHL AO NOLLUOd O10VuRADIO NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION REVISION QUESTIONS i The maximum range at which an aircraft at FL250 can receive transmissions from a VHF R/T station at 300 fis a 200m b219:nm c 175mm ad 198m 2. The wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 5,045 MHZ is: a 59.5em b. 5.95 om ¢ 19.8 em 4 1.98 cm 3. The frequency band containing a wavelength of 75 em is: a MF b 0 OHE «VHF 4 UBF 4, The phase of a variable wave is at 240° as the phase of a reference wave is 090°. The phase difference is: a 210° b 150° c 330° 4d 030° 5. The greatest range for a surface wave will be at a frequency of: a 198 KHz. b.. 121.5 MHz ©. 2,182 KHz 4 4,300 Mz 6. Ata fixed frequency if the level of ionisation increases, then: a. The dead space will increase because of the increase in critical angle. b. The dead space will decrease because of a decrease in critical angle ¢. The dead space will inerease because of a decrease in the critical angle. d The dead space will decrease because of an increase in the critical angle. 14 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION 7. The reduction in the power available in a radio wave as the distance from a transmitterincreases, is known as: a. Dissipation >. Diffraction cc. Attenuation Refraction 8. Amadvantage of FM when compared with AM is: a. _Less susceptible to static interference b.— Smaiter bandwidth, c. Easier to demodulate (ie extract information) 4. More suitable for use at lower frequencies 9. Amaircraft is using a night time HF frequency of 5.5 MHz with ATC. The frequency the pilot would expect to use by day is: a 3MHz b. 12 MHz © 15 MHz a 18 MHz 10, Which of the following frequencies is likely to experience the most severe static intesference? a 121.5 MHz b. 300 KHz. c. 4,300 MHz d— 5,500 KHz 11. The highest levels of ionisation will be found a. Athigh latitudes in summer b. At low latitudes in summer ¢. Athigh latitudes in winter 4. At low latitudes in winter 12, Concerning skywave propagation, which of the following is correct? a, The D-layer attenuates LF and MF frequencies by night. b. The D-layer attenuates LF and MF frequencies by day. c. The D-layer attenuates HF frequencies by night. 4. The D-layer attenuates HF frequencies by day. 1-5 © Otorc Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION INTRODUCTION ANSWERS Ques Answers 1 B 2 B 3 D 4 A 3 A 6 B 7 c 8 A 9 B 10 B ul B 12 B © Oxlord Aviation Services Limited: CHAPTER TWO - DOPPLER RADAR Contents INTRODUCTION, DOPPLER PRINCIPLE, AIRBORNE DOPPLER JANUS ARRAY SYSTEM CALCULATIONS QUESTION PAPER (© Oxford Aviation Services LintedRADIO NAVIGATION DOPPLER RADAR 2 22 INTRODUCTION A Doppler Navigation System uses the Doppler principle to measure an aircraft's ground speed and drift. The Doppler radar functions by continuous measurement of Doppler shift and converting the measured values to groundspeed and drift angle. In early systems the aircraft's departure point was loaded into a navigation computer, which then converted the aircraft's heading and Doppler ground speed/drift inputs into a continuous display of aircraft position; this was then displayed as latitude and longitude, andy or as distance to go along track and position left or right of track, in nautical miles. A Doppler navigation system: a) is completely self-contained and requires no ground based navigation aids. b) —isusable worldwide, ©) is most accurate overland, 4) is less accurate during flight over the sea because the surface winds, tides and currents move the surface in random directions. ©) sometimes fails to measure a ground speed and drift during flight over a smoeth, glassy sea, The latest improved Doppler Navigation Systems combine the inherent accuracy of Doppler ground speed and drift measurement with information from Decca, Inertial. Reference Units, Loran C, Global Positioning Systems and VOR/DME, in various combinations to suitcustomer requirements, These navigational inputs also help to eradicate the errors of the original Doppler Navigation Systems, caused by inaccurate heading reference and degradation, or loss, of Doppler ground speed and drift when flying over large expanses of water. The Doppler principle is also utilized in other navigation systems, such as VOR and VDF, and some radar equipments. DOPPLER PRINCIPLE Whenever there is a relative motion between a transmitter and receiver a frequency shift (change) occurs which is proportional to their relative motion. This change in frequercy, fd, is known as the Doppler shift, Doppler effect, or Doppler frequency. 24 (© Ovford Aviatin Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION DOPPLER RADAR Inan airborne Doppler system (Figure 2.1.) the transmitter and receiver are screened from each other, but share the same aerial. An array of beams are transmitted towards the earth's surface at a depression angle of between 60°and 70° and the receiver measures the reflected frequency shift, which is caused by the aircraft's speed along track, ground speed, and speed across track, drift, Figure 2.1 To explain the Doppler principle a separate ground-based transmitter T and receiver R are considered; (Figure 2.2.) i R KLIS OI Aeros : AN Figure 2.2. 22 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION DOPPLER RADAR The stationary transmitter T broadcasts at a carrier frequency of f Hz. The stationary receiver R receives f waveforms each second at the constant speed of electro-magnetic waves, c mis ‘Thus the received frequency =c/, which is the transmitted frequency; hence no frequeney shift occurs, T R ss Vmisec Figure 2.3. Figure 2.3. depicts R moving towards stationary T at Vin/sec. The speed of the transmission remains constant; but each transmitted wavelength arrives at moving R ata shorter time interval. This is perceived as a wavelength reduction. Ase=fx2 then as 4 appears to decrease f must increase. This apparent increase in frequency is due solely to the relative motion between T and R. ‘The difference in transmitted frequency ‘f” and received frequency ‘f,’ is known as the Doppler Shift “f,” Therefore fy = fy -f v The formula for frequency shift fd can be writen as: fd = fd=— c ve Since an f © Therefore the relationship between frequencies and speeds can also be expressed as: 23 © Oxord Aviation Servens LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION DOPPLER RADAR In other words, the ratio of the frequencies equals the ratio of the speeds. ‘When R is moving away from T then the wavelengths take longer to reach T and they appear to lengthen; this results in a perceived reduction in received frequency and hence a negative fa. Figure 1.4. summarizes the various transmitter and receiver combinations. = R LRP AA DP ADADALNIDS, A OAADDAARIY AON fy -_ Vim/sec T R BRAM’ | «Fd + _f Vm/sec Z Figure 2.4 2-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION DOPPLER RADAR 23 AIRBORNE DOPPLER A typical slotted waveguide antenna consists of separate transmitting and receiving arrays designed to produce one of the common aerial beam configurations (Figure 2.$.). Thistechnique fusing opposing beams is called a JANUS array after the Roman od of doorways; he was able to face both ways simultaneously, A commonly adopted system is the four beam X array Each aerial of a particular array transmits at a depression angle, ©, of between 60° and 70°. (Figure 2.6.) This is a compromise. If @ is too close to 90° the Doppler shift approaches zero: if@ is too small the transmissions would strike the surface ata shallow angle, causing the signals to reflect away from the aircraft, resulting in weak un-measurable Doppler shift returns at the aircraft's receiver. Using the four beam Janus array, zero drift and an aircraft traveling forwards: the received frequency from the two front beams is shifted upwards and that from the two rear beams is shifted downwards, equally, in proportion to the aircraft's ground speed. Ifthe aircraft is drifting then there will be a difference in the frequencies received from the port and starboard beams; this information is electronically converted in modern fixed aerial equipments to a continuous indication of drift. In earlier mechanical systems, with pitch stabilized, rotating aerials, the difference in shifts was converted to an electrical signal which actuated a motor, The motor then rotated the aerial until it was aligned with the aircraft's track; at this instant the port and starboard shifts were equalized and the drift equaled the cifference between the aircraft's heading and the aerial’s track alignment. The higher the Doppler system frequency the more sensitive and efficient becomes at assessing the frequency shifts to be converted to ground speed and drift, and the narrower the beam widths (1° to 5°) for a given aerial dimension, An excessive increase in the transmitted frequency causes absorption and reflections from precipitation. Therefore, the compromise frequencies allocated are 8800MHz or 13300MHz, the SHE band. Janus arrays also reduce errors caused by minor variations in the transmitted frequency; pitch, roll and vertical speed changes and unlocking during flight over an uneven surface. When a Doppler system unlocks it reverts to "memory" and ceases to compute ground speed and drift. 2-5 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION DOPPLER RADAR 2d > TWOREAM THREE BEAM 4 NON JANUS JANUS. Figure 2.5 JANUS ARRAY SYSTEM Figure 2.1. illustrates a typical aerial array for a modern 4- Beam Janus system transmitting at a frequency of 13.325GHz. The depression angle to the center of each beam is 67°; the depth and width of each beam is 5.6° and 11°. The quoted accuracy for this system is 0.3% of ground speed and drift on 95% of occasions. 26 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION DOPPLER RADAR oa DEPRESSION ANGLE Figure 2.7. is the Control Display Unit (CDU) forthe above aerial system. The STBY (Standby) function is selected when the aircraft is close to structures and people. This safeguards the equipment, prevents damaging the health of people in the radiation path and allows the ‘equipment to be energized for immediate use when the aircraft is clear. ‘The SEA indicator illuminates when the aircrafts flying over the sea or large expanses of water. ‘As stated previously the reflected returns from water are less than those from land due to "spillage" of reflected energy from the front of the forward beams and the rear of the rearward beams. This results in a smaller measured fd spectrum from the four beams, evidenced by a reduction in the actual ground speed readout. Circuitry within the computer will compensate for this ground speed reduction and increase the readout for the assessed ground speed loss. aon ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION DOPPLER RADAR Pn ae ated N 51°25.2 E @@@"@3.1 ch ey Tot CLN Figure 2.7. The Racal RNS 252 Navigation Computer Unit. 2-8 12 Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION DOPPLER RADAR 2, CALCULATIONS | NOT REQUIRED FOR JAA EXAMS | ‘The following questions illustrate the Doppler principle: ll A transmitter is moving directly towards a receiver at 250m/sec. The wavelength of the transmission is Sem, Calculate the frequency shift in kHz at the receiver. 2. A receiver is moving directly towards a transmitter at 900kph. The transmission frequency is 6 Giz. Calculate the frequency shift in kHz caused by the relative motion between the transmitter and receiver, 3. Astationary transmitter is operating on a wavelength of 3em. A receiver moving directly away from the transmitter measures a Doppler shift of 6kHz. Calculate the speed of the receiver away from the transmitter in m/sec and knots. 4, An 8800MHz transmitter is moving directly away from a receiver at 291 kt. Calculate: a) the speed of relative motion in m/sec b) the frequency shift at the receiver in khz. ©) the frequency received in Mhz 5. Complete the following Doppler shift table which relates to the relative motion between a transmitter and a receiver: Transmitted | Frequency | Relative | Relative Wavelength Shift Speed speed (om) (iz) misec (it) 2 300 341 450 314 23 c 3.41 20 Answers, QL. Skil Q2. SkHz Q3. 180m/see; 350k. Q4 a). 150misec. b) 4A Ez ©) 8799.9956MItz Qs. Line 1SkHz, 583kt 6.79Khz, 231.4m/see. 7.15Khz, 161.7m/s 529m/sec, 1028kt 238. Tmvisee, 46d4kt, 29 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION DOPPLER RADAR 2.6 QUESTION PAPER L.A major soutce of error in the along track component of a Doppler along and across track position display is likely to be: a) Compass error. b) Water Bias/Spectrum Distortion. ©) Sea movement error. 4) Vertical speed error. 2. Doppler operates on the principle that... between a transmitter and receiver will cause the received frequency to... ifthe transmitter and receiver are moving... a) b) °) 4 apparent motion decrease together relative motion decrease apart the distance increase at the same speed relative motion increase apart 2-40 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ANSWER SHEET DOPPLER RADAR QUESTION ANSWER 1 B 2 B 211 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimtodRADIO NAVIGATION DOPPLER RADAR 242 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited ECHAPTER THREE - GROUND DIRECTION FINDING. Contents Page 3.1 INTRODUCTION. 62... ccc eecsecceeees : voce Ba 32 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION : : 341 33 SERVICE PROVIDED. secede 3.4 USE OF SERVICE 32, 3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF BEARINGS ve 633 3.6 RANGE OF VDF. ..... 33 3.7 FACTORS AFFECTING ACCURACY 5 ea 3.8 VHF EMERGENCY SERVICE 34 3.9 VHF LET DOWN SERVICE 34 3.10 GDF SUMMARY ...... 37 39 QUESTION PAPER (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION voF 34 32 33 “GM ape QoM (OXFORD APPROACH GOLF DELTA SIERRA REQUEST ODM | GOLF DELTA SIERRA GOLF DELTA SIERRA GDM 205 ‘CLASS BRAVO. VHF DIF TRACE TOWARDS THE DIRECTION OF THE TRANSMITTING ADCOCK ‘AIRCRAFT AERIAL, ATC CATHODE-RAY VDF DISPLAY Figure 3.1. Ground Equipment for VHF Direction Finding. INTRODUCTION ‘Most ground stations in the aeronautical mobile service are equipped to take automatic bearings of an aircraft's VHF transmissions (118 - 137 Mhz, emission code A3E). The ground installation comprises a suitable aerial and a CRT display as shown in Figure 1.1. The UHF band is used for direction finding by the military only at present. Information on stations providing VHF DF is found in Aerad and UK air pilot. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ‘The aerial is vertically polarised and has an array of vertical elements arranged in a circle. This is known as an Adcock aerial (see figure 3.1). The equipment resolves the bearing from the transmissions received at each aerial in the array. The bearing is then displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT). Hence the system is sometimes known as Cathode Ray DF (CRDF). The latest high resolution equipments use Doppler principles to determine the bearing and the bearings may be displayed as digital readouts with an accuracy of +/- 0.5 deg. (UHF or VHF). SERVICE PROVIDED a) QDM - Aircraft’s Magnetic Heading to steer in zero wind to reach the station; used ‘mainly for station homing and letdowns. b) — QDR- Aircraf’s Magnetic Bearing from the station; used for en-route navigation. 31 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION oF ©) QTE - Aircraft’s True Bearing from the station; used for en-route navigation, 4) QUI - Aircraft's True Track to the station; not generally used, When a pilot wishes to obtain bearing information he calls up on the appropriate VHF RT channel: e.g, “QDM QDM QDM OXFORD APPROACH GBDOF Request QDM GBDOF” 34 USE OF SERVICE a) QTEor QDR: i) Tocheck true or magnetic tracking from a VDF station. ii) Foren route position lines. Two stations will be required for a position fix. b) ~— QDM i) Tohome to a VDF station. ii) For let down in cloud using published procedures. ©) ATC can use VDF as means of identifying aircraft in a radar environment. 1 VDF measures the bearing of the MAG | 4 TRUE aircraft with reference to True or NORTHY NORTH Magnetic North at the station. \ | 2 The Reciprocal of QDR = QDM \ 3. The Reciprocal of QTE = QU QDR (110) 4 QDM and QTE are used most commonly. ti VDF STATION AIRCRAFT TRANSMITS L (VHF) Figure 3.2. 32 (© Ontord Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION VvoF 38 3.6 ¥® norrs MAG NORTH QDR QTE REQUIRED TRACK VDF STATION Figure 3.3. The use of QTE/QDR for Checking Track. CLASSIFICATION OF BEARINGS The operator assesses the accuracy of the bearings and passes a classification to the pilot. e.g, “Your true bearing is 060°, class bravo” ‘VDF bearings are classified as follows: Class A: accurate to within + 2° Class B: accurate to within + 5° Class C: accurate to within + 10° Class Dz accurate to > 10° VDF bearing information will only be given when conditions are satisfactory. Normally no better than class B bearing will be available. RANGE OF VDF a) As VDF utilises the VHF band (or UH as required) the range will obey the line of sight formula. Therefore the higher the transmitters the better the reception range. b) —_Intervening high ground will limit range, especially for low flying aircraft in hilly terrain, ©) The power of airbome and ground transmitters will limit ranges, 3-3 (© Oxford Aviation Serves LimitasRADIO NAVIGATION VDF 37 38 39 4) Gradients of temperature and humidity can give greater than line of sight ranges ©) Synchronous transmissions by two or more aircraft will cause momentary errors in the bearings. FACTORS AFFECTING ACCURACY a) Propagation error and site error caused by the aircraft’s transmissions being reflected from terrain as they travel to the site, or being reflected from buildings at the site. b) —Aircrafi’s attitude, The VDF system and VHF communications are vertically polarised. Therefore, best reception and results will be obtained if the aircraft is flown straight and fevel ©) Poor accuracy in the overhead of a VDF receiver, particularly with the latest Doppler systems, 4) The reception of both direct wave and ground reflected wave can cause signal fading or Joss; this phenomenon is usually short lived. Together with other multi-path signals this give rise to bearing errors. VHF EMERGENCY SERVICE In the UK 16 outstations provide auto-triangulation position-fixing service on the VHF emergency frequency ( 121.5 Mhz) and on the UHF emergency frequency (243.0 MHz} to pilots who are: a) —_indistress b) im urgent need of assistance ©) experiencing difficulties (ie lost) On VHF this service is available at 3,000 ft and above in the Midlands and SE England (2,000 fi and above in the London area). Elsewhere the auto-triangulation service is not available, however the D & D cells at LATCC and SCATCC can manually plot bearings from ou'stations to fix an aircraft's position. The UHF service is available throughout the UK for the military. VHF LET DOWN SERVICE There are two types of VDF procedure, QDM and QGH. In the QDM the pilot calls for a series of QDM and uses them to follow the published approach pattern, making his own adjustment to heading and height. 3-4 (© Orford Aviation Services LimtedRADIO NAVIGATION voF In the QGH procedure the controller obtains bearings from the aircraft’s transmissions, interprets this information and passes to the pilot headings and heights to fly designed to keep the aircraft in the published pattern, Normally at civil aerodromes only QDM procedure is available; however, in some cases, for specific operational reasons, there will be provision for 4. QGH procedure, Figure 1.4 shows an example of a VDF Let-down procedure. 3-5 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION (Jan 90) £0 2-€07E-0-7 oa VDF 003° of EXETER INSTRUMENT aDstey arr vert eS 003" Seon” emerge Gale Sn, eae =a 2a eS | Times 2 == se | esa SEE rr oe NOT AIPAC 8 Gui Avaten Aaron Figure 1.4. VDF Let-Down Procedure 3-6 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION 3.0 GDF SUMMARY Bearings Uses: Class: Principle: Range: Accuracy: oF QDM - Mag TO station QDR - Mag FROM station QTE - Tre FROM station Chet track, Position line, Homing, Let-downs A=42°, ES ore eC) lOc D103 Ground equipment - Adcock aerial, CRT Line of sight, Power of transmitters, Intervening high ground, Atmospheric conditions (ducting) Propagation error, site error, Aircraft attitude, Overhead starion, Fading due to multi-path signals Emergency service: Position fixing by auto-triangulation Let-down service: QDM procedure - pilot interpreted QGH procedure - controller interpreted 37 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION voF 3-8 (© Oxfora Aviation Services Limited| RADIO NAVIGATION VDF QUESTION PAPER 1, Amaireraft has to communicate with a VHF station at a range of 300 nm, ifthe ground station is situated 2500’ amsl which of the following is the lowest altitude at which contact is likely to be made? a) 190" b) 1378" 2) 37,600" 84,100" 2. Class 'B' VHF DF bearings are accurate to within: a +P b) +. 58 Qo +2 - d +-10° 3. AVDF QDM given without an accuracy classification may be assumed to be accurateto within: a) 2 degrees b) S degrees ©) 7.5 degrees 4) 10 degrees 4. Amaircraft at altitude 9000 feet wishes to communicate with a VHF/DF station that is situated at 400 feet amsl. What is the maximum range at which contact is likely to be made ? a) Som ’) — 400nm ) 14Inm 3 63.Snm. 5. An aircraft is passed a true bearing from a VDF station of 353°. If variation is 8°E and the bearing is classified as 'B' then the: a) QDMis 3459+ 5° b) — QDRis 345° +2” ©) QTE is 353° +. 5° 4) QUI is 353° +. 2° 3-9 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION 6 VDF An aircraft at19,000ft wishes to communicate with a VDF station at 1400ft amsl. What is the maximum range at which contact is likely ? a) b) °) da 175nm, 400.0nm, 62.5am 216nm ANSWERS QUESTION | ANSWER 1 c 2 B 3 B 4 g 3 c 6 A 3-10 © Orford Aviation Services Limited 74d 42 43 44 4s 46 47 48 49 4.10 412 413 44 4.15 4.16 417 4.18 419 4.20 421 422 CHAPTER FOUR - AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDING Contents INTRODUCTION. NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON (NDB ) PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION FREQUENCIES AND TYPES OF NDB .... AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS AND BFOs ...... PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION ... USES OF THE NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON PLOTTING ADF BEARINGS ....... TRACK MAINTENANCE USING THE RBI. INBOUND TRACKING. .... ceeeeeeeeeee MAINTAINING AN INBOUND TRACK IN A CROSSWIND OUTBOUND TRACKING ....... DRIFT ASSESSMENT AND REGAINING INBOUND TRACK. DRIFT ASSESSMENT AND OUTBOUND TRACK MAINTENANCE. HOLDING RUNWAY INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES FACTORS AFFECTING ADF ACCURACY .. FACTORS AFFECTING ADF RANGE. ACCURACY, ADF SUMMARY QUESTION PAPER Page 41 4d 44 45 45 47 47 48 4.10 4d 412 413 4-15 417 418 24-18 419 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION 4a 42 43 ADF INTRODUCTION Automatic Direction Finding ( ADF) equipment in the aircraft is used in conjunction with simple ow and medium frequency non-directional beacon (NDB) on the ground to provide an aid for navigation and for non-precision approaches to airfields. However, itis planned to be phased out in the year 2005 when other more accurate systems like GPS will be readily available to all users. NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON ( NDB ) ‘The Non Directional Beacon (NDB) is a ground based transmitter which transmits vertically polarised radio signals, in all directions (hence the name), in the Low Frequeney (LF) and Medium Frequency (ME) bands. ‘When an aireraft's Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) is tuned to an NDB's frequency and its callsign identified, the direction of the NDB will be indicated. A ‘cone of silence’ exists overhead the NDB transmitter during which the aircraft does not receive any signals. The diameter of the cone increases with aircraft height. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ‘The ADF measures the beating of a NDB relative to the fore/aft axis of the aircraft If a loop aerial is placed in the plane of the transmitted radio frequency a voltage will be generated in the vertical elements of the loop because of the phase difference of the wave in each ofthe vertical elements. As the loop is rotated the voltage induced will decrease until it becomes zero when the loop is perpendicular to the radio wave. As the loop continues to rotate z voltage will be induced in the opposite sense etc. [SIDE ELEVATION cee leis RESULTANT TO ‘THE RECEIVER PLAN (a) (o) ic) MAXIMUM LOOP. ZERO CURRENT TURNED, CURRENT REDUCED (NULL) CURRENT Figure 4.1 A Loop Aerial. 44 © Otord Aviation Services LenteRADIO NAVIGATION ADF ‘The polar diagram formed is a figure of eight as shown below (figure 4.2). It can be seen that there are two null positions and that by rotating the loop until a null is reached the drection of the beacon can be determined. This is fine ifthe approximate direction of the beacon is known, but, if that is not the case then there are two possible choices, furthermore, if equipment is to automatically determine position, then with only the single loop it would have an insoluble problem, 3) Loop ») DIPOLE uu. oe . Il - NULL Figure 4:2 Polar Diagrams of Loop and Dipole Aerials Toresolve this ambiguity a simple dipole aerial, called a sense aerial, is added, the polar diagram of the sense aerial is circular, The currents generated are combined electronically as ifthe sense aerial was in the middle of the loop aerial (figure 4.3), the relative signal strengths of the two signals are shown, Figure 4.3 42 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimtedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF It is arranged for the field from the sense aerial to be in phase with the one element (left hand shown in diagram) of the loop aerial (figure 4.4), ‘The resultant polar diagram is known as a CARDIOID. The cardioid has a single null which as can be seen is ill-defined and would not in itself provide an accurate bearing. However, the correct null in the loop aerial can be defined by introducing a logic circuit which defines the correct null as being that null, in the [oop aerial which, when the loop aerial is rotated clockwise, produces an increase in signal strength in the cardioid, ee ea Figure 4.4 ‘The resultant null with a single cardioid is not precise enough to meet the ICAO accuracy requirement of +/-5°. To improve the accuracy to meet the requirements, the polarity of the sense aerial is reversed to produce a right hand cardioid, then by rapidly switching (about 120 Hz) between the two cardioids, the null is more precisely defined and hence the accuracy improved. CORRECT NLL a Figure 4.5 4-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION 44 ADF In reality itis not feasible to have a rotating loop outside the aircraft, so the loop is fixed and has four elements, two aligned with the fore-aft axis of the aircraft with the other two perpendicular to the fore-aft axis, The electrical fields are transmitted to a similar four elements in a goniometer reproducing the electro-magnetic field detected by the aerial. The signal from the sense aerial is also fed to the goniometer where a search coil detects the unambiguous direction. The principle employed within the goniometer is as described above. By Figure 4.6 A Fixed Loop ADF FREQUENCIES AND TYPES OF NDB ‘The allocated frequencies for NDB,s are 190 - 1,750 KHz in the LF and MF bands. Since the mode of propagation used is surface wave, most NDB,s will be found between abou 250 and 450 KHz. There are two types of NDB in current use: Locator (L). ‘These are low powered NDBs used for airfield or runway approach procedures of are co-located with, and supplement, the outer and middle markers of an. ILS system. They normally have ranges of 10 to 25nm and may only be available during an aerodromes published hours of operation. vanic areas En route NDBs. These have a range of 50nm or more, and where serving o¢ may have ranges of several hundred miles. They are used for homing, holding, en route and airways navigation 4-4 (© Onford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 45 AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT ‘The aircraft equipment comprises: A loop aerial A sense aerial A control unit A receiver A display which is either a relative bearing indicator (RBI) or a radio magnetic indicator (RMD) Baines Figure 4.7. Two ADF Receivers. | 46 EMIS (ON CHARACTERISTICS AND BEAT FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR (BFO) The NDB’s have a2 or 3 letter identification and there are two types of emission: NONAIA NONA2A, ‘The NON part of the emission is the transmission of an unmodulated carrier wave, which would not be detectable on a normal receiver, so a BFO is provided on ADF equipment. The BFO, when selected produces an offset frequency within the receiver which when combined with the received frequency produces a tone of say 400 or 1,020 Hz. 45 (© Oxford Avavion Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 47 The ALA part is the emission of an interrupted unmodulated carrier wave which requires the BFO to be on for aural reception. A2A is the emission of an amplitude modulated signal which can be heard on a normal receiver Hence, when using NONAIA beacons, the BFO should be selected ON for (manual) tuning, identification and monitoring. NONA2A beacons require the BFO ON for (manual) tuning but OFF for identification and monitoring. (The BFO may be labelled TONE or TONE/VOICE on some equipments). PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION The information may be presented on a relative bearing indicator (RBI) or a radio magnetic indicator (RMI). In either case the information being presented is relative bearing. Figure 4.8 RBI Figure 4.9 RMI The RBI has a standard compass rose where 360° is aligned with the fore aft axis ofthe aircraft, although with some RBIs it is possible to manually set heading to directly read the magnetic bearing. In the diagram the aircraft is heading 300°(M), the RBI is showing a relative bearing of 136°, thus the magnetic bearing is 300°+136°-360°=076". The information from the ADF to the RMIis stil relative, but the RMI compass card is fed with magnetic heading, so the bearing shown is the magnetic bearing of the NDB. The needle always points to the beacon (QDM) and the tail of the needle gives the QDR. 46 © Oxford Aviation Serviess LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 48 49 4.10 USES OF THE NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON En-route navigational bearings. Homing to or flying from the NDB when maintaining airway centre-lines. Holding overhead at an assigned level in a race-track pattem, ‘Runway instrument approach procedures. PLOTTING ADF BEARINGS The plotting of ADF bearings is dealt with in depth if the Navigation General syllabus, At this stage it is sufficient to remind the reader that the bearing is measured at the aircraft so variation to convert to a true bearing must be applied at the aircraft. Account will also need to be taken of the convergency between the aircraft and beacon meridians. TRACK MAINTENANCE USING THE RBI An aircraft is required to maintain track(s): When flying airway centre-line between NDBs. When holding over an NDB or Locator. When carrying out a letdown procedure at an airfield based solely upon NDB(s)/Locator(s) ot NDB(s)/Locators combined with other navaids When requested by ATC to intercept and maintain a track or airway centre-line 47 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 4.11 INBOUND TRACKING Figure 4.10 shows an aircraft maintaining a track of 077° in zero wind (zero drift). The aircraft is heading 077° and has a relative bearing of 360° Figure 4.10 Homing in Zero Drift. Figure 4.11 shows an aircraft attempting to maintain an inbound track in a crosswind using the incorrect technique. By not allowing for drift and persisting in maintaining a relative bearing of 360° a curved track is flown. nee . e | AIRCRAFT So - | PATH Figure 4.11. Homing Making No Allowance for Drift 48 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 412 MAINTAINING AN INBOUND TRACK IN A CROSSWIND To maintain the required track to an NDB in crosswind conditions using the correc: method it is necessary to allow for the anticipated drift. In Figure 4.12, 20° Starboard drift is anticipated ~ 20° is Subtracted from track. The aircraft is heading 060° with a relative bearing of 020° we NDB Re, 020° Figure 4.12. In Figure 4.13, 28° Port drift is anticipated, this is added (Plus) to the track value. The aircraft is heading 108°with a relative bearing of 332°. Figure 4.13. 4-9 © Oxiord Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ‘ADF 4.13 OUTBOUND TRACKING Figure 4.14 shows an aircraft maintaining the required track outbound from an NDB in zero wind (zero drift) conditions. The aircraft is heading 260° and has a relative bearing of 180°. NDB Figure 4.14. Figure 4.15 shows an aircraft maintaining a track of 100° in crosswind conditions where the drift isknown. 23° of Starboard drift is anticipated, this is Subtracted from the track, therefore the heading is 077° with a relative bearing of 203°from the NDB. NDB Figure 4.15 In Figure 4.16 20° Port drift is anticipated, this is added (Plus) to track giving an aircraft heading of 110° with a relative bearing of 160°. Figure 4.16 4-10 (© Oxford Aviation Services LivedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 44 DRIFT ASSESSMENT AND REGAINING INBOUND TRACK 000° REL 330° REL “RN Figure 4.17 Assessing Drift Inbound. Initially, fly the aircraft on the required track with the beacon dead ahead (000°rel.). Maintain the aircraft heading and watch the relative bearing indicator, Ifthe relative bearing increases the aircraft is experiencing port drift. Alter heading, say 30° starboard, to regain track. The relative bearing will become 330° when track is regained. Assume a likely drift (say10° port) and calculate a new heading to maintain track, When this heading has been taken up, the relative bearing will become 350°. Ifthe drift has been correctly assessed this relative bearing will be maintained until overhead the NDB. Ifthe relative bearing changes however, further heading alterations and a new assessment of drift will be necessary. 4-11 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION 4.15 ADF DRIFT ASSESSMENT AND OUTBOUND TRACK MAINTENANCE : { RELATIVE RELATIVE BEARING | BEARING \ RELATIVE) 180" 4 490° BEARING \ NS 470" 0° DRIFT 10° STARBOARD DRIFT \ 40° PORT DRIFT Figure 4.18 Drift Assessment Outbound. In Figure 4.18 it can be seen that with zero drift the RBI indicates 180° relative. With 10° starboard drift, the relative bearing increases to 190°, and with 10° port drift the relative bearing decreases to 170°.To assess drift by this means the aircraft must maintain a steady heading from directly overhead the beacon, ‘When the drift has been assessed alter heading, Port or Starboard by say 30°, to regain track, until the correct relative bearing of 210° or 150° is obtained, The aircraft is now back on track. ‘The heading must now be altered to take into account the original assessment of drift. See Figure 4.19. RELATIVE BEARING] [ALTER HEADING, ELATIVE, 70° ‘SAY 30° TO |BEARING 170°| REGAIN TRACK [AIRCRAFT ON TRACK] HEADING ALTERED WHEN RELATIVE ‘TO MAINTAIN BEARING BECOMES TRACK ALLOWING 150" [FOR 10°PORT DRIFT Figure 4.19 Determining Drift and Maintaining Track away from an NDB. 412 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 4.16 HOLDING i FL 90 FL70 THE HOLDING SYSTEM When density of traffic or bad weather delay an aircraft's landing at an airport, FL 50 the air trafic controller directs it to Holding Area. The area, also known as ‘stack, is organised over a ‘radio’ beacon FL30 where each waiting aircraft fies a special circuit separated vertically from other aircraft by a minimum of 1,000ft. ‘An aircraft drops to the next level {88 soon as it is free of other traffic, unti it finally fies from the stack and comes in to land, Figure 4.20 The Holding System. 4-13 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 47 RUNWAY INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES Most aerodromes have NDB runway instrument approach procedures. The pilot flies the published procedure in order to position the aircraft in poor weather conditions for a visual landing. The NDB may also be used in conjunction with other runway approach aids for the same purpose. NDB DME RWY 20 ZS, OxFORD/xitng.on macau maracas] Figure 4.21 Example of an NDB Instrument Approach 414 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 4.18 FACTORS AFFECTING ADF ACCURACY Designated Operational Coverage (DOC). The DOC of NDBs is based upon 2 daytime protection ratio (signal/noise ratio of 3:1) between wanted and unwanted signals that permits the required level of bearing accuracy. At ranges greater than those promulgated bearing errors will increase. Adverse propagation conditions particularly at night will also increase bearing errors. of ADF: Precipitation static. Precipitation static is generated by the collision of water droplets and ice crystals with the aircraft, it causes a reduction in the signal:noise ratio which affects the accuracy of the bearings and can, in extreme circumstances comple‘ely mask the incoming signal. The indications on the RMI/RBI will be a wandering needle and - the audio will have a background hiss, which is also likely to be present on VHF frequencies, Static Interference. There are two types of static interference that can affect the performance ‘Thunderstorms. Thunderstorms have very powerful discharges of static electricity across the electromagnetic spectrum including LF and MF. These discharges cause bearing errors in the ADF. A static discharge in a cumulonimbus cloud Ct) will be heard as a loud crackle on the audio and the needle will move rapidly to point to the Cb. When there are several active cells close together, it is possible for the needle to point to them for prolonged periods. Care must be taken in the use of ADF when Cb activity is forecast. It has been said that during Cb activity the only sensible use of the ADF is to indicate where the active cells are. Night Effect, By day the D-region absorbs signals in the LF and MF bands, atnight the D-region disappears allowing skywave contamination of the surface wave beaing used, This arises for two reasons, phase interference of the skywave with the surfece wave | because of the different paths and the induetion of currents in the horizontal elements ofthe loop aerial, The effect is reduced by the aerial design having very shor: vertical elements and by screening the aerial above and below, but the contamination is not climinated. The effect first becomes significant at 70 - 100nm from the NDB. ‘The effect is manifest by fading of the audio signal and the needle ‘hunting’ and is worst around dawn and dusk, when the ionosphere is in transition. ‘To minimise the above effects: - Positively identify the NDB callsign ~ Continue to check the tuning and the identification. 445 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF ~ Avoid use of the equipment within | hour of sunrise or sunset. - Use NDBs within their promulgated range which is valid during daytime only. - Treat bearings with caution if the needle wanders and the signal fades. - Cross check NDB bearing information against other navigation aids Station Interference Due to congestion of stations in the LF and MF bands, the possibility of interference from stations on or near the same frequency exists This will cause bearing errors. By day, the use of an NDB within the DOC will normally afford protection from interference, However, at night, one can expect interference even within the DOC because of skywave contamination from stations out or range by day ‘Therefore positive identification of the NDB at night should always be carried out Mountain Effect. Mountainous areas can cause reflections and diffraction of the transmitted radio waves to produce errors in ADF systems. These errors will increase at low altitude and can be minimised by flying higher. Coastal Refraction. Radio waves speed up over water due to the reduced absorption of energy (attenuation) compared to that which occurs over land. This speeding up causes the wave front to bend (Refract) away from its normal path and pull it towards the coast. Refraction is negligible at 90° to the coast but increases as the angle of incidence increases. Foran aircraft flying over the sea the error puts the aircraft position closer to the coast than its actual position The effect can be minimised by: - Using NDBs on or near to the coast. - Flying higher. - Using signals that cross the coast at or near to 90° Quadrantal Error. The theoretical reception polar diagram of the loop aerial is distorted by the airframe which produces a strong electrical field aligned fore and aft. Incoming NDB signals are thus refracted towards the fore and alt airframe axis. The maximum refraction occurs in the quadrants (ie on relative bearings of 045°, 135°, 225° & 315°, Older ADF systems are regularly ‘swung! to assess the value of quadrantal error. In modern aircraft the error is, determined by the manufacturer and corrections are put into the equipment to reduce the effect to a minimum, 4-16 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF Angle of Bank (dip). A loop aerial is designed to use vertically polarised waves for directioa finding, If the incoming wave bas any horizontal component of polarisation it will induce currents in the top and bottom horizontal members of the loop resulting ona circulating current, This would destroy the nulls of polar diagram ( similar to night effect ) and reduce the accuracy of the bearings. The angle of bank during a turn causes emf’s to be induced in the horizontal elements of the loop thereby leading to a bearing error which is referred to as dip error. This error is only present when the aircraft is not in level flight. Lack of Failure Warning System. False indications due to a failure in the system are not readily detectable because of the absence of failure warning on most ADF instruments, Particular care should therefore be exercised in identifying and monitoring the NDB and independent cross checks made with other navigational aids where possible. It is essential that when using the ADF as the primary navigation aid, for example for a runway approach procedure, that it is continuously monitored to detect any failure, 4.19 FACTORS AFFECTING ADF RANGE ‘The major factors which effect the range of NDB/ADF equipment are listed below: NDB transmission power; the range is proportional to the square of the power output i.e. to double the NDB range, quadruple the power output of the transmitter. NDB range is greater over water: Range (nm) over water = 3x ¥ Wattage. Range (nm) over land = 2x YWattage. Note, using ranges calculated by these formulae, does not guarantee that the aircraft will be within the DOC The lower the frequency, the greater the surface wave (greater diffraction, lower attenuation). All precipitation, including falling snow, reduces the effective range and accuracy of ADF bearings. Non ALA NDBs have greater ranges than non A2A. But note that ICAO Aanex 10 recommends the use of NONA2A for long range beacons. Receiver quality, 417 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 4.20 424 ACCURACY ‘The accuracy of ADF is +/-5° within the designated operational coverage, by day only. Thi refers to the measured bearing and does not include any compass error. ADF SUMMARY NDB: Ground transmitter in LF or MF band ( 190 - 1750 kHz ) Types of NDB: Locator (L) _- airfield let-down (25 nm ) EnRoute - Nav-aid (50 nm or more ) Range (nm) - 3x V P(W) over water -2x VP(W) over land ADE: Airborne equipment - aerials, receiver, control unit, indicator ( RBI RMI) Principle of operation (Relative) Bearing by switched cardioids Frequencies 190 - 1750 KHz (LF & MF) Emission characteristics NONAIA -BFO ON for tuning, identification and monitoring ‘NONA2A - BFO ON for tuning, OFF otherwise Presentation RBI or RMI Uses of NDB: Homing, Holding, approach, En route nav-aid Error Static interference (precipitation and thunderstorms), Station interference Night effect, Mountain effect Coastal refraction, Quadrantal error Bank angle (dip) Lack of failure warning Accuracy : (Day Only) 41+ 5° within the DOC 4-18 (© Orford Aviation Servess Limited €RADIO NAVIGATION ADF 4.22 QUESTION PAPER 1. The phenomenon of coastal refraction which affects the accuracy of ADF bearings: a) iss most marked at night. ») can be minimised by using beacons situated well inland. ©) can be minimised by taking bearings where the signal crosses the coastline at right angles. 4) is most marked one hour before to one hour after sunrise and sunset. 2. © An aireraft is intending to track from NDB 'A' to NDB 'B' on a track of 050°(T), heading 060°(T). If the RBI shows the relative bearing of 'A' to be 180° and the relative bearing of 'B' to be 330° then the aircraft is: a) Portof track and nearer'A; - b) Port of track and nearer B ©) Starboard of track and nearer ‘A 4) Starboard of track and nearer 'B' 3. ADF Quadrantal Error is caused by: a) static build up on the airframe and St. Elmo’s Fire, b) _theaircraft’s majorelectrical axis, the fuselage, reflecting and re-radiating the incor NDB transmissions ©) station interference and/or night effect. @) NDB signals speeding up and bending as they cross from a land to water propagation path, 4-19 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 4. An aircraft is tracking away from an NDB on a track of 023°(T). If the drift is 8” port and variation 10? west, which of the RMIs illustrated below shows the correct indication 5. The overall accuracy of ADF bearings by day within the Promulgated Range (DOC) is: a) £8 bo St o £6 d+ 10" I 4-20 (© Oxford Aviation Servizes Limited asRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 6. In order to Tune, Identify and Monitor NON AIA NDB emissions the BFO should be used as follows: Tune Identify Monitor a) On On ofr ») On On On On-Off oor ) Off Off of 7. The magnitude of the error in position lines derived from ADF bearings that are affected by coastal refraction may be reduced by’ a) selecting beacons situated well inland. b) only using beacons within the designated operational coverage. ©) choosing NON A2A beacons. d) choosing beacons on or near the coast. 8. The BFO facility on ADF equipment should be used as follows when an NDB having NON ALA type emission is to be used a) BFO on for tuning and identification but may be turned off for monitoring. b) FO on for tuning but can be tumed off for monitoring and identification purpose. ©) BFO off during tuning, identification and monitoring because this type of emission is not modulated. 4) _BFO should be switched on for tuning, ident and monitoring. 9. The Protection Ratio of 3:1 that is provided within the Promulgated range/Designated Operational Coverage of an NDB by day cannot be guaranteed at night because of: a) Long range skywave interference from other transmitters. b) Skywave signals from the NDB to which you are tuned, ©) The increased skip distance that occurs at night. 4) The possibility of sporadic E returns occurring at night. 4-21 © Ovford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 10. An aireraft has an RMI with two needles. Assume that: i) The aircraft is outbound from NDB Y on a track of 126M) drift is 14" Port ii) A position report is required when crossing a QDR of 022 from NDB Z. Which of the diagrams below represents the RMI at the time of crossing the reporting point? yv 4-22 © Onford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ADF IL 12. 13, 14 15. 16. Each NDB as a range promulgated in the COMM section of the Air Pilot. Within this range interference from other NDBs should not cause bearing errors in excess of: a day 85” b) night = 10° day £6" d) night 5° ‘The range promulgated in the Air Pilot and flight guides for all NDBs in the UK is the range: a) Within which a protection ratio of 3:1 is guaranteed by day and night. b) Up to which bearings can be obtained on 95% of occasions. ©) Within which bearings obtained by day should be accurate to within 6°. 4) Within which protection from skywave protection is guaranteed. In order to resolve the 180° directional ambiguity ofa directional LOOP aerial its polar diagram is combined with that ofa SENSE aerial to produce ......... Whose single saul ensures the ADF needle moves the shortest distance to indicate the correct... a at the aircraft, cardiod, radial. b) at the transmitter, limacon, bearing, ©) at the aircraft, limacon, bearing. d) atthe aircraft, cardiod, bearing, ‘The protection ratio afforded to NDBs in the UK within the Promulgated range(DOC) appli a) by day only. b) —_bynight only. ) both day and night. d) at dawn and dusk The phenomena of coastal refraction affecting ADF bearings is caused by the signal when it reachés the coastline and bending the normal tothe coast: a) accelerating towards b) decelerating towards ©) accelerating away from 4) decelerating away from In an ADF system, night effect is most pronounced: a) during tong winter nights ) when the aircraft is at tow altitude. ©) when the aircraft is at high altitude, d) at dusk and dawn, 4-23 (© Orford Aviation Services LitesRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 17, 18, 19, 20. 21 When the induced signals from the loop and the sense antenna are combined in an ADF receiver, the resultant polar diagram is: a) alimacon b) —acardioid ©) figure of eight shaped @) circular When fying over the sea and using an inland NDB to fix position with a series of position lines the plotted position, in relation to the aircraft’s actual position, will be: a) further from the coast. b) loser to the coast. ©) co-ineident. ) inaccurate due to the transmitted wave front decelerating. An aircraft on a heading of 235°(M) shows an RMI reading of 090 with respect to an NDB. Any ‘quadrantal error which is affecting the accuracy of this bearing is likely to be: a) amaximum value. b) avery small value. ©) zero, since quadrantal error affects only the RBI. 4) zero, since quadrantal error affects only the VOR. The principal propagation path employed in an NDB/ADF system is: a) skywave b) surface wave ©) direct wave d) ducted wave ‘The ADF of an aircraft on a heading of 189°(T) will experience the greatest effect due to Quadrantal Error if the NDB bears: a) -234°(T) by) -279°%(T) ) 2257) a) 145°(T) 4-24 © Oxfor Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION ANSWERS QUESTION ANSWER, o1 02 03 04 05 06 07 08, 09 10 ul 12 2B 14 15 16 7 18 19 20 24 4-25 ADF © Orford Aviation Services LimiteRADIO NAVIGATION ADF 4-26 (© Oxford Aviation Services Limted «Su 52 53 34 35 56 58 59 5.10 5.12 S13 5.14 5.15 5.16 SAT 5.18 5.19 CHAPTER FIVE - VOR Contents INTRODUCTION, ‘THE PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION. TERMINOLOGY. ..... TRANSMISSION DETAILS. IDENTIFICATION. MONITORING. ...... TYPES OF VOR. THE FACTORS AFFECTING OPERATIONAL RANGE OF VOR. ......... DESIGNATED OPERATIONAL COVERAGE - (DOC) . FACTORS AFFECTING VOR BEACON ACCURACY. . ‘THE CONE OF AMBIGUITY. DOPPLER VORS (DVOR) VOR AIRBORNE EQUIPMENT. VOR / ILS DEVIATION INDICATOR. RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMD. IN-FLIGHT PROCEDURES VOR OBI EXERCISE. VOR SUMMARY QUESTION PAPER 5-10 S-ll 5-11 5-15 3-17 5-20 (© Oxford Aviation Servews LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION VoR Figure 5.1. A Combined VOR / DME. 5.1 INTRODUCTION The VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) was adopted as the standard short range navigation aid in 1960 by ICAO. It produces 360 radials/tracks at 1° spacing which are aligned in relation to magnetic north at the VOR location. It is practically free from static interference and is not affected by sky-waves, which enables it to be used day and night. When the VOR frequency is paired with a co-located Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) an instantaneous ange and bearing (Rho-Theta) fix is obtained. The equipment operates within the frequency range of 108 - 117.95MH7z. VOR has the following uses: a) Marking the beginning, the end and centre-line of airways or sections of airways. b) Asa let-down aid at airfields using published procedures ©) As aholding point for aircraft. 4) Asa source of en-route navigational position lines. 5-1 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION vor RESULTANT MACON soramna SOREVS (Bee OfREETONAL ‘Sicnars \ 30 REVS / SEC ( \ Figure 5.2. A VOR Polar Diagram. oun piReETIONAL ‘SIGNAL 52 THE PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION VOR bearing is obtained by phase comparison: a) Anaircraft's VOR receiver measures the phase difference (angular difference) between. ‘wo signals from the VOR transmitter: }) a 30Hz frequency modulated omni-directional, reference signal which Produces constant phase regardless of a receiver's bearing from the VOR, and ii) 230Hz amplitude modulated variable phase (directional) signal created by the rotating transmission pattem (Limagon). b) The 30Hz FM reference signal is synchronised with the 30 revs/sec rotating directional AM signal (limagon) such that: i) the two 30Hz modulations are in phase to an aircraft's VOR receiver when it is due magnetic north of the VOR beacon, and ii) the phase difference measured at any other point will equate to the aircraft's ‘magnetic bearing from the VOR. The two 30 Hz signals are modulated differently to prevent inter-action and merging at the aircraft’s receiver. The rotating limacon polar diagram, which provides the directional information, is created by combining the polar diagrams of the rotating loop and reference signal. In early VORS the loop rotation was mechanical; modem VORS use electronic exeuitry 5-2 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION VOR Phase Difference 000° Phase Difference 270° Phase Difference 180° Figure 5.3. Phase Differences Corresponding to the Cardinal Points. Figure 5.3. shows one revolution of a limagon with phase differences corresponding to four cardinal points. The blue sine wave is the reference signal. Hence, for example: a) A phase diff. of 227° measured at the aircraft = 227° Radial b) A phase diff. of 314° measured at the aircraft = 314° Radial Thus a VOR beacon transmits 360 radials continuously. The bearing information is supplied even during the ident period, 5-3 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION VOR 53 TERMINOLOGY A Radial (QDR) is a magnetic bearing FROM a VOR beacon. MN (030 RADIAL (030 -FROM) (QDR 030 330 RADIAL 300 RADIAL. 060 RADIAL 270 RADIAL. (090 RADIAL 240 RADIAL, 420 RADIAL 240 RADIAL 150 RADIAL 180 RADIAL (180 FROM) (QDR 180 Figure 5.4. A Radial is a Magnetic Bearing FROM the VOR (i.e. QDR) 5-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION VOR TRANSFER Figure 5.5. Tracking Between Two VORs. Figure 5.6. RMI Usage. 5-5 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION vor 54 55 TRANSMISSION DETAILS VOR beacons operate within the VHF band (30-300MHz) between 108.0 - 117.95 MHz. as follows: a) 40 channels, 108-112MHz: This is primarily an ILS band but ICAO has allowed it to be shared with VORs and Terminal VORs (TVOR): 108.0, 108.05, 108.20, 108.25, 108.40, 108.45 - 111.85 MHz. (VOR frequencies are given even decimal digits) ort range (108.1, 108.15, 108.30, 108.35 - 111.95 MHz are allocated to the ILS localiser. Note that the first decimal is an odd digit) b) 120 channels, 112-117.95: 112.0, 112.05, 112.1, 112.15 - 117.95 MHz main carrier amplitude modulated double side-band 9 = composite system. W = combination of telephony and telegraphy. The emission code is A9W: IDENTIFICATION UK VORs use 3 letter aural morse sent at approximately 7 groups/minute; at least every 10 seconds. The ident’ may also be in voice form e.g. “This is Miami Omni ete” immediately followed by the morse ident. The voice channel is used to pass airfield information via ATIS. ‘This information uses AM (amplitude modulation) and is transmitted at the same time as the bearing information. A continuous tone or a series of dots identifies a TEST VOR (VOT), MONITORING. All VOR beacons are monitored by an automatic site monitor. The monitor will warn the control point and remove either the identification and the navigational signals or switch off the beacon in the event of the following: a) Bearing information change exceeding 1°. b) A reduction of >15% in signal strength, of both or either of the 30Hz modulations, or of the RF carrier frequency. ) A failure of the monitor. a > 1 Oxford Aviation Servcas LimitedRADIO NAVIGATION vor 58 When the main transmitter is switched off the standby transmitter is brought on-line which takes time to stabilise. During this period the bearing information can be incorrect and no identification is transmitted until the changeover is completed, Hence, do not use the facility when no identification is heard. Its vital to monitor a terminal VOR let down into an airfield. TYPES OF VOR BVOR - A broadcast VOR which gives weather and airfield information between beacon identification, DVOR- A Doppler VOR - this overcomes siting errors. TVOR - Terminal VOR which has only low power; and is used at major airfields. VOT - —— Thisis found at certain airfields and broadcasts a fixed omni-directional signal for a 180° test radial. This is not for navigation use but is used to test an aircraft’s equipments accuracy before IFR flight. More than +/-4° indicates the equipment needs servicing. AFIS & ATIS Aerodrome flight and terminal information service broadcast (AFISVOR). VORTAC- Co-located VOR and TACAN (DME) beacons. Combination -DBVORTAC THE FACTORS AFFECTING OPERATIONAL RANGE OF VOR The higher the transmitter power the greater the range. Thus en-route VORs with a 200 Watt transmitter will have about a 200nm range, and a TVOR will normally transmit at 50 Watts. The transmitter and receiver height will also have an effect on the operational range of VOR as the transmissions give line of sight ranges, plus a slight increase due to atmospheric refraction. This can be assessed by using the formula: Maximum theoretical reception range (nm) = 1.25 x (UH, +7 H,), where:- H, =Receiver height in feet amsl, and Transmitter height in feet ams 5-7 © Orford Aviation Services Limited