f (x)

Limit: A function has said to be limit lat x = aif for every ε >there exists a number δ

> 0such that f (x) −l < εwhenever x − a <δ.

Explanation: For explanation consider a function 2

f (x) = x

x=2
x 1.8 1.99 1.999 1.99999 2.00001 2.0001 2.001 2.1

f (x) 3.24 3.9601 3.99601 3.99996 4.00004 4.0004 4.004 4.41

l=4

When 1.99999− 2 = 0.00001< 0.0001then 3.99996− 4 = 0.00004 <

0.0005 When 2.00001− 2 = 0.00001< 0.0001then 4.00004− 4 = 0.00004

< 0.0005

lim RHL lim

LHL
. . = =+f x
. . = = −f x
()4
→ lim →
2
We can x 2 and lim
()4
write
x 2

x x sin(1/ ) 1
ii ⎜ ⎛
tan1 ⎝ −

⎟ i
→ ⎠⎞ sin

x→xx
)
)
x 0 0 sin

Problem 1: Evaluate x
2
lim x x sin(1/ ) lim x lim x
lim
i
→→

→
) on: x 0 sin(1/ 0 sin x xx xx )
= =
→
Soluti lim sin ) 0 sin
xx xx x 0 sin(1/

=xx

1. =
sin(1/ ) 0

since sin(1/ x) ≤1∴ xsin(1/ x) ≤ x →0asx →0

x

→
2
lim 1 1 lim 1 cos lim x lim
1 cos − 2sin ( /
0 x
2)
⎜ ⎛ ⎞ ⎜ ⎛ ⎞
⎝ − ⎝ − x
ii
→
) xxxxx
=
⎟= ⎟=

→ → xx⎠ →
0 tan 0 sin 0 xx 2sin( / 2)cos ( / 2) x x
⎠
sin sin sin 0
lim
=
sin( / 2) x lim

→x

→
= 0 xx tan( / 2) 0 0
=
x
cos( / 2)

f (x)
Problem 2: A function is defined as follows

⎪
⎨⎧
2
x when x
<
1
fx
() 2.5 1
=
 when x lim
⎪ = fx()
2
⎩

x when x 21 Does

x →exists? 1
+> Solution: Given the function

⎪
⎨⎧
2
x when x
<
1
fx
() 2.5 1
=
when x
⎪ =
2
⎩

x when x lim 2 2 lim

+>
21
lim 2 2 lim

+
xand 2 1 2 3 → x

fx
− ()
+=+=
→ xfx =

→ →
Now 1 x 1 1 x x 1
= ==1
()
1
lim lim lim
fx fx fx
x → So ( )
+

()
x→ ≠
−

1
x →does not exists.
Since
() 1
1

f (x)
Continuity: A function has said to be continuous at x = aif for every ε >there exists a

number δ > 0such that f (x) − f (a) < εwhenever x − a <δ.

 f (x)
Problem 3: A function is defined as follows
12 0
⎪
1
⎪⎪ ⎨⎧
− < < x when x

fx
12 1
() 2 when x
= =

32
⎪
⎪⎪ ⎩
1
−>
1 x when x f (x)
Show that is discontinuous
2
x= at 2
Solution: Given the function
12 0
⎪
1
⎪⎪ ⎨⎧
− < < x when x

fx
12 1
() 2 when x
= =

⎪
3 ⎪⎪ ⎩
2

−>
2 lim lim 1 1 1 lim lim 3 3
x when x1 1 1 1
−
x 1
fx
1 +
x
() 0
= −=−=

xand 1 f x

→ → → →
x 2 2 2 () x 2
= −= −=
x
Now ) 2 1 2 2 2 2 2
21
f(=
lim
+
and2
lim
−

→ 21
)

1 ≠f( f (x)
Hence is discontinuous at 21 1

→ ()
≠ fx

Since () x 2
x fx x=
2 .

f (x)
Problem 4: A function is defined as follows

3 3
fx()
x when x 0 1 11 2
x when x
=
⎪ ⎪ << x when x 2 3
⎪ ⎨⎧ ⎪ ⎩ ≤<

4 f (x)
Show that is continuous at x =1andx = 2
≤>
Solution: Given the function

3 3
fx()
x when x 0 1 11 2
= x when x

⎪⎪ << x when x 2 3
⎪ ⎨ ⎪ ⎩
⎧ ≤<

4
≤>

lim
f (x) = x ∴ f (1) =1 3
When x =1 lim =
lim
= lim
 +
xand 1 → x

fx
− ()
→ xfx =

→ →
Now 1 () x 1 1 x 1 x 1
=

lim lim
fx fx

x=
Since = + x∴ f (1) 1
− → ()
→ ()1

f (x)
Hence is continuous at x =1

x fx
3
()
=∴f=
(2) 2
When x = 2 4 lim 3=

lim 3=
lim x lim x
xand 2 f x

→ → → 2 →
Now − () 24 + fx() 24
= =
2 x 2 x x

lim − lim +
fx→ () fx→ ()

x=
Since 2 x f (2) 2
=

f (x)
Hence is continuous at x = 2

f (x)
Problem 5: A function is defined as follows

⎪
⎨⎧
2
 x when x
<
1
fx
() 2.5 1
=
when x
⎪ =
2
⎩

x when x Solution: Given the function

+> f (x)
Is continuous at x =1?
21

⎪
⎨⎧
2
x when x
<
1
fx
() 2.5 1
=
when x
⎪ =
2
⎩

x when x lim 2 2 lim

+>
21
lim 2 2 lim

+
xand 2 1 2 3 → x

fx
− ()
+=+=
→ xfx =

→ →
Now 1 x 1 1 x x 1
= ==1
()
1

lim lim
andf (1) = 2.5 fx fx
()
x→ ≠
−

Since ≠ f (1) f (x) continuous at x =1. 1

1 x→
+
So is not
()
 f (x)
Derivative: A function is said to be differentiable at x = aif for every ε >there exists f
ahfa
()()
fa
+−
()
f (x)
−′<ε called derivative of at x = a.
a number δ > 0such that h
(a)
whenever x − a <δ. Where f ′ is

f (x)
Differentiation is the instant rate of change of w.r.to x
lim
d()()
( ) ( )+ −

→
dx fxfx 0
=′=
x fxhfxh

5 4 0 1 x when x

⎪
− < ≤ ⎨⎧

( )2
fx ⎪
= Problem 6: ⎩
4 3 1 2 x x when x
3 4 2 x when x + ≥
−<<
 f (x) f ′(x)
Discuss the continuity of forx =1and x = 2and the existence of for these

values.
Solution: Given the function
5401
x when x
( )2
⎪
⎨⎧ −<≤

fx 4 3 1 2 x x when x x when x
= +≥
−<<342
⎪
⎩

For x =1 −
→ x
lim
−= fx
lim
2
lim − = lim

() 541
=
+
xand 4 3 1 → xx

fx
→ →
1 x 1 x 1 ()
=
x 1

lim lim
andf (1) = 5.1− 4 =1 fx fx
− ( )
x→ =
Since = f (1)
For x = 2 f (x) continuous at x =1. 1
x→
+
So is
1
()

2 lim
lim − = + = lim
lim
−
→ xxfx

()
 4 3 10
=
+
xand 3 4 10 → x

fx
→ →
2 x 2 x 2 ()
=
x 2

andf (2) = 3.2 + 4 =10

lim lim
fx fx
x → =( )
−

Since 2
continuous at x = 2 . 2
= f (2)
x→
For x =1 + f (x)
So is
()

lim (1 ) (1) lim 5(1 ) 4 1 lim

=
′ hh f h f

Lf
−−−h ⎜ ⎛ ⎞
−− ⎝ −− 5

(1) ⎟ =

→ →
h 0 0 0
− = − = ⎠
→ hh hh 5

lim 4(1 ) 3(1 ) 1 lim ⎜ = ⎟

(1 ) (1) lim
⎜ ⎝⎛ + ⎟ ⎠⎞

fhf+− 22 +−+−

hh 45hh

=
′ h Rf

→ → →
(1) 0 hh 0 hh 0
= =
h 5
 lim
+==h

→
h 0 455

f ′(1)
Hence exists and =5

For x = 2

2
lim
−− ( 4 13) 13
(2 ) (2) lim f h f −−−−
4(2 ) 3(2 ) 10 lim
hh
′= h Lf

→ → − + =→
(2) 0 0
− = − =
h 0 hh hh
lim 3(2 ) 4 10 lim
+−
(2 ) (2) lim f h f
=
′ hh + + −

Rf 3
⎜
h
⎝⎛ ⎞

(2) ⎟ =

→ →
h 0 hh
= ⎠
→ = 0 hh 0 3

(2)
Since Lf ′(2) ≠ Rf ′(2)hence f ′ does not exists.

Problem 7: Differentiate sin xwith respect to2 x

y = sin x,2
Solution: Let

s=x
dy dy dx dy ds cos x
∴==/=
ds dx ds dx dx 2 x
 Problem 8: Differentiate x1
−
tan with respect to 2
x
1
−

Solution: Let tan , y x

=2
s=x
dy dy dx dy ds 1
∴===
ds ds /2 dx x x 2 (1 )
+
dx dx
Problem 9: A ladder AB of 25 ft. long, leans against a vertical wall. If the lower end A , which
is at a distance of 7 ft. from the bottom of the wall is being moved away on the ground from
the wall at the rate of 2 ft. per second, find how fast is the top B descending on the wall.

y
Solution: Let the distance of A and B from O, the bottom of the wall, at timetbe xand .
dx dx
dy but here given= 2
and
Then the velocities of A and B are dt dt dt

dx dy

x + y = 25Differentiating w.r.to twe get 2 + 2 = 0

Now 2 2 2 x dt y dt
dy x dx 7 7
∴ = − = − = − .2
ft. per sec.=-7 inches per sec. [ 7, 25 7 24]
dt dt 24 22
x = y = − =
y 12

∴
The end B is moving at the rate of 7 inches per second towards O i.e. B is descending at

that rate.

Successive differentiation:
nnnn
−−−
1 2 3

i y x y nx y n n x y n n n xand proceeding in a similar ) ; ; ( 1) ; ( 1)( 2)

===−=−−
1 2 3
nr−
 manner, y n(n 1)(n 2)...(n r 1)x (r n) r= − − − +

<

y n(n 1)(n 2)...(n r 1)...3.2.1 n! n= − − − + =and 0

yn+1 = . π

) sin ; cos sin( ii y = ax y1 = a ax = a + ax

)
2

ππππ
2
cos( 222

y2 = a + ax = a + + ax = a + ax
22 ) sin( 22 ) sin( 2 )

ππππ
2
3
cos( 333

y3 = a + ax = a + + ax = a + ax
2 ) sin( 2 2 ) sin( 2 )

And proceeding in a similar manner we can write

nn
n
y D ax a π

n = = + (sin ) sin( ax

)
2

nn D ax a n
π
(cos ) cos( ax
=+

Similarly )
2
2
1
1
x
iy
−−
) ii y ) iii y )
= = =

yfor ( )( ) 2 2 2x a x b

xa
Problem 10: Find n x 16
− +

11 ⎢ ⎡ =−−+⎥
1
⎣ + ⎦⎤
1 1
1 []
−−
)
11
iy
= x a x a 2 2( ) ( )

= = −
x a x a x a a x a x a a ( )( )
Solution: 2 () 2
− +− ()−

1 −−[ ]
1212
y
1 ( 1) .1.( ) ( 1) .1.( ) = − x − a − − x

+a

2 a

1 −−[ ]
2323
y
2 ( 1) .1.2.( ) ( 1) .1.2.( ) = − x − a − − x

+a

2 a

1 −−[ ]
3434
y
 3 ( 1) .1.2.3.( ) ( 1) .1.2.3.( ) = − x − a − − x

+a

2 a
Proceeding in a similar manner we can write 1 − + −

+ [ ] nnnn
( 1) ( 1)
y
n nxanxa=−−−−+

2 ( 1) . !.( ) ( 1) . !.( ) a
1 1
1 []
−−
)
ii y
11 = x i x i 2( 4 ) ( 4 )

= =−−+
x x i x i i ( 4 )( 4 )
16 8
+ −+

i)
Similar calculation as

1 −+−+[ ] nnn
( 1) 3 ( 1)
y
n nxinxi=−−−−+

8 ( 1) . !.( 4 ) ( 1) . !.( 4 ) i
222 x
a b
iii y
−−
)
( )( ) x a x b − − = + 1 −
= ( )( ) ( )( ) a b x a
abxb
−−
 1 −−[ ]
122122
y
1( 1) .1. ( ) ( 1) .1. ( ) = a x a b x b

ab− −−−−−

1 −−[ ]
223223
y
2 ( 1) .1.2. ( ) ( 1) .1.2. ( ) = a x a b x b

ab− −−−−−

1 −−[ ]
324324
y
3 ( 1) .1.2.3. ( ) ( 1) .1.2.3. ( ) = a x a b x b

ab− −−−−−

Proceeding in a similar manner we can write 1 − + − + [ ]

=n n n n
2 ( 1) 2 ( 1)
y
n n a x a n b x b ( 1) . !. ( ) ( 1) . !. ( )

ab− −−−−−

⎢ ⎡ ⎥
⎣ − ⎦⎤

2
2

( 1) . !. 1n
n n
a b
=+ +1
n ab
 1
()xa ( 1) . !. n ()xb
− − −
n
−−

Leibnitz’s Theorem: If uand vare two functions of x then the nth derivative of their
n n n
( ) ...... ..... 1 1 1 2 2 2
uv n= unv+ c u v + c u v + + c u v + + uv − − −

products, i.e., r n r r n
n n

Where the suffixes in uand vdenote the order of differentiations of uand vw.r.to x

Proof: Let y = uv

Differentiating successively w.r.to xwe get

y u v uv
=+
111 2

y u v u v u v uv u v u v uv u v c u v uv = + + + = + + = +

+2

221111221122 1112

y u v u v u v u v u v uv u v u v u v uv = + + + + + = + + +

2233
33212112123321123
3 3

=+++uvcuvcuv

uv
3 121 2123

Proceeding in a similar manner we can write

n n n

yn= uv n= unv+ c u v + c u v + + c u v + + uv − − −

( ) ...... ..... 1 1 1 2 2 2
n 2 22
n
rnrrn

=then show that (1 ) (2 1) ( ) 0

ye 1

sin
− Find also the value of ( ) n0

Problem 11: If a x y
 y e1
−
− x yn+ − n + x yn+ − n + a yn= 2 1
sin

Solution: Given that a x =…….. (1)

= −
a a
2

y ea x− sin ⇒= −
1

2
sin 2

y ea x−
1
Again Differentiating w.r.to xwe get
1
(1 )2 2
Differentiating w.r.to xwe get x 2

2
⇒ (1− x ).2y y − 2x y = 2a yy
2
222 ( )2 (1 )
1 ⇒ y (1− x ) = a y x

121 1

2
⇒ (1− ). − =……………………. (2)
x y xy a y2
21

Differentiating equation (2) n times by applying Leibnitz’s theorem we

get x y c x y c y x y c y a y2 2 ⇒ (1− ). + + (−2 ) + + (−2) −[ + + .1. ] =

n n n
n
211211
n nn nn

−
⇒ − +− +− +n n

( 1) y x y ny a y
x y nxy2 2[ ]

(1 ). 2 2 − + = n n n n n n
211
2
 2
⇒ (1− ). + − 2 + − ( − ) − + − = x y nxy n n y x y ny

a y2
2
nnnnnn
21 1

2
⇒ − x yn+ − n + x yn+ − n + a yn=…………… (3) ( showed)
22
(1 ). (2 1) ( ) 0
21

Putting x = 0in equation (3) we get

22

( ) ( )( ) n n ⇒ y = n + a y +
20 2222
0

Replacing n by n-2 we get 2 2

y n a y n a n a y etc ⇒ n= − + n− = − + − + n− = ( ) {( 2) )}( ) {( 2) )}

{( 4) )}( ) .
0 20 40

Also from (1) and (2) 2

( y ) = a,( y ) = a
1020

Thus 2 2 2 2 2
2222

( yn) ={(n − 2) + a )}{(n − 4) + a )}( yn−) ......(4 + a )(2 + a )aif n is even

0 40

2222 2222

And ( yn) {(n 2) a )}{(n 4) a )}( yn) ......(3 a )(1 a )a

0 = − + − + − + +if n is odd. 4 0

1
Problem 12: If y x
−
log tan

=then show that )(1 ). 2(2 1) 1 0 i + x y + x − y =

ii + x yn+ + nx + x − yn+ + n n + yn=

)(1 ) 2(2 2 1) 1( 1) 0
1 tan
log tan −

yxye 1
 Solution: Given that x
−

=⇒=

1
=⇒+xy=y1
−

ye+ x

tan
1 2 2
211
(1 )
Differentiating w.r.to xwe get x
2
⇒+xy+x−y=
Again Differentiating w.r.to xwe get (1 ). 2(2 1) 1 0
(1 )
2
⇒ (1+ x ).y + 2xy = y

Differentiating n times by applying Leibnitz’s theorem we get 2

⇒ + + + + + + − + + n=

n n n
(1 ). 2 1(2 ) 1 2(2) (2 1) 1 1(2) 0 x y c x y c y x y c y
n n nn

−
⇒ + n+ + n+ + n n+ nyn
nn
( 1)
2
+ − + = (1 ). 2 2 1 1

x y nxy yxy
.2 (2 1) 2 0 2

2
⇒ + x yn+ + nxyn+ + n − n yn + x − yn+ + nyn=
2
(1 ). 2 ( ). (2 1) 1 2 0 2 1

2
⇒ + x yn+ + nx + x − yn+ + n n + yn=( showed)(1 ). 2(2 2

1) 1( 1) 0

Problem 13: If y = acos(log x) + bsin(log x)then show that

2 2
 x yn+ + n + x yn+ + n + yn=
(2 1) ( 1) 0
21

Solution: Given that y = acos(log x) + bsin(log x)

Differentiating w.r.to xwe get

ax
sin(log ) cos(log )
bx xyaxbx
y=−+⇒=−+
11
sin(log ) cos(log )
x x

Again Differentiating w.r.to xwe get

ax
cos(log ) sin(log )
bx
y
⇒xy+y=−+]=−
[ 21 x x
2
⇒ x y + xy + y = 2 1 0
x

Differentiating n times by applying Leibnitz’s theorem we

get 2 ⇒ + + + + + + + n + n=

n n n
xycxycyxycyy
2 1 2 1 2 2 [ 1 11 ] 0 n
n nn

−
⇒ n+ + n+ + n n+ n n n n

( 1) y x y ny y
2
+ + + = x y nxy

2 2 11
2[]02

2
⇒ x yn+ + nxyn+ + n − n yn + x yn+ + nyn + yn=
2
2 ( ) 10 21

2
⇒ x yn+ + n + x yn+ + n + yn=( showed)
 2
(2 1) ( 1) 0
21

1 2 2
−

Problem 14: If sin( sin )

ymx
=then show that )(1 ). 0

i − x y − xy + m y =
21

2 22

ii − x yn+ − n + x yn+ + m − n yn=

)(1 ) (2 1) ( ) 0 2 1
1
−

Solution: Given that sin( sin )

ymx
=

m
2
m
−
= (1 )
1
x
ym −
cos( sin )2
1
2
⇒ − x y y − x y + m yy =
x
(1 ) (1 ).2 2 2 1 0
Differentiating w.r.to xwe get 121

2
222122 2
⇒ − x y − xy + m y =
−
2

1 ⇒ y − x = m − m x = m − y (1 ) {1 sin (1 ). 0
21

Differentiating n times by applying Leibnitz’s

( sin )} (1 )
theorem we get
2
21
22222
⇒ y1 − x − m + m y = −
(1 ) ) 0 ⇒=
ymx
−
Again Differentiating w.r.to xwe get
cos ( sin )2
2
2
1
x
 x y c x y c y x y c y m y 2 ⇒ − + + − + + − − + + n + n=

n n n 2
(1 ). ( 2 ) ( 2) [ .1. ] 0
n
211211
n nn

−
⇒ − n+ − n+ − n n+ n n n n

( 1) y x y ny m y
(1 ). 2 22 2− + + =

x y nxy []0
211 2
2
⇒ − x yn+ − nxyn+ − n − n yn − x yn+ − nyn + m yn=
2 2
(1 ). 2 ( ) 0
21 1

2
⇒ − x yn+ − n + x yn+ + m − n yn=( showed)
22
(1 ). (2 1) ( ) 0 2 1

yn( −1)!
n
=
−1
n
log

Problem 15: Ify x x

=then show that x
nn 1
−

Solution:[ log ] y D x x

n
1
=

n− n− n− n− n− n− n− n− 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 ==+−=+−

DDxxDx
[ log ] [ nxxDxnxxx
( 1) log ] [ ( 1) log ]
1223323
DnxxDnxnnxxDnnxx
n− n− n− n− n− n− n− =−=−+−−=−−

[( 1) log ] [( 1) ( 1)( 2) log ] [( 1)( 2) log ] After differentiating n-1 times we get
= D[(n −1)(n − 2).....3.2.1log x]

(n 1)(n 2).....3.2.1 ( −1)!

n
= −−x =
x

f (x)
Rolle’s theorem: If a function is

f ′(x)
continuous in [a, b], exists in (a, b) and

f (a) = f (b)then their exists at least one

value of xsay c between a and b i.e. a<c<b

such that f ′(c) = 0.

f (x)
Proof: Since is continuous in [a, b] so

f (x)
is bounded and then their exists a supremum M and an infimum m in [a, b]. Let

f (c) = Mand f (d) = mthen there are two cases : Either M=m or M≠m Case i: M=m

then f (c) = f (d) = f (a) = f (b) = k ⇒ f (x) = constan t ⇒ f ′(x) = 0 ⇒ f ′(c) = 0

,c∈(a,b)

Case ii: M≠m then at least one of them say f (c) = Mis different from f (a) = f (b)
Implies that c lies between a and b
f (x)
Since f (c) = Mis the supremum of , so
lim
f (c + h) − f (c) < 0either h is positive or negative ≤

fchfc
()()
+−
 fchfc ()()
0 <

+−

⇒
h

→
0 h
If h is positive
h 0
⇒ Rf ′(c) ≤ 0………. (1)

lim
≥
fchfc
()()
+−
fchfc ()()
0 >

+− ⇒
h

→
0 h
If h is negative
h 0
⇒ Lf ′(c) ≥ 0……… (2)

f ′(c)
Since exists so we must have f ′(c) = 0.

Similarly if we consider f (d) = mwe get the same result. Hence proved.

f (x) f ′(x)
Mean value theorem: If a function is continuous in [a, b] and exists in (a, b) then

their exists at least one value of xsay c between a and b i.e. a<c<b such that
fa
fb =′

)()
( fc
()
− ba−
.

Proof: Let us consider a function ϕ(x) = f (x) + Axsuch that ϕ(a) = ϕ(b)where A is a
 ϕ(x) ϕ′(x)
constant to be determined. Obviously is continuous in [a, b] and exists in (a, b).

We have ϕ(a) = f (a) + Aaand ϕ(b) = f (b) + Ab

Then ϕ(a) = ϕ(b)

⇒ f (a) + Aa = f (b) + Ab

⇒ A(a − b) = f (b) − f (a)

A −
− ⇒ = −( ) ( )
fbfa
ba

ϕ(x) ϕ′(x)
Since is continuous in [a, b], exists in (a, b) and ϕ(a) = ϕ(b)then their exists at

least one value of xsay c between a and b i.e. a<c<b such that ϕ′(c) = 0.

⇒ f ′(c) + A = 0

− −
⇒′ ba
fbfa
fc
()=−
()()
0

−
⇒(Proved)
fbfa
=′
()()
fc
()
ba−

Problem 16: Verify Rolle’s theorem of the function 2/ 3 f (x) =1−(x −1)in the interval [0, 2].

Solution: Given 2/ 3 f (x) =1−(x −1)

 2
2
⇒ ′= − − = −
1/ 3
fxx −

()
−
1/ 3
3 ( 1) 3( 1) x

f ′(1) = −∞where 1∈(0,2)

Hence Rolle’s theorem is not valid for the given function in [0, 2].

Problem 16: Verify Mean value theorem of the function f (x) = x(x −1)(x − 2)in the interval
[0, 1] and [2, 3].

Solution: Given f (x) = x(x −1)(x − 2) = x 3x 2x

32

−+

2
∴ f ′x = x − x +
()362

Now f (0) = 0(0 −1)(0 − 2) = 0and f (1) =1(1−1)(1− 2) = 0

f (x) f (x)
Here is continuous in [0, 1] and is differentiable in (0,1) then by Mean value

theorem there exists a point c, 0<c<1 such that

ff
(1) (0) 2
−
fccc
00
=′ ⇒ 2
⇒c−c+= 10−
3620
()
10 −
=−+362
−

±
2

6 ( 6) 4.3.2
2.3 6 12
±−− ∴c = =
=1.57, 0.43
 6 333
± =

The point 0.43 lies in (0, 1) hence Mean value theorem is valid in [0, 1] for the given
function.

Againf (3) = 3(3−1)(3− 2) = 6

f (2) = 2(2 −1)(2 − 2) = 0

f (x) f (x)
Here is continuous in [1, 3] and is differentiable in (1,3) then by Mean value

theorem there exists a point c, 0<c<1 such that

ff
(3) (2) 2
−
fccc
60
=′ ⇒ − =−+362

() −1
32

22
⇒c−c+=⇒c−c−=362

63640
2
6 ( 6) 4.3.4
±−+ 6 84 ±

∴=
6

c2.52, -0.527
2.3
= =

The point 2.52 lies in (2, 3) hence Mean value theorem is valid in [2, 3] for the given
function.

Problem 17: In the Mean value theorem f (a + h) = f (a) + hf ′(a +θh)ifa =1,h =

3 and f (x) = xfindθ .

 Solution: Given f (a + h) = f (a) + hf ′(a +θh)……………… (1)

f (x) = x ⇒ f (a + h) = a + h

+=
′= ⇒ ′ 21
1
fx
θ
() ah
θ
2 +
fah +=+
() x 21
ahah
+θ

From (1) a h

1
⇒+=+
1313
+ 2 1 3θ

3 3
⇒=+
21
+⇒=

213 1
3
+
θ 2 1 3θ 9

2
⇒ =125 +

⇒=
4 h
+ 2
θ 1 3θ 1 3
⇒θ =

= + ′ + f ′′ θh <θ <

Problem 18: If ( ),0 1 f h f hf

( ) (0) (0)
2!
1
x
f +
)
( x
 Find θwhen h = 7and .
(1 ) h
= 2

f h = f + hf ′ + ′′ θ…………………… (1)
( ) (0) (0)

Solution: Given ( )
1 1 x )
f +( x ⇒f=
fh
⇒=
(0) =
2! fh ()
+ h 1
1
= and
And (1 )
(1 ) (1 0) +

1
1
′= − f
fx
⇒ ′= −

( )2 2= −
(1 ) (0) 1

2 2
′′= ⇒ ′′=
x
+ (1 0) +
fx ()
θ h

fh
()
θ
+
33
(1 )
x (1 )
+

Then from (1) we get for h = 7

1 49 49 49
1 7( 1) 6
17+ 2 3
=+−+2 .
(1 7 ) + θ 49
1
(1 7 )
⇒=−+
h8 +
 (1 7 )
⇒=
33 8 +θ

1
3
⇒ + θ = ⇒ + θ = ⇒θ =
(1 7 ) 8 1 7 2
7
f (x)
Local Maxima: A function is said to have maximum values for x = cprovided we can

get a positive quantity δsuch that for all values of xin the interval c −δ < x < c +δ , f

(c) > f (x), x ≠ ci.e., f (c + h) − f (c) < 0for hsufficiently small.

f (x)
Local Minima: A function is said to have minimum values for x = dprovided we can

get a positive quantity δsuch that for all

values of xin the interval d −δ < x < d

+δ , f (d) < f (x), x ≠ di.e.,

f (d + h) − f (d) > 0for hsufficiently

small.

f (x)
Problem 19: Find a necessary condition for maxima or minima of a function . Why for
 maxima f ′′(x) < 0and for minima f ′′(x) > 0

Solution: According to the definition of maxima we get

f (c + h) − f (c) < 0……………………. (1) Either his positive or negative

lim
≤
fchfc
()()
+−
fchfc
0
()()
<

+− ⇒
h

→
0 h
If h is positive
h
0
fchfc
⇒ Rf ′(c) ≤ 0………. (2) ()()
+−
lim
≥
fchfc ()()
0 >

+− ⇒
h

→
0 h
If h is negative
h 0
⇒ Lf ′(c) ≥ 0……… (3)

f ′(c)
Now if exists the above two limits must be equal, so we must have f ′(c) = 0.

Similarly for minima we also written as f ′(c) = 0.

Again by mean value theorem

f (c + h) − f (c) = hf ′(c +θh),0 <θ <1

⇒ hf ′(c +θh) = f (c + h) − f (c)

′+−′
 2
()() fchfc
fchfc
θ

⇒θ

h=+−
h
′+−′
()()
fchfc
lim θ+−
( ) ( ) lim
fchfc
()()
⇒ =
2

hθθ

→ →
0 hh 0 h

lim
⇒ ′′= fchfc()()+−

f cθ
()
h2

→
h 0
Eitherhis positive or negative

⇒ f ′′(c) < 0Using (1) and since 2

θhis positive

Similarly for minimum value ⇒ f ′′(c) > 0

′=′′=′′′= = =

and f (c) ≠ 0
n

1 n
−

Rule: Let ( ) ( ) ( ) ........ ( ) 0

fcfcfcfc
n
is negative or
f (c)
Then i) If nbe even is a maximum or minimum according as f (c)
 f (c)
positive and ii) If n be odd is neither a minimum nor a maximum.

Problem 20: Investigate for what values of x ,( ) 5 18 15 10 6 5 4

f x = x − x + x − is a maximum or
minimum.

654
Solution: Given the function ( ) 5 18 15 10
fx=x−x+x−

f ′(x) = 30x −90x + 60x

543

54332

For maxima or minima 30 90 60 0 30 ( 3 2) 0 x − x + x = ⇒ x x − x +

3
⇒ x x − x − = ∴ x = 0,1,2
( 1)( 2) 0

f ′′x = x − x + x
432

Now ( ) 30(5 12 6 )

x =1 f ′′(x) f (x)
When , is negative and hence is a maximum for x =1.

x = 2 f ′′(x) f (x)
When , is positive and hence is a minimum for x = 2 .

f ′′(x) = 0 =360 >0 at x = 0

iv
u4 36 = +
When x = 0 2

fx=x−x+ and x + y = 2
( ) 120(15 18 3)
f ′′′x = x − x + x=0 at x = 0
f (x)
32 hence is a minimum for x
Now ( ) 120(5 9 3 ) =0.

Problem 21: Find the maximum and minimum values of uwhere x y

4 36
u4 36
 ⇒=+
= +x x 2

u
Solution: Given that x y −

du 16(2 1) x x
=
4 36
2
⇒=−+ +−
2
2
(2 )
dx x x (2 )
−
− 2

22
+−
xx ⇒=xx
du 16(2 1) 2
For maxima or minima xx
∴x = − −
22x x
1
=⇒+−=0210
dx (2 )

2
2 8 72
,1 du

⇒=+
Also 2 3 3 dx x x
(2 )
−

2
du ) 1
=+ > x= 2 (
, )
1 72 0
21
8 dx 33
2

When 2 (2
−

For x =1/ 2 ,uis a minimum.

4
=
2 1 32
u=+1 36 −

2
2
Therefore the minimum value of
2
du 8 72
 When x = −1,0

= + <
dx 233 ( 1)

− +

For x = −1 ,uis a maximum.

(2 1) 4
=
36

Therefore the maximum value of 8

1
u= − + 21+

Problem 22: A conical tent of given capacity has to be constructed. Find the ratio of the
height to the radius of the base for the minimum amount of canvas required for the tent.

Solution: Let r be the radius of the base h be the height v the volume and s the surface area
of the conical tent.
1

Then v r h
2

= π………………. (1) and 2 2

3
s =πr r + h………………. (2)
Here v is given as constant
2
2
()(
22222222 9 rv

24
9 v
∴s = r r + h = r r + = π +
24 r ) r
ππ π 2

2
d 18 ( )
= π − 223

4
rv

3 2 2
dr 1/ 3
sr

18 ⎟
4 ⎠⎞ πv

23
v 9 3
⎜
v
⎝⎛
6

r
−=⇒=⇒=
3 2
r 0 r 2 r
For maxima or minima 2
ππ

d =
πfor 1/ 3 πv

54
⎜ ( ) 12 42
⎝⎛
2 3⎟
⎠⎞
222
v r

Now 0 s r

dr 2 9
2 =+>r = π
1
πv 1/ 3 242 rh

9 9
⎜ 3⎟ v
⎝⎛ ⎠⎞ 2

r2 6
2
⇒r==
∴
For minimum amount of canvas

42 2
22 hr 1 1 2
rh π 2 π
r

⇒=⇒=⇒=⇒=⇒rh=
6

2
r r : 1: 2
2
22 h 2 h 2
Problem 23: The total cost function of a firm is
1
( )3 2
c x = x − x + x +where c is total cost and x is output unit. A tax at the rate of
3 5 28 10

2 Tk. per unit of output is imposed and the producer adds it to his cost. If the market

demands function is given by p = 2530 − 5xwhere p is the price per unit of output, find the
 profit maximizing output and price.

Solution: Total revenue function, 2 TR(x) = (2530 −5x)x = 2530x

−5x

1
( )3 2

After imposing tax total cost function TC x x 5x 28x 10 2x

=−+++
3

Profit P(x) = TR(x) −TC(x)

1
232
5 28 10 2 )
=x−x−x−x+x++x
2530 5 (
3
dP
2
⇒=−x−x−x++
dx 2530 10 ( 10 28 2) 2

For maximization 2530 10 ( 10 30) 0

− x − x − x + = 2500 50 2

x=⇒x=±
But product units cannot be negative.
2
dP
⇒=−x<
dx 202
for x = 50

Profit maximizing output unit is 50 units and price P = 2530−5×50 = 2280Tk.

u = f (x, y)
Partial Derivatives: Let The partial derivatives of uw. r. to xis denoted by one of

f
∂
fxyfu
u
, , ( , ), , ∂

the symbols x x x ∂
x x ( , ) ( , ) lim
∂ lim
∂(,)(,)
f or
fxxyfxy+∇− +∇+∇−+∇ =
fxxyyfxyy
=
xx 0 0
∇→ ∇→x

Analytically x
∂ ∇ ∇
x

y
The partial derivatives of uw. r. to is denoted by one of the symbols
u
∂ , , ( , ), , ∂

f y yy uy lim
∂
fxyf
y ∂ ( , ) ( , ) lim

∂(,)(,)
f or
fxyyfxy+∇− +∇−+∇+∇ =
fxxyfxxyy
=
yy 0 0
∇→ ∇→y

Analytically y
333
y
∂ ∇
∇

u = x + y + z − xyzthen show that

Problem 24: If log( 3 )

∂3
u u u
+ ∂ + ∂ =

i) z x y z ∂

x y
++
∂ ∂

2 2 2
3
∂ u2 ∂ + u ∂ + u =−
 ii) 2 2
y
∂ 2 ++
x ∂
∂ zxyz 333
()

Solution: Given that log( 3 ) u = x + y + z −

xyz
u
∂ = 3 3 x yz −
2

333
∂
( 3 ) x y z xyz + + −
x

u
∂ = 3 3 y xz −
2

333
∂
( 3 ) x y z xyz + + −
y

33
∂ =
u 2 z xy −

333 2
zxy
∂
( 3 ) x y z xyz + + −
z yxz
2
u 33
∂ ∂ + − 33 + + 33−
x yz
u ∂ u 2
+ = −

x y z
∂ ∂ ∂ 333
333
333

Now ( 3 ) ( 3 )

x y z xyz
222
++− x y z xyz + + −
( 3 ) x y z xyz + + −

3( ) x y z yz zx xy

++−−−

=
333
 (3)
x y z xyz
++−
x y z yz zx x y
222

=3 3( )

++−−− =
x y z x y z yz zx x y x y z
222
++
( )( ) + + + + − − −

u x y z xyz x x yz x yz
∂ ++−−−−=
22222 ( 3 )6 (3 3 )(3 3 )
2

Again 3 3 3 2
(3)
∂
x y z xyz
x
2 ++−

x xy x z y z
43322

−−−+

3( 2 2 3 ) =
3332
(3)
x y z xyz
++−
Similarly
u2 3( 2 2 3 )
∂∂ =
43322 y yz yx z x
2
−−−+
3332
y
( 3 ) x y z xyz + + −

u2 3( 2 2 3 )
∂∂ =
43322 z zx zy y x
2
−−−+
3332
z
(3)
x y z xyz
++−
On adding we get
 2 3332
u2 y zx
∂∂ + ∂ u2 +−− − 3( ) =
2 ∂ 2
x y z yz x 2 2 2 2 − +
u2 +
x y z
∂ ∂ ( 3 ) x y z xyz + + −

x y z yz x y zx
2222

−++−−+
3( )
=
x y z x y z yz x y zx
22222

()()++++−−+

3
= −
2
()x+y+z

Homogeneous Functions:

f (x, y) y
A function is said to be homogeneous of degree nin the variables xand if it can or in

⎟
the form ⎟ ⎠⎞

⎜ ⎛ ⎜ ⎛
⎝ xy ⎜ ⎝ yx
⎟, ynφ
be expressed in the form ⎠⎞ xnφ

f (x, y)
Euler’s theorem on homogeneous function: If be a homogeneous function of xand ∂

f f
∂

x=
y
of degree nthen nf (x, y)
.
∂ + ∂
x y y
 f (x, y)
Proof: Since is a homogeneous function of degree n ,
y y
⎜
⎝⎛ ⎞
f x y xn n ( , ) x (v),

= φ⎟=φ v=
Let x where x
⎠

−
∴ xv ∂

n ()
fn () 1
xy
⎜ ⎛
⎝ ∂∂

∂ ⎜
x ⎝⎛

⎟ ⎟
( ) ⎠⎞ ( ) ⎠⎞

=+′ =+′−
nn
φφ
1
−

nx v x v nx v x v
φφ
2

v
∂ ⎜ ⎛ ⎟
n ⎜ ⎝ ∂∂ ⎟ ⎠⎞
f φ ( ) =′
y y
∂
xv
n 1
⎟
⎠⎞

⎜
⎝⎛

′
=x
xv
φ()
 ⎢ ⎡⎟
⎣ ⎠⎞

⎥
( ) ⎦⎤

⎥ ⎢ ⎡⎟
⎦⎤ ⎣ ⎠⎞
nnn
x 1∂

f y
=+′− ⎜
∂ ⎜ ⎝⎛
f ⎝⎛
+′
−
∴ x
y
+
x nx v x v
φφφ
1 ()()
yxv
∂ ∂ 2

x y x

[ ( ) ( )] [ ( )] = φ − φ′ + φ′

nnn
−−
11
nx v yx v yx v

==
xy

⎟
⎠⎞
nn nx v nx f
φ( ) φ
⎜
⎝⎛
∂
∂
f
x=

Therefore nf (x, y) (proved).

∂ + ∂
x y y
 u = f (x, y),
Total differential coefficient: Let where x = φ(t), y = φ(t)
du u dx u dy
= ∂ + ∂

Then total differential coefficient is dt

dt x .
du ∂
dt
∂∂ ∂ y

u dx u dy
= ∂ +
Exact differential: x .
∂
y

Partial derivative of a function of two functions:

Let z = f (u,v),where u = φ(x, y),v = φ(x, y)then

∂
z
=

∂
z
∂
u
+

∂
z
∂
v
=

∂
z
∂
z
∂
u
+

∂
z
∂
v
y u y v
∂ ∂ ∂
33
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ and y ∂
x u x v x

u
−+
1
− u u
= xy ∂ ∂
tan
x = sin 2
then show u
Problem 25: If x y ∂ + ∂
that 33 x y y

u
−+
1
−
= tan xy

Solution: Given that x y

3333
xy
⇒=
xy

+ x y x {1 ( / ) } + ⎜ ⎟
⎝⎛ ⎠⎞
tan
u φ2
xyx
xy− = −
{1 ( / )}
x
=

Hence tan uis a homogeneous function of degree 2 then by Euler’s theorem we get

∂ ∂

x tan tan = 2tan u y

x
∂ + ∂
y
∂ ∂
uu
u u
xsec u sec 2tan 2 2=
sin u
∂ + ∂
u
x yu y
u u tan u cos u
∂ ∂ 2
x 2sin cos sin 2
+ ====
y
2
x y sec 1
∂ ∂ u
2 uuu
2
cos u (showed).
22

v
++
1
−
= sin xy then show that xv yv v x y + = tan

Problem 26: : If x y
22

v
++
1
−
= sin xy

Solution: Given that x y

2222

⇒=
xy x y

sin
x y x {1 ( / ) } + ⎜ ⎟
+ ⎝⎛ ⎠⎞

vφ
xyx
xy+ = +
{1 ( / )}
x
=

Hence sin vis a homogeneous function of degree 1 then by Euler’s theorem we get
∂ ∂

x sin sin =1.sin v y

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
x v y v
vv
+

xcosv cos = sin

v
∂ + ∂
x yv y

sin v
xv yv x ytan
+ = =(showed).
cos v v

Problem 27: If u = xφ( y / x) +ϕ( y / x)then show that

u u
∂ ∂

x=φ
i) x (y / x)
∂ + ∂
x y y

22

ii)2 0
x uxx + xyuxy + y uyy=

Solution: Given u = xφ( y / x) +ϕ( y / x)…………………. (1)

Let W = xφ( y / x)and F =ϕ( y / x)

Then W = xφ( y / x)is a homogeneous function of degree 1 and F =ϕ( y / x)is a

homogeneous function of degree 0. According to the Euler’s theorem we get

∂
1.

W W
∂

x==
WW (2) and
∂ + ∂
…………………….
x y y
 ∂
F
F
∂ + ∂ ∂ = 0. = 0
x x y F y ……………….. (3)

Now from (1) u =W + F

u W F
∂ ∂ ∂

∴…………….. (4) and

∂ = ∂ ∂
x x x
+

∂ ∂ = + ∂
u W F
………………… (5)
∂ ∂ ∂
y y y
y
Multiplying (4) by xand (5) by and then adding we get

∂ ∂ ⎜ ⎛ ⎜ ⎛ ⎟
u u ⎝ ∂∂ ⎜ ⎝ ∂∂ ⎟ ⎠⎞
x y y
+ ∂ = ∂ ∂ + ⎞ ⎟+ +
x x W F W ∂ F
y x y W F
∂
y
∂ ⎠ ∂ F
x ∂ W
∂ ∂

=0x=+=

u u y x y y
∴ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
WW
∂ x + + y + x ∂

x==φ
y ………….. (6)
∂ + ∂
W x (y / x) ( proved i)
x y

Differentiating (6) w. r. to xwe get

∂2
2
 x
∂∂
u u y u W
+ ∂ + ∂ =
2
x x
∂
∂ ∂∂xy
…………………. (7)
x
y
Again Differentiating (6) w. r. to we get
22

x
∂∂
u y u u W
∂ + ∂ + ∂ =
y y ………………….
∂∂yx ∂ 2 ∂
y (8)

y
Multiplying (7) by xand (8) by and then adding we get
2 22 2

x
∂∂
2

∂
u
+
x
∂
u
+
xy
∂
u
+
xy
∂
u
+
y
2

∂
u
+
y
∂
u
=
x
∂
W
+
y
W
2 2 2
yx y x
∂ ∂ ∂∂ ∂
∂∂ ∂ y
x
2
x xy
2
y ∂

x
∂∂
u xy u u u u W W
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
2
2
2

⇒2
2
x y x y
+ ∂ ∂ ∂ x y+ + ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
y
x y y + x = y + x
2 2 2
xy
∂ u ∂ u ∂ u
2
2
2
⇒ 2x + =

2
y WW
+ ∂ 2 + ∂
x ∂∂xy2 y
2

⇒
yu
u xy u
∂ ∂ ∂
2
=
2
x
+ 202

x y (Proved ii)
∂ 2 ∂∂xy + ∂

y
Problem 28: If ube a homogeneous function of xand of degree nproved that
 2
⎜ ⎛
− ⎟
⎜ ⎝ ∂∂ ∂ = ⎟ ⎠⎞
x ( 1)
x y
∂ +
unnuy
2
u
⎜ ⎛ = ⎟ ∂ 2
⎜ ⎝ ∂∂ ∂ ⎟ ⎠⎞ 2 2

x 2
∂∂ y u

y ux xy u y
+ 2 + ∂ + 2
2
where
x x
∂ ∂ 2 ∂∂xy
y

Solution: Since uis a homogeneous function of degree nthen by Euler’s theorem we get
u u
∂ ∂

x=
nu
∂ + ∂
……………….. (1)
x y y

Differentiating (6) w. r. to xwe get

2

∂2
u u
∂

x
∂∂
2
y u n
+ + ∂ ∂ =
u
x x …………………. (2)
∂ ∂∂xy
x

y
Again Differentiating (6) w. r. to we get
22

x
∂∂
u y u u n u
∂ + ∂ +∂ =
y y ………………….
∂∂yx ∂ 2 ∂
y (3)
 y
Multiplying (2) by xand (3) by and then adding we get
22
u u
∂ 2 ⎜ ⎛ ⎟
2 ∂ ∂ ⎜ ⎝ ∂ ⎟ ⎠⎞
∂
2
u xy u u u u u
xy ∂ 2 ∂ ∂ ∂
x2
2
x y y nx y
+ ∂ x + ∂∂ + ∂∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
x + yx + y = y + y
∂ xy x
2 2 2
xy u u
∂ u ∂ u ∂ u ∂ ∂

⇒ 2
=
2
x2.
2 2
y y
+ ∂ ∂∂xy + + ∂ x + ∂
n nu
x y y x ∂

2 2 2
xy
∂ u ∂ u ∂ u
⇒ 2
+=
2
x2.
x y y
+ ∂ 2 ∂∂xy + ∂ 2
nu n nu
2 2 2
xy
∂ u ∂ u ∂ u
⇒ 2
=−
2
x 2 ( 1)
x y y
+ ∂ 2 ∂∂xy + ∂ 2
nnu

⎜ ⎛
⎜ ⎝ +

⇒ ∂ ∂ =− ⎟
⎟ ⎠⎞
x ( 1)
nnu (proved)
∂ + ∂
x y y

Equation of tangent: The equation of tangent to the curve y = f (x)at point ( , ) 1 1

x yis
 dy
y−y=−
( ) 11
dx dy f f
xx = − dx x

f (x, y) = 0
When the equation of the curve is then y

Then the equation of tangent is ((x − x1) fx + ( y − y1) fy= 0

Equation of normal: The equation of normal to the curve y = f (x)at point ( , ) 1 1 x yis

1 dy
dy y y
− 1 = − − 1 ⇒ − 1 + x − x1 = ( ) ( ) ( ) 0

x x y y dx dy f
=− x

dx f
dx

f (x, y) = 0
When the equation of the curve is then y Then the

equation of normal is ((x − x1) fy − ( y − y1) fx= 0

xm y m

Problem 29: If x cosα + y sin α = ptouch the curve + =1

m m
m m
m
a
b ( cos ) ( sin )
then show that

aαbαp
−−
− + =m
m
111m

Solution: Given that x cosα + y sin α = p…………………. (1)

m m
x y
m
+ =1
m
a b …………………. (2)
 Let the equation (1) touch the curve (2) at ( , ) 1 1 x ythen we get

x1cosα + y1sinα = p…………………………. (3) and

m m
x y
1
11
+=
a b ………………………… (4)
m m

m m
x y

Let ( , ) = + −1 = 0
m m
fxy a b

mx
f1 −1 −

m m
mx
= =at ( , ) 1 1
1
xy
a
x

m m
a
my
f1 −1 −

m m
my
= =at ( , ) 1 1
1
xy
b
y

m m
b

The equation of tangent to the curve (2) at ( , ) 1 1 x yis

m
−−
1 m 1
mx my
()()0xx

1
− 1+ − =
m 1
yy a 1 b m

m
−−
1 m 1 m m
xx yy x y
1
⇒+=+=1

1 11
a b a b ……………… ……. (5) [using (4)]
m m m m
 Since equation (1) touch the curve (2) at ( , ) 1 1
x yso (1) and (5) must be identical.
m
−−
1 1 m1
x y 1 1
m m
a b
==

Hence p cos sin

αα
m1 1 m1 1
x − y −

1
m − y −
m − x m 1
1 cos a
αα
m 1 1
a − b b sin
⇒==⇒==−
1 1
,
cos sin 1
1 m 1 1
a bp b p
αα a − p m

⎜ = ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎝⎛ ⎟ ⎠⎞ ⎜ ⎝⎛ ⎟ ⎠⎞

xαα
y
a
−−
cos
sin
1
b
⇒ =m m
1 1 1 m
a pm
⎜ , ⎟ bm ⎜ ⎟
m
p ⎜ ⎝⎛ ⎟ ⎠⎞ ⎜ ⎝⎛ ⎟ ⎠⎞

xααy

1 sin
a
−−
cos b

⎜ ⎛
⎝ ⇒
m

1
⎞ ⎟= ,
m
 1
⎜ 1 ⎟=
⎝⎛ ⎞
a p b p
⎠ ⎠
Then from (4) we get
m
m

⎜ − m−
⎜ ⎝⎛

+ ⎟ ⎜
⎟ ⎠⎞ ⎜ ⎝⎛

= ⎟
cos 1 sin 1 ⎟ ⎠⎞ a α α

m m
b
1
p
p
m m
−−
− ⇒ + = ( cos ) ( sin )
m

a α b α p(Proved)
m
111
m

mm

Problem 30: If lx + ny =1touch the curve ( ) + ( ) =1 ax bythen show that

m m
(/)(/)1lanb
m
1
1
+ = − m−

Solution: Given that lx + ny =1…………………. (1)

mm

( ) + ( ) =1

ax by…………………. (2)

Let the equation (1) touch the curve (2) at ( , ) 1 1 x ythen we get

1 lx1 + ny1 =…………………………. (3) and

 mm

( 1) + ( 1) =1

ax by………………………… (4)
mm

Let ( , ) = ( ) + ( ) −1= 0
f x y ax by
m m m m −1 −

f ma x ma xat ( , ) 1 1
x 1
== xy

m m m m −1 −

f mb y mb yat ( , ) 1 1
y 1
== xy

The equation of tangent to the curve (2) at ( , ) 1 1 x yis

m m− m m−
1 1
()()0
x x ma x y y mb y
− 11+ − =
11

1
⇒ 1+ = + =
m m− m m− m m m m
1

x a x yb y a x b y……………………. (5) [using (4)]

111
1

Since equation (1) touch the curve (2) at ( , ) 1 1

x yso (1) and (5) must be identical.
a xm m m m
−−
1 1
by

Hence 1
1
==
1
l n
mmmm−−−−

1 11 1
 a x mmmm
by −−−−
1
11
1

⇒==⇒==1/,/

1 1
axlabynb
1
1
la
//
nb
1 1
l n
⎜ ⎛
⎝ ⇒=
mm

⎞ ⎜ ⎟
⎝⎛ ⎠⎞
1
ax 1
−−
,
1 ⎟=
1 1
a l by m b n
⎠ m

⎜ ⎛
⎝ ⇒=
m

⎞ ⎜ ⎟
m ⎝⎛ ⎠⎞
−−

m 1 m 1
( ) ,( )
ax
⎟=
1
by b
a ⎠ 1

Then from (4) we get

m m
l n
⎜ − m−
⎝⎛

⎞ ⎜ ⎞
m ⎝⎛
11

a b 1
⎟+⎠ ⎟=⎠ 2
=then show that
(Proved)

Problem 31: If lx + my =1is normal to the parabola y 4ax

322
 al + 2alm = m

Solution: Given that lx + my =1…………………. (1)

2
=…………………. (2)

y 4ax

Let the equation (1) touch the curve (2) at ( , ) 1 1 x ythen we get

1 lx1 + ny1 =…………………………. (3) and

2

y1 = 4ax………………………… (4)
1

Let ( , ) 4 0
f x y = y − ax =

f a x= −4at ( , ) 1 1
xy

f y y y= =at ( , ) 1 1
221 xy

The equation of normal to the curve (2) at ( , ) 1 1 x yis

(x − x1)2y1 +(y − y1)4a = 0

2y1x + 4ay −2x1y1 −4ay1 = 0

y1x + 2ay − x1y1 −2ay1 = 0……………………. (5) [using (4)]

Since equation (1) touch the curve (2) at ( , ) 1 1

x yso (1) and (5) must be identical.

y+
2 2 1111
a x y ay
==
Hence 1
l m
 y+
y 12xa
yxa(2)+

21
al 2
⇒==
al
,
⇒==
111 1
l 1 y , ml 1
m 1

−
⇒ = = y1 2

2 al , x al
11 m l

Then from (4) we get

4
22 =
al12 lal

m2 a
⎜ ⎟
⎝⎛ − ⎠⎞
2
4
=
al 1 2 lal

m
2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝⎛ − ⎠⎞

al = m − 2alm 3 2 2 ⇒ al + 2alm = m(Proved)

322

Curvature: The curvature is the rate of change of direction of the curve with respect to the
arc or the curvature is the rate at which the curve curves.
The reciprocal of the curvature at any point is called the radius of curvature at that point.
lim
ψψ
∇

ss
Κ= =
0∇→
d

Mathematically curvature ds
∇

ρ
dds

And radius of curvature ψ

Formulae for radius of curvature: i) for the Cartesian equationy = f (x). dy

We know = tanψ
dx

Differentiating w. r. to xwe get

dx
= sec = sec = sec ⎥ ⎢ ⎡
⎦ ⎣ = cosψ
⎤

dyψd

d ds 
ψ ψ
d
223

dx dx ds dx ds ds
2 ψ ψ ψ
2
ds
ψ
 3
∴ρ = = d
2
ψ
1
sec /
dxd y
222

sec ψ =1+ tan ψ ⇒ secψ = (1+ tan ψ) Since 2

3
3 2 2
⎪ ⎧⎟ ⎪
⎨ ⎠⎞ ⎬⎫ { }23
dy
⎜ ⎛ =+2
⎝ ⇒ ψ = + ψ = + 32

sec (1 tan ) 1 1 y
2
1

2 3
⎪ ⎧⎟ ⎪ ⎪ 2 ⎪
dx
⎨ ⎠⎞ ⎬⎫ ⎩ ⎭

3
dy dx y
⎪ + ∴ρ = = 2
⎩ ⎪ {} 2
1
1
2
⎜ ⎭
1 + y
⎝⎛
2
dy
2
dx

ii) for the Cartesian equationx = f ( y). 3

2 2
⎪ ⎧ ⎟ ⎪
⎨ ⎟ ⎠⎞ ⎬⎫

3
dx dy x
⎪ + ρ= = 2
⎩ ⎪ {} 2
1
1
⎜ ⎭ 2
1 + x
⎜ ⎝⎛
2
dx
2
dy

iii) for the parametric equation

3

{}
 ′+′
22
xy
ρ =2 ′ ′′ − ′ ′′
xyyx

f (x, y) = 0
iv) for the implicit equation

{}
22
ff
xy
ρ= + 2

22
fffffff
2 xx y xy x y yy x
−+

v) for the polar equation r = f (θ )

3

{}
2 2
rr
2 2
ρ= + 1 2

r 2r rr + −

1 2

Problem 32: Find the radius of curvature at any point for the following curve
y

=iii) 2
2
=ii) e sec(x / a)
− x

i) y 4ax ye

=at (0, 1)
a

2
⇒=
y
x
4
2
=a
 Solution: i) Given y 4ax
2 y y x
21
x
42
==
1 and a
a a
2 =

3 32 3
y
⎧ 2

⎩⎨ + 1 ⎭⎬⎫ 3

{}{}{}
2 22
1 a
+ 4 2
22

x+
1 2 2
4 4 ay
∴ρ = 2 = = ay+ =
2 3 2
x 1 8 a 1 4 a

3
2 a 23 a
a ax 23
3 3

{ } { } { } { } 22 ( ) 4 4 +

8()aax
+ 4()aax+
2 2 2 2
ax
= = = + =

4 a 4 a 4 a a
2 2 2

y
1
sec( / )tan( / ). 1
dy
y

⇒=
ea xaxa
ii) Given e sec(x / a)

=a a

a dy
⇒xa=
dx

sec( / ) sec(x / a)tan( x / a) dx

 dy dy
⇒ = dx ⇒=2
2 12
tan( x / a) sec ( / ) x a

dx a ⎪ ⎧⎟ ⎪
⎨ ⎠⎞ ⎬⎫
2 32
3
1 dy
⎜
+ ⎝⎛ 3

dx
⎪ ⎪
⎩ { } { }sec( / ) ⎭

2
2
1 tan ( / )
2
xa a x a sec ( / )
∴ρ = + = 2

2
1 sec ( / ) xa
dy 2 ==2
axa
sec ( / )
2
dx a xa

iii) Given 2

−
x
−
x
ye

= y xe xy

⇒ 1= − = −
22

2
⇒ 2= − 1− = −
y 2xy 2y 4x y 2y
3 3

{ } 22
1 42
xy 1 1
+ 2 (1 0) +

∴ ==
xyy
2
ρ 42− = 02− = = −
2 2

Problem 33: Find the radius of curvature at any point for the following curve i) x =
 a(cost + tsin t), y = a(sin t −t cost)ii) x = a(θ + sin θ), y = a(1− cosθ)at θ = 0

Solution: i) Given x = a(cost + tsin t), y = a(sin t −t cost)

x′= a(−sin t + t cost + sin t) = a(t cost)

x′′= a(−tsin t + cost)

y′= a(cost + tsin t − cost) = a(tsin t)

y′′= a(t cost + sin t)

3 22
xy
{} ′+′ 3
2222
[ (cos sin )] a t t t
2
ρ= ′ ′′ − ′ ′′
2
=
+ 22222

xyyx
⇒==
33
at a t t t t t t t t t t [ cos sin cos sin sin cos ] + + −

22
at
ρ at

ii) Given x = a(θ + sin θ), y = a(1− cosθ)

x′= a(1+ cosθ) = 2aat θ =

0 x′′= −asinθ = 0at θ = 0

y′= asin θ = 0at θ = 0 y′′=

acosθ = aat θ = 0

3 3
 { }a ′ + ′

22 2
xy
4 [4 0]

2
a
∴ρ = ′ ′′ − ′ ′′ = +
2
2 =
xyyx 20
22
a
−

Problem 34: Find the radius of curvature at any point for the following curvecos 2θ r = a

22

Solution: Given cos 2θ

r=a
2
2 2 sin 2
rr a
1
a sin 2
=− 2 θ
2
r cos2
⇒=− 1
θ
a
a
42

θθ
2 1
cos 2
a
⇒= θ
sin 2
r 2
24422
aaaa
−
rr− ⇒=
cos2 (4 sin 2 cos2 ) sin 2 ( 2 sin 2 )
θθθθθ
2 42
12
a 222 sin 2 (2cos 2 sin 2 )
cos 2 θ
θθθ

+
2
⇒ =a
cos 2
rr θ
12

222
2 θθθ +
a a sin 2 (2cos 2 sin 2 )
⇒= r−( cos2 θ

)
2
θ

θ θθθ
= −a a
+
2
2 222 cos2 (2cos 2 sin 2 ) 2
cos 2 sin 2

θ
cos 2
222
2 a a sin 2
2
2
θ

r + r = a + = cos2

θ
cos2 cos2
1
2 sin 2
Now θ θ
22
222
a
θ

2 +
2

2
+ − = + +a r r rr a
cos2 (2cos 2 sin 2 ) θθθ
2

θ
2 cos2 2 cos 2

1
a
2 cos2 θ cos2 . θ

And θ
22222

2 +
2 sin 2
aa
θ (2cos 2 sin 2 ) θ θ

=++

a
cos2
θ
cos2 cos2

θ θ

2222222
=a a a

cos 2 2 sin 2 (2cos 2 sin 2 ) θ θ θ θ

+++
cos2
θ
22222
3 sin 2 3 cos 2
aaa
θθ
cos2
= + =
3
θθ
cos2
3

3 2
a
{} 2

⎩⎨⎧ ⎭⎬⎫
2 3
2 cos2 θ
rr
=
2 1 2 3
3 a
ρ = + 2 = 2 a
22 r r rr
cos 2 a
+−
3
1 2 2
a
2 cos2 θ cos2 θ 2 a
θ a 2
 ===
1

3 cos2 3
r
3 cos 2 a
2 θ
a
2