SURE ‘A’ GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English FORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE IN COMMUNICATION Language is man’s capability to acquire and use his speech faculty for communication. Language has (4) major branch skills: (i) Listening (ii) Speaking (iii) Reading (iv) Writing Language involves both FUNCTION and FORM e Function is the use of language. ¢ Form is the property which makes up language. There are (2) forms of language: (i) Typological form (ii) Structural form Typological form includes; (i) Spoken language (iii) Written language (ii) Sign language (iv) Body language Structural form e This deals with the internal make-up of words. « A sentence can be classified into declarative, interrogative, exclamatory and imperative. FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE © The main purpose of language is for communication. COMMUNICATION is a means of transmitting information from person to person. Communication has (5) stages The message The sender/encoder —¢ The channel © The Receiver/Decoder e A feedback/reply ¢ Language has (3) main functions. (i) Informative function: Mainly used for communication purpose. (ii) Expressive function: Used to express to persor/persons. (iii) Directive function: Used to give commands or make request. In Igbo, the functions of language were extended from the basic. 1SURE GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English They are: © Referential function Expressive function —* Conative func Poetic function Phatic function ° Reflex Rigiog ¢ Ceremonial function Perforative function THE PURPOSE AND STAGES OF READING © The main purpose of reading is to help the reader fine tune his/her thoughts during or after reading. The (5) primary reading purposes are READING FOR: e Pleasure e Understanding © Critical analysis e Interpretation e — Application According to (PIRLS), the (2) purposes of reading are: © Reading for literacy purpose = * Reading for information/purpose Reading for literacy purpose involves the reader being actively involved in imagining the events, settings actions, consequences, characters and feelings needed. Such reading act is often accomplished by FICTION READING. Reading for informational purpose includes:- 1. The reader comprehending the main ideas of the text. 2. The reader obtaining the information 3. The reader summarizing the text and getting specific information from it. Such reading purpose is applied in these scenarios: © Understanding a legal material before signing it. © Pin-pointing specific details from a text © Getting directions from a map ¢ Preparation for an exam/text. © Reading a comic It is very necessary to create a purpose before reading, STAGES OF READING ‘The (3) phases for effective reading are: © Pre-reading/pre-viewing © Active-reading 2 @ Post-readingSURE ‘A’ GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English Pre-reading helps to: (i) Understand a text by skimming through it so as tc information of what the text is. * Bet superficial (ii) It gives you an idea of what the text talks about. Active reading helps to: e Set the reader’s mind to critically ¢ Active reading makes the analyze and interpret the reader immerse himself in information he/she is taking. CRITICAL READING. HOW TO DO CRITICAL READING © Think of what the material is going to talk about. e You must be active; so use notes, mark texts, discuss them with yourself or someone else, but be ACTIVE. « Use annotations ¢ Annotations involves writing notes in the margin of a text as you read for references sake. ¢ Always look-out for the topic, supporting details, and the main idea of any topic you come across. ¢ Post —reading, * It is a good strategy, when you are done reading to compare and contrast your responses when you were doing the active reading with other persons. ¢ You could also engage the text critically by using the words you learned or creating your own model of the text. LISTENING SKILLS Listening is an ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication process. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HEARING AND LISTENING (i) Hearing is a spontaneous and often times involuntary while listening is an action we chose to do. 3” GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English SURE ii) Hearing a mere physiological process that is done without our controls but listening is a bit complicated and it involves a response during communication. LISTENING STYLES AND TYPES There are 4 different kinds of listening styles: ¢ People-listening style (P.L.S) * Action-listening style (ALS) © Content-listening style (C.L.S) ¢ Time — style leaming This research was carried out by Youaver and Kimj (1999). ¢ PEOPLE-LISTENING STYLE (P.L.S) This helps respond to emotions and show concer for other people’s feelings. Couples, _ © family, use this type of listening. ¢ ACTION-LISTENING STYLE (A.L.S) This is a precise or straight-to-the-point kind of listening. ¢ | CONTENT-LISTENING STYLE (C.L.S): This is mainly keen on getting the facts. Putting emotions aside before passing an equal judgment. Judge, doctors use this type of listening. ¢ TIME STYLE LISTENING: This is keen on getting important facts A.S.A.P. News preservers use this type of listening. CAMPBELL (1997) identified (3) other basic listening skills. (i) Combative listener: This type doesn’t want to get other people’s views or opinions on matters. (ii) Alternative listeners: This type of listeners is very much interested in people’s views and opinions. (iii) __ Reflective listener: This type of listener is very active during communication and never passive. Individuals should be able to juggle all listening skills as the environment or situation warrants. Exploring the Nature of Reading and Reading Rates . * Reading is defined as “a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols in order to derive a meaning”. ¢ Reading is one of the four language skill 4SURE ‘A’_GES 100.1 Communication Skills in Engiist © Reading is both receptive and cognitive © The ability to read can be manipulated by certain situational factors. The 4 components of reading are: Decoding e Fluency © Vocabulary © Comprehension Decoding is being able to connect different strings to form a speech/sentence that makes sense. Fluency is reading with ease Vocabulary knowledge of more words that could change a comprehension Comprehension The use of all skills of reading to put information into a clear understanding. Reading Speed - There are different reading-speed processes; ¢ Skimming © Scanning ¢ Normal © Careful reading reading Different reading rates = An average student should be able to read 800WPM = An average adult speaks 300 WPM = A good speed reader should be able to read at 1SOOWPM. HOW TO CALCULATE YOUR READING RATE words} ime taken in seconds * 69 = wPM FACTORS THAT DETERMINE YOUR READING RATE * Nature and difficulty of the materials to be used * Purpose of reading the material = How much more experience have you had with this subject. Reading Rates and its Applications Skimming (1000 - 2000wpm)is used for answering a specific question Rapid reading rate (500-600 wpm)is for reviewing familiar material. Slow rate (100-250wpm)is for reading a highly detailed material.—_— SURE‘A’ GES 100.1 Communication Skills in En ish Public Speaking And Academic Paper Presentations * Public speaking is the process of making speeches in PUblie ¢ Anorator is a person that practices persuasive Public Speakin, ¢ An oration involves a/an; © Speaker ¢ Audience ¢ Background of time = A Rhetoric is the art of using words effectively, HOW TO DO PUBLIC SPEAKING " The speaker tries to correc/change human behavior or strengthen certain convictions and attitudes. « The speaker establishes a psychological connection with the audience, " The speaker uses argument and rhetorical devices to Support his intentions. HOW TO PREPARE FOR PUBLIC SPEAKING = Know your audience: this makes preparations easier. = Research: better preparation=better speech = Be cognizant and perform in-depth research. = Good timing: It’s a bad speaking habit touse more than your time. = When practicing, speak slowly and louder than you normally would. HOW TO DELIVER A PERFECT SPEECH = Put on a persona that reflects the ‘real you’ when you are speaking. "Always concentrate on giving your speech, clearly and succinctly. * Cover the eventuality that you may not be sure of. Such as having a note, instead of trying to cram everything up. " Before your speech, read your notes to freshen your mind. * Place STEPS TO A SUCCESSFUL PAPER PRESENTATION 1* inquire, observe and imitate best practices and models. 2™ State the structure and main points in your argument. 3" Re-phrase the parts of your speech that is. complicated. 6SURE‘A’ GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English 4" Use visual props &marked keyword slides to offer illustrations, 5" Rehearse your presentation. 6™ Speak slowly and loudly. 7 Keep to time 8" End your speech with a query or question for curiosity. The different concepts of public speaking are: © Orator « Rhetori © Persuasio © Elocutio y c n n Intonation: Meaning, Types and Functions in Communications, Intonation is the change in pitch pattern of sounds which gives different meanings when heard. There are (2) types of basic intonation tunes, which are: ¢ Falling tune «Rising tune This can be further modified into 4 for academic purpose; ¢ Falling tune * 1*rising tune ¢ 2" rising tune . . The falling-rising tune Falling tunes is used in STATEMENTS and PROPOSITION. Rising tune is used to express heightened emotions during speech. FUNCTIONS OF INTONATION It helps to express meanings and certain attitudes. " Intonations helps express " Feelings = Grammatical = Textual functions function "Structure of an * Indexical functions = Reasoning order ambiguity IN CONCLUSION Intonations must be applied in our English speech. It’s important to stress vital keywords and its meanings.SURE‘A’ GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English - Careful observation &necessary pauses im; speech melody. SPEAKING/ORAL SKILLS - This chapter helps to understand the mechanism production. - The study of speech falls under two subjects; e Phonetics © Phonology -. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds Phonology describes the pattems of sound that occurs in a language. - Each language is said to help its own peculiar sound. -. To learn any language, you must first learn its phonology and how to pronounce them accurately, - Speech organs are contained in the mouth, throat and nose. Organs that move during speech are ACTIVE ARTICULATORS. - Active articulator includes — Tongue, uvula, and lips. - While the stationary ~—_ are called PASSIVE ARTICULATORS OR POINTS OF ARTICULATION. - These are the teeth, hard and soft palate, alveolar ridge. English sounds are grouped according to their PLACES AND MANNERS OF ARTICULATION. - There are 44 sounds in English, also called PHONOMES. - Speech sounds are classified into VOWELS OR CONSONANTS - There are 20 Vowel and 24 Consonant Speech sounds - Vowels are classified into Pure Vowels (12) and Impure Vowels/Diphthongs (8). proves the flow of for speechES:’SCC Ol SURE GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English Vowels are produced when there is no ob: 7 fs & the speech organs. struction of air in - Consonants are produced when there is a seal complete obstruction of air. P on There are (3) criteria for classifyin; : ‘ 'g Consonants which are: « Place of articulation 7 Q * Manner of articulation State of glottis - Place of articulation are points at which the obstruction of the air passage occurs. ; Manner of articulation are manners in which the air passage is obstructed. Consonants can either be voiced or voiceless and this depends on the vibration of the glottis. -PHONEME is the smallest function unit of the Phonological system. L, Language The language a person acquires from the immediate socio-cultural environment. This is the mother tongue. L, Language ; A language a person could have acquired from its immediate/foreign socio-cultural environment. a In summary, English sound system can help an_ individual cultivate a habit of effective speaking. The Library: Definition, Types, Sectors, SS meer A library is a place designed to keep collections of books for pi use. ; _ The Greeks established the first library. ouvol i collection are main’ ; - The _ ne ; a ae * ead! h - Listening - ResearcSURE‘A’ GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English FUNCTIONS OF THE LIBRARY - Itsaves as a repository for book without a copyright bi ding them. - Itpreserves aging books by reformatting them. TYPES OF LIBRARIES © Academic libraries ¢ Book-mobile library ¢ Medical libraries Public libraries e Special libraries USES OF EACH LIBRARY Academic is aimed at providing resources for schools and University Book — Mobile library is aimed at providing resources to remote areas. Medical libraries provide resources for health care research purpose. Public libraries is aimed at the public Special libraries are created to aid certain organizations with information. PARTS OF A BOOK e The top-side of a book is called THE COVER e The cover consists of; Front cover/Spine © Central ridge © Back cover e The front cover bears a title & holds statements - A short description on the back of a book is a ‘Publisher’s blurb’. - The loose covering on the cover-page called a dust- jacket/file. - The dust-jacket/dust-file is used to beautify the book. 10SURE ‘A’_GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English Preliminary Pages are the easily noticed parts of a book due to labeling. - The preliminary pages has different sections The half-title Dedication Copyright page Content page page False Title page Imprint title/Bastard page MAIN BOOK is the second part of a book. All information of the book is stored in this part of the book SUBSIDIARY PAGES Itis the last section of the book. ¢ They are labeled using roman figures. ¢ The GLOSSARY helps to outline certain words used in the book. * Index provides a simple guide about the MAIN BOOK. e An organization, group of persons is reserved to as an ENTITY HOW LIBRARY RESOURCES ARE ORGANIZED * The library classify things using * The call numbers © The labor congress classification ¢ THE LIBRARY CATALOGUE’S main feature is its ‘neatly arranged alphabetic’ way of keeping materials. ~ Catalogue cards use call numbers& ISNB/ISSN to store materials. > Call number/mark is a set of numbers on the spine above/front cover, 11in Engli n Ski Se Communicatig GES 100.1 Book Number 7X IS mains pee serial Number w® Catal (iy (ii BSN: International standard © modem library/new age © Sntine public access catal f digital library includes; logue — commonest type of Bue Digital library/B-library TOWsing/su et MATERIAS AND THEIR MEANING = Journals and periodic are publications which deal with a Particular Subject. ference materials deal with a particular subject. But, they have referees to support the information. Dictionaries are used to explain words and give their functions. Encyclopedia gives information ftom all branches of knowledge Index gives an alphabetic listing of topics in a book Year books contain information about Past yearly events. Handbook is a short book with useful information e.g. manuals. Almanacs are publications that give information about activities to occur in the successive year, Bibliography is a list of books and articles consulted in preparing a piece of writing. _ Maps and Atlases give 8eographical information of places. Abstract is a short summary of important issues in an rticle. ; Bios hical dictionaries provide information about people. 12CC O'S:”~ SURE ‘A’ GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English LISTENING SKILLS Listening is the ability to accurately receive and messages in the communication process. -Non-verbal cues are also a part of listening. - Non-verbal cues are frowning, smiling and other body interpret movements. - Out of all language skill, we spend; 45% of our time listening 30% of our time speaking 16% of our time reading 9% of our time writing DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LISTENING AND HEARING Hearing is a spontaneous act or involuntary action. - Itsa simple physiological process involving the ear. Listening is voluntary or something we actively do. - When listening, we understand &respond to feelings. LISTENING STYLES AND TYPES People-listening style Action-listening style Content-listening style Time-style listening - People listening style involves showing concern for feelings. This is practiced with close relative, friends and couples. - Action listening style involves the yearning of a precise, error ~ free speech. It is practiced in formal organizations. - Concept listening style involves logical thinking, proper evaluation of information and not mixing emotions while listening. This is carried out by doctors or lawyers. ~ Time-style listening involves a brief interaction between People. It’s focused on saving & practiced by News presenters. 13Communication Skills in English 01 SURE GES 100.1 ation; moting person ; terested in people’s Campbell also had his own classific ~ A combative listener is a self-Pro! t Attentive listeners are calm people i1! View i to critical ~ Reflective listeners bring about real learning due thinking, ING PROCESS OF LISTEN ; é Prediction Assessment Identification of : irrelevant information Seceiving Remembering Assigning meaning to “Saal stimuli stimuli HINDRANCE TO EFFECTIVE LISTENING — Psychological Inattentive Cognitive Passiveness defects listeners dissonance Physiological Anxiety Controlling Kiefeets listener Using the dictionary and other reference materials - A dictionary is a reference book about words; it simply describes their functions and helps with proper pronunciation of words. - A dictionary arranges different words —_ using ALPHABETICAL LISTING. TYPES OF DICTIONARIES General Dictionary Subject-specific dictionary ° Types of GENERAL DICTIONARIES include: 14SURE ‘4’ me 6ES 100.1 Communication Skills in English Cambri re mbridge Dictionary Advanced-learners Dictionary oO: 1 ond Dictionary Longman Dictionary ty Pes of SUBJECT-SPECIFIC DICTIONARIES include; Dictionaries of Idioms Medical Dictionary English 7 pronunciation dictionary A subject-specific dictionary is always related to the subject it handles. - Dictionary can also be classified on how many languages it contains. - Multilingual dictionary: More than 2 languages - Bilingual dictionary: Only 2 languages USE OF DICTIONARIES To check spellings To learn new words To look-up synonyms To double — check meanings of a word COMMON DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A DICTIONARY, ENCYCLOPEDIA & THESAURUS _ A Dictionary offer meanings to different words, as well as their . pronunciations. Dictionaries are arranged Alphabetically. __ A thesaurus is a references book used to look up words with similar meanings. . An encyclopedia is a publication that contains general information about different topics and subjects. 15RAE 4: ish SES 100.1 Communication Skills in E An . . depy, "*¥lopedia explores different topics be Cea : . - learn; along with maps and illustrations to ¢' sual ories or cross- ref, ng. Encyclopedias are arranged by categ “fences, = i. General poe dictionary, encyclopedia has 2 types , *yclopedia Subject-specific encyclopedia ~ Get stra lie OF ENCYCLOPAEDIA ia tiles t facts about important historical events. : ani d articles to the reader for enhanced experience. S Of authors will be displayed Inde TERENCE TOOLS are arranged lists of SOURCES OF INFORMATION writer’s manual is a guide for the citation of the writer’s Sources of information. NEGATIVE ACTS ~ Plagiarism: use of someone’s work as your own without giving a reference to the original owner. - Turning someone’s work to your without giving credit is OTHER PIAGIARISM. - Not adding a quotation mark to a quotation is PLAGIARISM. wats . Copying so much work even if credit is given is GIARISM. aa ADVANTAGES OF CITATION you did your research using legal means. It shows redit to the original owner. it shows you 28¥8 © 16SURE ‘a’ | ma GES 1001 Communication Skills in English Reais DIFFERENT TYPES OF READING a & can be defined as a skill used to visual Omprehend the meaning of a written word or symbol. Reading is an essential skill, and no field of study can do lize and without it, TYPES OF READING Skimming Scanning Intensive reading Extensive reading SKIMMING is used to read texts quickly to grasp the main facts. People skim to get facts quickly & increase the amount of useable material needed for research. How to Skim - Try reading through the table of contents - Select relevant sections from the headings - Read the first and last paragraphs - Look out for diagrams - Use of the Silburn’s skim — reading technique = The start — finish technique = First sentence technique _ The start — finish technique presents the main idea of the topic and gives detained analysis of it while the conclusion reviews the material properly. _ First — sentences technique is effective for note — making SCANNING is used to find specific details of a topic. = The average rate of Scanning is 1500 word per minute HOW TO SCAN = Look through the table of contents in a book 17SURE ‘A’ GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English * Read through the chapter headings Search the index for relevant topics ; ; Once a relevant reference is found, apply skim reading, Look-out for underlines, bolding, italics, sub-heading or breaks, INTENSIVE READING is done to understand deeper details. * Ithas to be done in a moderate speed, neither fast nor slow. Tt uses the readers Judgment to critically analyze information tensive Teading gives the reader the ability to make ‘ons and inferences, emotional perspectives and evaluate Ven text, Intensive readin, minute. EXTENSIVE READING uses the reader’s ability to skim, scan and Survey to Properly get an overview of the material. It is done to 8et a good comprehension of the man ideas of a material. - Extensive reading has 3 views A view that considers extensive reading to be a speedy reading Il. That extensive reading and intensive reading are not exclusive. III. That the skills could be used interchangeably by the reader, to get through a material both quietly and accurately, QUALITIES OF EFFECTIVE ACADEMIC WRITING A good writer must avoid high-level pompous language that doesn’t convey the message to the reader. - A good writer must avoid vague and obscure writings A writer's style is what makes his writing unique facts of a gi ig is very short and includes 500 words per Academic writing must be; Formal Concise 18SURE ‘A’ GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English Objective Precise - Use of language helps convey ideas verbally and in written form - Sentence is the basic unit of written communication WRITING A TERM PAPER A term paper is an academic essay of medium length assigned at the beginning of the term and is due for submission by the end of the term. - A term paper is required to be; Fairly Written with Should be detailed persuasiveness logical - Writing a term paper involves 3 stages: Pre-writing stage Writing stage Post writing - Parts of a term paper include: Title page Dedication Table of contents Acknowledgement Chapter Preferences Reading Faults, Reading Comprehension Skills and Strategies Reading faults are habits or factors that affect effective reading. They are: = Touching the words while reading « Reading word-for-word = Inattentiveness = Vocalization and sub-vocalization = Regression - Reading is effective when the information presented is comprehended. - Reading comprehension questions test a reader’s ability to: 19in English _ munication Skills i GES 100.1 " Understand words and statements in passage ; 4 * Understand logical relationships between points an concepts in passages . "= Drawing inferences from facts and statements in passages An efficient reader at comprehension needs the following skills Recognizing the main Interpreting diagrams, tables and idea graphs Recognizing implied Understanding purpose and tone ideas - Some strategies needed for proper reading comprehension are: = SQ 3R - Survey, Question, Read, Revise and Review " OKAR - Overview, Keyword, Read, Recite, Reflect and Revise = 383R-Survey, Study-read, Speed-read, Record, Review and Reflect = P3RU — Preview, Read, Record, Review, Use The Role of Paragraphing in Academic Writing Paragraphing helps the writers achieve organization and clarity A paragraph is a group of related sentences that expresses the main idea of a composition. A paragraph can hold single sentence or multiple sentences Parts of a paragraph includes; = A topic sentence/Kernel sentence «= Supporting details/development » Concluding sentence 20SURE ‘A’ GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English POSITIONS OF TOPIC SENTENCE - At the beginning of a paragraph - Inthe middle of a paragraph - At the last sentence Qualities of a Good Paragraph Unity Coherence Good development Patterns of Paragraph Development Paragraph definition Analysis Comparison and contrast Paragraph illustration Analogy WRITING ESSAYS - The techniques a writer could choose from to express his ideas are: Descriptive technique Expository technique _ Narrative technique Argumentative Critical/Analytical Persuasive technique technique technique DESCRIPTIVE TECHNIQUE gives the writer a way to express his ideas so that the reader can create a clear picture of it. HOW TO DESCRIBE EFFECTIVELY - Use of the 5 sensory organs - Use of modifiers - Good details in your text EXPOSITORY TECHNIQUE helps reveal the subject and gives the reader a better understanding. HOW TO WRITE EFFECTIVE EXPOSITION - Provide useful details Make an orderly presentation of answers to questions Write to helping someone understand a subject. 21SURE ‘A’ GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English ARGUMENTATIVE TECHNIQUE: The writer Provides dive opinions on different issues and provides supporting details for pie Premises > Assumptions — Conclusion . HOW TO WRITE AN EFFECTIVE ARGUMENT - Make sure your supporting details is incontrovertible - Adopt a clear thesis and present it in your introduction - Make a brief concession, but don’t weaken your arguments PERSUASIVE TECHNIQUE is used by the writer to skillfully convince a reader to change his beliefs to that of the writer’s. HOW TO WRITE EFFECTIVE PERSUASIONS - Choose a simple message and stick to it - Appeal to your audience emotions - Draw analogies with facts known to you - Avoid derogatory language and a condescending tone NARRATIVE TECHNIQUE sequentially presents either real or imaginary events in order to tell a story. When writing narratives, it’s important to determine your Point of View (POV) for the story. The P.O.V. could be First-person, Second-person, or a Stream of consciousness. COMMUNICATION THROUGH LETTERS A correspondence refers to the letter a person sends/receives. It can be electronic or in paper form. - The (3) types of correspondence are: Informal Semi-formal Formal correspondence correspondence correspondence - An informal correspondence is otherwise known as a ‘friendly or private’ correspondence. - An informal correspondence has (4) parts. 22SURE ‘A’_GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English Address Salutation Body of letter Complimentary closure A formal letter/correspondence is also known as official correspondence - _ A formal correspondence has (6) parts Address (writer’s) Address (receiver’s) Formal salutation Title Message Complimentary closure * Use block pattern when writing the address "Only write the date in the (writer’s) address. The Quality and Sources of Information for Academic Writing - Academic writing can take several forms such as; Seminars Term papers Projects Dissertations - Points to consider when choosing a good source of information: * Consider who wrote the information * Why the information was written = How it was written - _ Information is grouped as; Primary source Secondary source Tertiary source - An individual can extract information by “quoting directly” or “paraphrasing the information”. - Only quote to support your points and not to make them. - Use ‘paraphrase’ to summarize another author’s ideas. Phrases and Clause in English: Tips for Better Understanding ~ The theory of syntax was termed TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE GRAMMAR - The theory proposed that a sentence (s) = Noun phrase (NP) and verb phrase (VP). Hence S = NP + VP - A sentence comprised of a subject and a predicate (Noun and verb threats respectively). 23SURE ES 100.1 Communication Skills in English - A subject in a sentence is a part of the sentence that performs the action which is being talked about. ~ A subject could be a: Noun, Noun-clause, Noun-phrase or verbal noun A predicate is the parts of a sentence talks about the action done by the subject A phrase is a group of words without a finite verb - A phrase must not contain a subject and a verb - Phrases can function as nouns, verbs. adjectives or adverbs - Phrasal verbs are makeup of ‘two or more words’. E.g. she blew up the cover. | got up late today A prepositional verb is made up of a ‘verb and a preposition’. Eg the applied for the job. She took im recently. Note A phrasal verbs and a verb phrases are not similar. Verb ases is made up of ‘two or three words that MAY main verb and an auxiliary verb; adverb, or verb or < ‘are coming in’ now (verb, preposition) a) phrase are group of words functioning as an adverb in e.g. the Adve © a sen < verb, eg. He talked to me im a gentle tone. She Adverbs m looked at me with wide eyes. ; roup of words with a noun as the lead word in mes immediately after or before the verb, e.g. she has a ‘push red c-—-' Jack can dance very well. onal phrase begin with a preposition and functions as She was matching on the red carpet. | left Noun phrase are @ the sentence. It co Prepositt one in a sentence, ¢.8- my keys in my box. Participial phrase have particip i Wrecked by corruption, Nigeria les as their lead word, e-£ is on the verge of disimtegration. 7SURE‘A’_GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English Adjective phrase functions like an adjective on a sentence, e. g. this result is our best so far. A ciause is a group of related words that contains a subject and a predicate and can make sense. e.g. He is mine. TYPES OF CLAUSE Main (independent clause) Subordinate (dependent clause) Main clause can stand on their own Noun clause appears as a subject, object or predicate, e.g. She nursed the child who was abandoned. Noun clauses are usually introduced after these words ‘who’, ‘whoever’, ‘whom’, ‘whomever’, ‘what’, ‘whatever’, ‘their’. Adjective clause is a subordinate clause that does the work of an adjective in a sentence. It is usually introduced after relative pronouns such as: ‘which’, ‘whose’, ‘that’. ‘Who’, ‘Whom’. E.g, the actress who won the award came here. Adverbial clause functions as an adverb in a sentence. It could be adverbial clause of time, condition, contest, clause and effect. Relative clause identifies which person or thing you are talking The pronouns that you use in this clause are who, whom, that, they are called relative pronouns. Use ‘who or that’ when the subject is a person. Use ‘that or which’ when the subject is a thing. Use ‘who, that, whom or no pronoun’ when the object is a person - Use ‘that which or no pronoun’ when the object is a thing. GRAMMAR AND MECHANICS - Words are traditionally classified into eight (8) parts. Noun Verb Adverb Adjective Pronoun Preposition Conjunction Interjection 25SURE‘A’_GES 100.1 Communication Skills in Engl - There are 3 criteria used in identifying classes in which a word belong to, and they are: Meaning, Structure Function - The (2) categories of word classes are; = Open —word class. (major) = Closed — word class (minor) - Open-word class consists of: Nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. They admit new words into its system, so the words here are neither rigid nor fixed in meaning. - Closed-word consists of pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and determinants. The words here are rigid and their meanings are fixed. - Noun is simply defined as the name of a person, animal, place or thing. The different classification of noun are; Proper Nouns Common Nouns Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns Countable Nouns Uncountable Nouns Collective Nouns Verbs are group word or a word that expresses an action or a stated being. _ The different classification of verbs are; Lexical Verbs Auxiliary Verbs Lexical verbs can be classified into Transitive and Intransitive Transitive verbs take direct object, e.g. I Love the blue dress - Intransitive cannot go with direct objects, e.g. Birds fly - Auxiliary/Helping verb said the lexical verbs to form tenses - They include; . Primary Auxiliary Model Auxiliary 26SURE‘A’ GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English ig also COPULA OR LINKING VERBS, they concer . nce by linking the SUBJECTS to their of a sentet COMPLIMENTS. E.g. (i) Tambari is inte Adjectives are used to enhance e.g. that is an interesting question. " Adjectives are classified based on position, hence we have; = Attributive Adjective « Predictive Adjective « Post-modifying Adjective There are (3) comparisons of adjectives, they are: « Positive degree « Comparative degree = Superlative degree Adverbs — this describes meaning to a verb, adjective or a whole Hligent. (ii) Milk smells sour the meaning of nouns or pronouns, sentence. « Adverb of manner = Adverb of place = Adverb of time « Adverb of degree - Conjuncts helps link new sentences to already existing ones e.g Similarly, moreover, nonetheless, conversely - Ithas (3) comparisons such as * Positive degree * Comparative degree * Superlative degree ~ Conjuncts helps link new sentences to already existing ones. ¢.g. similarly, moreover, nonetheless, conversely. It has (3) comparisons such as: * Positive degree Comparative degree Superlative degree 27SURE ' GES 100.1 Communication Skills in English Pronouns — are words in place of nouns. They can be classified --- = Personal pronoun = Reflective pronoun = Possessive pronoun = Interrogate pronoun = Indefinite pronoun = Emphatic pronoun = Relative pronoun Preposition — establishes a relationship between a noun and other words in a sentence. Conjunction — Is a word used in joining words or phrases together. e.g. but, for, since, while, as though ... It could be classified as; = Coordinating conjunctions = Subordinating conjunctions = Co-relative conjunctions Coordinating includes e.g. and, but, (;) semicolon, or. It is used to join parts or a sentence e.g. Chief Eze is very kind, he helps the poor. Subordinating includes connects a subordinate clause to a main clause. Correlative conjunction — is used to connect two equal grammatical items. Interjection — It is used to expects feelings E.g. exclamatory works like oh! Hurry! Damn! Etc. Determiners — They are words that co-occur with nouns e.g. Articles, quantifiers, numerals and demonstratives 28 aFollow me on Instagram For more updates on other subjects BxsY=Xoy<¥= I Niel