Introduction to Sets all x's, such that x is greater than 0", see

Set-Builder Notation to learn more.

What is a set?
 A collection. Why are Sets Important?
 Things grouped together with a  Sets are the fundamental property
certain property in common. of mathematics. Now as a word of
Notation warning, sets, by themselves,
There is a fairly simple notation for sets. seem pretty pointless. But it's only
We simply list each element (or "member") when we apply sets in different
situations do they become the
separated by a comma, and then put powerful building block of
some curly brackets around the whole mathematics that they are.
thing:
Math can get amazingly complicated quite
fast. Graph Theory, Abstract Algebra, Real
Analysis, Complex Analysis, Linear
Algebra, Number Theory, and the list goes
on. But there is one thing that all of these
share in common: Sets.

Universal Set
The curly brackets { } are sometimes We call this the universal set. It's a set that
called "set brackets" or "braces". contains everything. Well, not exactly
everything. Everything that is relevant to
The three dots ... are called an ellipsis, our question.
and mean "continue on".

Example: the set of letters:

{a, b, c, ..., x, y, z}

In this case it is a finite set (there are only

26 letters, right?)

Numerical Sets
So what does this have to do with
mathematics? When we define a set, all
we have to specify is a common
characteristic. Who says we can't do so
with numbers?

Set of even numbers: {..., −4, −2, 0, 2, 1) In Number Theory the universal set is
4, ...} all the integers, as Number Theory is
Set of odd numbers: {..., −3, −1, 1, 3, ...} simply the study of integers.
Set of prime numbers: {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 2) But in Calculus (also known as real
17, ...} analysis), the universal set is almost
Positive multiples of 3 that are less than always the real numbers.
10: {3, 6, 9} 3) And in complex analysis, you guessed
And so on. We can come up with all it, the universal set is the complex
different types of sets. numbers.
Some More Notation
We can also define a set by its properties, When talking about sets, it is fairly
such as {x|x>0} which means "the set of standard to use Capital Letters to
represent the set, and lowercase letters to If we look at the definition of subsets and
represent an element in that set. let our mind wander a bit, we come to a
weird conclusion.
Example: Set A is {1,2,3}. We can see
that 1 € A, but 5 not € A. Let A be a set. Is every element of A in A?

Equality
Two sets are equal if they have precisely So that means that A is a subset of A. It is
the same members. Now, at first glance a subset of itself!
they may not seem equal, so we may
have to examine them closely! This doesn't seem very proper, does it? If
we want our subsets to be proper we
Example: Are A and B equal where: introduce (what else but) proper subsets:

A is the set whose members are the first A is a proper subset of B if and only if
four positive whole numbers every element of A is also in B, and there
B = {4, 2, 1, 3} exists at least one element in B that is not
Let's check. They both contain 1. They in A.
both contain 2. And 3, And 4. And we Example:
have checked every element of both sets, {1, 2, 3} is a subset of {1, 2, 3}, but is not a
so: Yes, they are equal! proper subset of {1, 2, 3}.

And the equals sign (=) is used to show Example:

equality, so we write: {1, 2, 3} is a proper subset of {1, 2, 3, 4}
because the element 4 is not in the first
A=B set.

Example: Are these sets equal? Even More Notation

A is {1, 2, 3} When we say that A is a subset of B, we
B is {3, 1, 2} write A subset symbol B.
Yes, they are equal!
Or we can say that A is not a subset of B
They both contain exactly the members 1, by A not subset symbol B ("A is not a
2 and 3. subset of B")

Subsets When we talk about proper subsets, we

When we define a set, if we take pieces of take out the line underneath and so it
that set, we can form what is called a becomes A proper subset symbol B or if
subset. we want to say the opposite, A not proper
subset symbol B.
Example: the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A subset of this is {1, 2, 3}. Another subset Empty (or Null) Set
is {3, 4} or even another is {1}, etc. This is probably the weirdest thing about
sets.
But {1, 6} is not a subset, since it has an And right you are. It is a set with no
element (6) which is not in the parent set. elements.

In general: This is known as the Empty Set (or Null

Set).There aren't any elements in it. Not
A is a subset of B if and only if every one. Zero.
element of A is in B.
It is represented by ø Or by {} (a set with
Proper Subsets no elements)
Some other examples of the empty set are Capital letters are used to denote sets.
the set of countries south of the south Lowercase letters are used to denote
pole. elements of sets.
Curly braces { } denote a list of elements
Empty Set and Subsets in a set.
So let's go back to our definition of Another way to look at sets is with a visual
subsets. We have a set A. We won't tool called a Venn diagram, first developed
define it any more than that, it could be by John Venn in the 1880s. In a Venn
any set. Is the empty set a subset of A? diagram, sets are represented by shapes;
usually circles or ovals. The elements of a
Going back to our definition of subsets, if set are labeled within the circle. Let's look
every element in the empty set is also in at some examples.
A, then the empty set is a subset of A. But
what if we have no elements? Example 1: Given set R is the set of
counting numbers less than 7. Draw and
It takes an introduction to logic to label a Venn diagram to represent set R
understand this, but this statement is one and indicate all elements in the set.
that is "vacuously" or "trivially" true.
Analysis: Draw a circle or oval. Label it R.
A good way to think about it is: we can't Put the elements in R.
find any elements in the empty set that
aren't in A, so it must be that all elements Solution:
in the empty set are in A.

The empty set is a subset of every set,

including the empty set itself.

Order
When we say order in sets we mean the
size of the set.
Another (better) name for this is Notation: R = {counting numbers < 7}
cardinality.
Example 2: Given set G is the set of
A finite set has finite order (or cardinality). primary colors. Draw and label a Venn
An infinite set has infinite order (or diagram to represent set G and indicate all
cardinality). elements in the set.

For finite sets the order (or cardinality) is Analysis: Draw a circle or oval. Label it G.
the number of elements. Put the elements in G.

Example: {10, 20, 30, 40} has an order of Solution:

4.
For infinite sets, all we can say is that the
order is infinite. Oddly enough, we can say
with sets that some infinities are larger
than others, but this is a more advanced
topic in sets.
Venn Diagrams Notation: G = {primary colors}
Until now, we have examined sets using In each example above, we used a Venn
set notation. We know from previous diagram to represent a given set
lessons that the following conventions are pictorially. Venn diagrams are especially
used with sets: useful for showing relationships between
sets, as we will see in the examples
below. First, we will use a Venn diagram The examples in this lesson included
to find the intersection of two sets. The simple Venn diagrams. We will explore
intersection of two sets is all the this topic in more depth in the next few
elements they have in common. lessons. We will also learn more about
Example 4: Let X = {1, 2, 3} and Let Y = intersection and union in this unit.
{3, 4, 5}. Draw and label a Venn diagram
Summary: We can use Venn diagrams to
to show the intersection of sets X and Y.
represent sets pictorially. Venn diagrams
Analysis: We need to find the elements are especially useful for showing
that are common in both sets. Draw a relationships between sets, such as the
picture of two overlapping circles. intersection and union of overlapping sets.
Elements that are common to both sets
will be placed in the middle part, where the SUBSETS OF REAL NUMBERS
circles overlap.
The set of numbers called the real number
Solution: system consists of different partitions/
subsets that can be represented
graphically on a number line.

 Natural/Counting Numbers – are

the numbers we use in counting
things, that is {1, 2,3, 4, . . . }. The
three dots, called ellipses, indicate
that the pattern continues
Explanation: The circle on the left
indefinitely.
represents set X and the circle on the right
represents set Y. The shaded section in  Whole Numbers – are numbers
the middle is what they have in common. consisting of the set of natural or
That is their intersection. counting numbers and zero.
 Integers – are the result of the
The Venn Diagram in example 4 makes it union of the set of whole numbers
easy to see that the number 3 is common and the negative or counting
to both sets. So the intersection of X and
numbers.
Y is 3. This is what X and Y have in
common. The intersection of X and Y is  Rational Numbers – are numbers
written as x-intersect-y and is read that can be expressed as a
as "X intersect Y". So Intersection means a
"X and Y". In example 5 below, we will find quotient of two integers. The
b
the union of two sets. The union of two integer a is the numerator while the
sets is the set obtained by combining
integer b, which cannot be 0 is the
the elements of each.
denominator. This set includes
The union of two sets is written as x- fractions and some decimal
union-y and is read as "X union numbers.
Y". It means "X or Y". Let's compare  Irrational Numbers – are numbers
intersection and union. that cannot be expressed as a
quotient of two integers. Every
irrational number may be
represented by a decimal that
neither repeats nor terminates.
  Real Numbers – are any of the If the signs are the same, add and keep
numbers from the preceding the same sign.
subsets. They can be found on the
o (+) + (+) = Add the numbers and
real number line. The union of the answer is positive
rational numbers and irrational numbers is
the set of real numbers. Example : 2 + 5 = 7

 Number Line – a straight line o (‐) + (‐) = Add the numbers and the
extended on both directions as answer is negative
illustrated by arrowheads and is
Example : (-5) + (-4) = -9
used to represent the set of real
numbers. On the real number line, Case 2: Signs are different
there is a point every real number
and there is a real number for If the signs are different, subtract the
every point. numbers and use the sign of the larger
number.
Integers
o (+) + (‐) = Subtract the numbers
Definitions: and take the sign of the bigger
number.
 The number line goes on forever in
both directions. This is indicated by Example: 7 + (-3) = 4
the arrows.
o (‐) + (+) = Subtract the numbers
 Whole numbers greater than zero
and take the sign of the bigger
are called positive integers (+).
number.
These numbers are to the right of
zero on the number line. Example: (-9) + 6 = -3
 Whole numbers less than zero are
called negative integers (-). These Subtracting Integers Rule:
numbers are to the left of zero on
To subtract a number from another
the number line.
number, the sign of the number (which is
 Zero is neutral. It is neither positive
to be subtracted) should be changed and
nor negative.
then this number with the changed sign
 Two numbers are opposites if they
should be added to the first number.
are each the same distance away
from zero, but on opposite sides of o (+) - (+) = Change the sign of the
the number line. One will have a number to be subtracted and add
positive sign, the other a negative them up. The result takes the sign
sign. In the number line above, +3 of the greater number.
and -3 are labeled as opposites.
Example: (+6) – (+2)
Addition, Subtraction,
= (+6) + (-2) = 6 - 2 = 4
Multiplication and Division of
Integers o (-) - (-) = Change the sign of the
number to be subtracted and add
Adding Integers Rule: them up.The result takes the sign
of the greater number.
Case 1: Signs are the same
 Example: (-9) – (-6) o (‐) × (+) = ‐

= (-9) + (+6) = -9 + 6 = -3 Example: -3 × 11 = 33

o (+) - (-) = Change the sign of the o (‐) ÷ (+) = ‐

number to be subtracted and add
them up. Example: -25 ÷ 5 = -5

Example: (+5) – (-3) Real numbers

= (+5) +(+3) = 5 + 3 = 8  Real numbers are simply the
combination of rational and
o (-) - (+) = Change the sign of the
irrational numbers, in the number
number to be subtracted and add
system. In general, all the
them up. Result is always negative
arithmetic operations can be
Example: (-7) – (+2) performed on these numbers and
they can be represented in the
= (-7) + (-2) = -7 - 2 = -9 number line, also. At the same
time, the imaginary numbers are
Multiplying and Dividing Integers Rule: the un-real numbers, which cannot
Case 1: Signs are same be expressed in the number line
and are commonly used to
If the signs are the same, the answer is represent a complex number.
always positive. Some of the examples of real
numbers are 23, -12, 6.99, 5/2, π,
o (+) × (+) = + and so on. In this article, we are
going to discuss the definition of
Example: 5 × 4 = 20
real numbers, the properties of real
o (+) ÷ (+) = + numbers and the examples of real
numbers with complete
Example: 16 ÷ 4 = 4 explanations.
 Real numbers can be defined as
o (‐) × (‐) = + the union of both rational and
irrational numbers. They can be
Example: (-7) × (-9) = 63
both positive or negative and are
o (‐) ÷ (‐) = + denoted by the symbol “R”. All the
natural numbers, decimals and
Example: (-20) ÷ (-2) = 10 fractions come under this category.
See the figure, given below, which
Case 2: Signs are different
shows the classification of real
If the signs are different, the answer is numerals.
always negative.
The set of real numbers consists of
o (+) × (‐) = ‐ different categories, such as natural and
whole numbers, integers, rational and
Example: 6 × (-10) = -60 irrational numbers. In the table given
below, all the real numbers formulas (i.e.)
o (+) ÷ (‐) = ‐ the representation of the classification of
real numbers are defined with examples.
Example: 30 ÷ (-15) = -2
 o Addition: The general form will be
m + (n + r) = (m + n) + r. An
example of additive associative
property is 10 + (3 + 2) = (10 + 3) +
2.
o Multiplication: (mn) r = m (nr). An
example of a multiplicative
associative property is (2 × 3) 4 = 2
(3 × 4).

Distributive Property

For three numbers m, n, and r, which are

Real Numbers chart: real in nature, the distributive property is
represented as:

m (n + r) = mn + mr and (m + n) r = mr +
nr.

o Example of distributive property is:

5(2 + 3) = 5 × 2 + 5 × 3. Here, both
sides will yield 25.

Identity Property
Properties of Real Numbers
There are additive and multiplicative
 Commutative property identities.
 Associative property
 Distributive property o For addition: m + 0 = m. (0 is the
 Identity property additive identity)
o For multiplication: m × 1 = 1 × m =
Commutative Property m. (1 is the multiplicative identity)

If m and n are the numbers, then the Example 1:

general form will be m + n = n + m for
addition and m.n = n.m for multiplication. Find five rational numbers between 1/2
and 3/5.
o Addition: m + n = n + m.
Solution:
For example, 5 + 3 = 3 + 5, 2 + 4 = 4 + 2.
We shall make the denominator same for
o Multiplication: m × n = n × m. both the given rational number

For example, 5 × 3 = 3 × 5, 2 × 4 = 4 × 2. (1 × 5)/(2 × 5) = 5/10 and (3 × 2)/(5 × 2) =

6/10
Associative Property
Now, multiply both the numerator and
If m, n and r are the numbers. The general denominator of both the rational number
form will be m + (n + r) = (m + n) + r for by 6, we have
addition(mn) r = m (nr) for multiplication.
(5 × 6)/(10 × 6) = 30/60 and (6 × 6)/(10 ×  Include positive, negative
6) = 36/60 numbers, and zero
 Can be expressed as a fraction
Five rational numbers between 1/2 =
30/60 and 3/5 = 36/60 are

31/60, 32/60, 33/60, 34/60, 35/60.

Example 2:

Write the decimal equivalent of the

following: Types of Rational Numbers

(i) 1/4 (ii) 5/8 (iii) 3/2 A number is rational if we can write it as a
fraction, where both denominator and
Solution: numerator are integers and the
denominator is a non-zero number.
(i) 1/4 = (1 × 25)/(4 × 25) = 25/100 = 0.25
o Real numbers (R) include all the
(ii) 5/8 = (5 × 125)/(8 × 125) = 625/1000 =
rational numbers (Q).
0.625
o Real numbers include the integers
(iii) 3/2 = (3 × 5)/(2 × 5) = 15/10 = 1.5 (Z).
o Integers involve natural
Rational Numbers numbers(N).
o Every whole number is a rational
A rational number, in Mathematics, can be number because every whole
defined as any number which can be number can be expressed as a
represented in the form of p/q where q ≠ 0. fraction.
Also, we can say that any fraction fits
under the category of rational numbers, Standard Form of Rational Numbers
where the denominator and numerator are
integers and the denominator is not equal The standard form of a rational number
to zero. When the rational number (i.e., can be defined if it’s no common factors
fraction) is divided, the result will be in aside from one between the dividend and
decimal form, which may be either divisor and therefore the divisor is positive.
terminating decimal or the repeating
For example, 12/36 is a rational number.
decimal.
But it can be simplified as 1/3; common
How to identify rational numbers? factors between the divisor and dividend is
only one. So we can say that rational
To identify if a number is rational or not, number ⅓ is in standard form.
check the below conditions.
Positive and Negative Rational Numbers
 It is represented in the form of p/q,
where q≠0. As we know that the rational number is in
the form of p/q, where p and q are
 The ratio p/q can be further
integers. Also, q should be a non-zero
simplified and represented in
integer. The rational number can be either
decimal form.
positive or negative. If the rational number
The set of rational numerals: is positive, both p and q are positive
integers. If the rational number takes the
form -(p/q), then either p or q takes the As the rational number is represented in
negative value. It means that the form p/q, which is a fraction, then the
multiplicative inverse of the rational
-(p/q) = (-p)/q = p/(-q). number is the reciprocal of the given
fraction.

For example, 4/7 is a rational number,

then the multiplicative inverse of the
rational number 4/7 is 7/4, such that
(4/7)x(7/4) = 1
Arithmetic Operations on Rational
Numbers Rational Numbers Properties

In Maths, arithmetic operations are the Since a rational number is a subset of the
basic operations we perform on integers. real number, the rational number will obey
Let us discuss here how we can perform all the properties of the real number
these operations on rational numbers, say system. Some of the important properties
p/q and s/t. of the rational numbers are as follows:

Addition: When we add p/q and s/t, we o The results are always a rational
need to make the denominator the same. number if we multiply, add, or
Hence, we get (pt+qs)/qt. subtract any two rational numbers.
o A rational number remains the
Example: 1/2 + 3/4 = (2+3)/4 = 5/4 same if we divide or multiply both
the numerator and denominator
Subtraction: Similarly, if we subtract p/q
with the same factor.
and s/t, then also, we need to make the
o If we add zero to a rational number
denominator same, first, and then do the
then we will get the same number
subtraction.
itself.
Example: 1/2 – 3/4 = (2-3)/4 = -1/4 o Rational numbers are closed under
addition, subtraction, and
Multiplication: In case of multiplication, multiplication.
while multiplying two rational numbers, the
numerator and denominators of the Rational Numbers and Irrational Numbers
rational numbers are multiplied,
There is a difference between rational and
respectively. If p/q is multiplied by s/t, then
Irrational Numbers. A fraction with non-
we get (p×s)/(q×t).
zero denominators is called a rational
Example: 1/2 × 3/4 = (1×3)/(2×4) = 3/8 number. The number ½ is a rational
number because it is read as integer 1
Division: If p/q is divided by s/t, then it is divided by integer 2. All the numbers that
represented as: are not rational are called irrational. Check
the chart below, to differentiate between
(p/q)÷(s/t) = pt/qs
rational and irrational.
Example: 1/2 ÷ 3/4 = (1×4)/(2×3) = 4/6 =
2/3

Multiplicative Inverse of Rational Numbers

 Method 2:

Find out the mean value for the two given

rational numbers. The mean value should
be the required rational number. In order
to find more rational numbers, repeat the
same process with the old and the newly
obtained rational numbers.

Example:
Rationals can be either positive, negative
or zero. While specifying a negative Identify whether a mixed fraction, 11/2 is a
rational number, the negative sign is either rational number.
in front or with the numerator of the
number, which is the standard Solution:
mathematical notation. For example, we
The Simplest form of 11/2 is 3/2
denote the negative of 5/2 as -5/2.
Numerator = 3, which is an integer
An irrational number cannot be written as
a simple fraction but can be represented Denominator = 2, is an integer and not
with a decimal. It has endless non- equal to zero.
repeating digits after the decimal point.
Some of the common irrational numbers So, yes, 3/2 is a rational number.
are:
*0 and 7 are rational numbers
Pi (π) = 3.142857…
Division of decimals
Euler’s Number (e) =
2.7182818284590452……. Dividing Decimals is the same as dividing
whole numbers, but in the case of
√2 = 1.414213… decimals, we consider the decimal point to
represent the final answer. Different
How to Find the Rational Numbers
possibilities for dividing decimals are given
between Two Rational Numbers? as follows:
There are infinite numbers of rational o Dividing Decimals by whole
numbers between two rational numbers.
numbers
The rational numbers between two rational
o Division of a Decimal Number by
numbers can be found easily using two
another Decimal Number
different methods. Now, let us have a look
o Division of decimals by the powers
at the two different methods.
of 10, i.e., 10, 100 and 1000
Method 1:

Find out the equivalent fraction for the

given rational numbers and find out the
rational numbers in between them. Those
numbers should be the required rational
numbers.
Dividing Decimals Questions with
Answers

1. Divide 0.056 by 7 and write down the

quotient and remainder.

Solution:

Dividend = 0.056

Divisor = 7

Here, quotient = 2.50159 and remainder =

27.

That means, 11.7575/4.7 = 2.5016

(approximately).

Unit of measurements
So 1 meter is a unit.

And 1 second is also a unit

And 1 m/s (one meter per second) is also

a unit, because there is one of it.

And so on ...
Thus, quotient = 0.008 and remainder = 0.

Alternative method: Without the "1"

Divide 56 by 7 and then put the decimal
point. It is also common to drop
the "1" in front and just talk about
56/7 = 8 the type of measurement as a unit.

0.056 contains the decimal point after So "Unit" is a general term that
three places. means the type of measurement.
And people understand that we
So, 0.056/7 = 0.008. mean just "1" of it.
3. What is the quotient when we divide
11.7575 by 4.7? Angles

Solution: Angles are formed when two rays meet. If

there are two straight lines such that they
Let us divide 11.7575 by 4.7 as shown have a common end point, then the
below: amount of curl between these two lines is
known as 'angle'.

There are angles in most shapes and in

many of the objects you see and use on a
daily basis.
Angles are measured in degrees.  Let’s see some examples of
obtuse angles.
There are four types of angles:
Straight angle
 Acute angle
 Obtuse angle When two line segments point exactly
 Right angle in the opposite direction and form a
 Straight angle single straight line, then the angle they
form is 180° or straight angle.
Right angle

 When two straight lines are

perpendicular to each other or
make 90° with each other, then
they are said to be at right angles.
 A right angle is exactly 90°.
 Right angles are often shown with
a box in the corner.
 Squares and rectangles are
formed using right angle

Acute angle

 When two straight lines make an

angle with each other such that it is
greater than 0° and less than 90°,
then these lines are said to be
making an acute angle with each
other.
 Acute angles are less than 90°.
 Some triangles have acute angles.
 Here are few examples: The slice
of pizza that you eat for lunch is an
acute angle.
 You get a new box of pencils for
school. After you sharpen all of the
pencils you notice that the tips are
acute angles.

Obtuse angle

 When two straight lines make an

angle with each other such that it is
greater than 90° and less than
180°, then these lines are said to
be making an obtuse angle with
each other.
 Obtuse angles are more than 90°
but less than 180°.
Algebra
 Many shapes such as pentagons,
octagons and triangles have o Algebra is the branch of
obtuse angles. mathematics that helps in the
representation of problems or
 situations in the form of
mathematical expressions. It
involves variables like x, y, z,
and mathematical operations
like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division to
form a meaningful
mathematical expression. All
the branches of mathematics
such as trigonometry, calculus,
coordinate geometry, involve
the use of algebra. One simple
example of an expression in
algebra is 2x + 4 = 8.
o Algebra is a branch of
mathematics that deals with
symbols and the arithmetic
operations across these
symbols. These symbols do
not have any fixed values and
are called variables. In our
real-life problems, we often see
certain values that keep on
changing. But there is a
constant need to represent
these changing values. Here in
algebra, these values are often
represented with symbols such
as x, y, z, p, or q, and these
symbols are called variables.
Further, these symbols are
manipulated through various
arithmetic operations of
addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, with
an objective to find the values.