2 CHAPTER TWO

THERMAL SOLAR TECHNOLOGY

2.1 Solar Geometry

As a result of the earth's axial rotation and its revolution around the sun, the sun is
constantly changing its position in the sky. This motion of the sun determines the amount
of solar energy incident upon a collector located on the earth's surface, since it depends
on the distance traveled by the sun's rays first to the earth and then through the earth's
atmosphere. Since the latter distance is determined by the angle at which the rays strike
the atmosphere, the terrestrial solar irradiation will change with the sun's position. The
area of a solar collector exposed to the direct solar radiation depends upon the angle
between the sun's rays and the collector. Similarly, the length of time for collecting solar
energy (day length) depends upon the sun's celestial motion. These and other factors
must be considered when deciding on the solar energy available to a collector, on the
way of focusing a concentrating collector, on the orientation of a permanent collector,
and on the mode of solar tracking when it is required.

This chapter examines the sun's motion in the sky due to the earth's motion about the
sun, as seen by an observer at a given location on the earth's surface.

2.2 Definitions and Terminology

2.2.1 Solar constant

The outer layer of the sun (called the photosphere) emits a continuous spectrum of radiation. Its
temperature is around 5000oC and for the purpose of solar calculations, the photosphere is
assumed to be a black body with a surface temperature of 5762 K.

The radiation emitted by the surface of the sun, E, is equal to the product of the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant,  the fourth power of the absolute surface temperature T4 and the surface
area
Es =  d 2T 4 W 
Where:
Stefan Boltzmann constant,  = 5.67 x 10-8 [W/m.k],
The surface temperature, T = 5762 K,
The diameter of the sun, D = 1.39 x 109 m

The radiation from the sun is in all direction and reaches the earth surface situated in a sphere
with the sun as its centre. The radius R is the mean distance between the sun and the earth and
equals to 1.5 x 1011 m. The surface area of the sphere equals 4R 2 . The radiation flux on a unit
area of the sphere surface, is called Irradiance

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  d 2T 4
Irradiance, G = = 1353 W/m2
4R 2

The value of G is called the solar constant. Its unit is, G = 1353 W/m2

The practical maximum value of solar energy available on the earth's surface is 1000 W/m2
normally defined/termed as 1 sun.

2.2.2 Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Radiation

The solar radiation available outside the earth's atmosphere as expressed by the solar constant of
1353 w/m2 is reduced in intensity by atmospheric absorption and reflection before reaching the
surface of the earth. Ozone in the atmosphere absorbs radiation of short wave lengths
(ultraviolet); carbon dioxide and water vapor absorb some of the radiation in the longer (infrared)
wave lengths. In addition to absorption, some radiation is scattered by gas molecules, dust and
water vapor in the atmosphere before reaching the earth. Consequently the radiation reaching the
earth’s surface is less than the maximum.

 Extraterrestrial radiation, IEXT: This is the theoretical maximum of radiation, which can
fall on a surface when radiation losses are not considered.

 Terrestrial radiation, IT: This is the actual radiation, which falls on the earth surface.

I EXT
The ratio  c.i  , is called clearness index
IT

2.3 Types of radiation

Ib – Direct beam
Id – Diffused radiation
Ir – Reflected radiation

 Total radiation falling on an horizontal surface IT = Ib + Id + Ir

The sunlight that strikes a solar collecting surface can be direct, diffuse or reflected.
 Direct sunlight: comes directly from the sun. Since the sun is far from the earth, rays of
direct sunlight are considered to be parallel.
 Diffuse sunlight: does not come directly from the sun, but is first reflected from dust
particles, air, cloud and water vapor. Diffuse sunlight comes from all areas of the sky. Even
on a clear day, approximately 15 -20% of the sunlight is diffused. When the sky is totally
over cast, all of the sunlight is diffuse. The basic distraction between diffuse sunlight comes
in via scattering in the atmosphere while reflected sunlight comes from trees, snow,
landscapes, mirrors and other earthbound surfaces.

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 Origin of direct beam and diffuse radiation

2.4 Measurements of Solar Radiation

Instruments for measuring solar radiation are called pyranometers or pyrheliometers.
Pyranometers measure total radiation, both direct and diffuse whereas pyrheliometers measures
only direct beam radiation.

2.4.1 Solar radiation calculations

2.4.2 Source of information

Many networks of meteorological stations in many countries measure total radiation received on
a horizontal surface for agricultural and other purposes that is the sum of direct and diffuse
components. Only a few stations have maintained separate records of the direct and diffuse
radiation-components. The direct and diffuse components are most useful for the calculation of
the total radiation on inclined surfaces. When integrated over 1-hour periods, the radiation is
termed insolation and the symbol of I is commonly used. These values are always recorded by
the meteorological departments and available for any part of our country.

Kenya lies between 4.7oS and 4.2oN (latitude) and between 34oE and 41.9oE (longitude). With
this geographical position, Kenya stands at a very good position where the sun is overhead in
most of the time of the year.

Eldoret town, lies at 0.5oE and receives the following averages of radiation distribution in W/m2.

Jan Feb March Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
552 562 542 485 495 503 465 485 533 533 484 533

2.4.3 Total Radiation on an inclined plane

The following factors affect the quantity of radiation received in a solar collector or panels.
1. Angle of declination: The declination angle  , is the angle the sun makes with the equatorial
plane. It is seasonal (provides a convenient measure of seasonal changes) and depends on
whether the sun's location is at the equator, tropic of cancer or tropic of Capricorn. The earth
tilts from +23.45o in June 21 to -23.45o in December 21.

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 Solar declination
The value of the declination at any time can be estimated from the equation:
 360
  23.45Sin  284  n
 365 
Where n is the day of the year

2. Slope  : The angle between the plane surface in question and the horizontal (0 <  < 90° for
a surface facing towards the equator; 90° <  < 180° for a surface facing away from the
equator)

3. Azimuth angle  : The deviation from the local meridian of the projection on a horizontal
plane of the normal to the surface. (  = 0 for a surface facing due south, >0 for a surface
facing west of south. and <0 eastward. For a horizontal surface, we take  = 0)

4. Angle of incidence  : The angle between the beam radiation to the surface and the normal to
that surface (Angle between the beam at normal incidence and the component striking the
inclined surface at 90o).

5. Zenith angle & Azimuth angle

Zenith Angle  z - is the angle between the line straight overhead and the line of sight to the
sun. Maximum radiation is expected to be achieved when the sun is overhead.

The sun's position in the hemisphere above the observer's horizon is described in terms
of two angles: the solar zenith angle  z (measured from the vertical axis with the origin
at the observer's position) and the solar azimuth angle  (measured from a horizontal
axis extending due south from the observer). The solar azimuth is positive when
measured east of south and negative when measured west of south. This coordinate
system is shown in figure below.

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 Zenith angle  z , Slope  and solar azimuth angle  for a tilted surface. (For the case drawn 
<0)

Zenith angle is given by,

Cos z  SinSin  CosCosCos

Azimuth angle is given by,

SinCosCos  CosSin
Cos 
Sin z
SinCos
Sin 
Sin z

Solar incidence angle is approximated by;

Cos  Sin SinCos  CosSinCos   Cos CosCosCos  SinSinCosCos  SinSinSin

OR
Cos  A  BSin  CSin  D  E Cos Cos

Where:
A  SinCos , B  CosSinCos , C  SinSin , D  CosCos , E  SinSinCos

The symbols:
 Latitude
 Solar declination
 Hour angle
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Example:
Calculate the solar zenith and azimuth angles for Denver Colorado, on March 15 at 9:00 A.M.
solar time.

For 9 A.M on March 15, we have n=74,   45o C the latitude at Denver is 39.75o.

 360
  23.5 o Sin  284  74  2.84 o
 365 
From,
Cos z  SinSin  CosCosCos

Cos z  Sin 39.7°Sine - 2.82°) + Cos 39.7° Cos (- 2.82°) Cos 45°,
 z  59.2°.
From,
SinCos
Sin  ,   Sin-1 {[Cos (- 2.82°) Sin 45°]/ Sin 59.2°}
Sin z

6. Hour Angle
The hour angle  is the angle through which the earth has rotated since solar noon. Since the
earth rotates (360o/24 h) = 15°h-1 the hour angle is given by;

  15o h 1 t solar  12h  15o h 1 t solar  12h  eq    zone 
Where t solar and t zone are respectively the local solar and civil times (measured in hours),  zone is
the longitude where the sun is overhead when t zone is noon (i.e. where solar time and civil time
coincide). The small correction term  eq is the equation of time, and can be neglected for most
purposes

Neglecting the refractive bending of the sun's rays by the atmosphere, we can say that the
local sunrise and sunset occur when the sun is in the horizontal plane at the point of
observation. Then the zenith angle for either event is 90°. Hence, for sunrise or sunset,
the corresponding hour angle:

  Cos 1  tan  tan  

With the positive sign corresponding to sunrise and the negative sign to sunset, when 
exceeds 90°, the sun rises north of east, and when  is less than - 90° (say, it is -100°),
the sun sets north of west. In the mid and lower latitudes of the northern hemisphere this
occurs during the summer.

Example 1:

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Calculate the local time of sunrise and sunset in New York City (40.78°N, 73.97°W) on
July 21. Also calculate the solar azimuth at sunrise and sunset.
Solution
For July, 21, n = 202, Hence,
 360
  23.45o Sin  284  202  20.44 o
 365 

  Cos 1  Tan 40.78o Tan 20.44 o   108.7 o  7.25h

Then, sunset is at 7.25 P.M solar time and sunrise is at 4.75 A.M. solar time.
73.97  75
The time correction is  0.06h
15
Local standard time and sunrise is at 4.69 P.M. local standard time.

 Cos 20.44 o Sin108.7 o 

Solar azimuth   Sin  1
   62.56
o

 Sin  90 o
  
Where plus is for sunrise and minus is for sunset.

Example 2:
1. Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a surface located at Glasgow (56°N,
4°W) at 10 a.m. on 1 February, if the surface is oriented 20" east of south, and tilted at 40°
to the horizontal.

Solution
February 1 is day 32 of the year (n = 32),
Hence,  = 23.45o sin [360° (284 + 32)/365] = -17.5o

Civil time in Glasgow winter is Greenwich Mean Time, which is solar time (± 15min) at
longitude  zone = 0. Hence t solar   10h

 
So from the hour angle   15o h 1 t solar  12h  15o h 1 t solar  12h  eq    zone 
,
  30 o

Since,  = +56°,  = -20o and  = +40o,

A = sin56°cos40° = 0.635

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B = cos56°sin40°cos (-20o) = 0.338
C = sin 40° sin (-20°) = -0.220
D = cos56°cos40° = 0.428
E = sin 56° sin 40° cos (-20°) = 0.50
Hence,
Cos  = (0.635-0.338) sin (-17.5o) + [-0.220sin (-30o) + (0.428 + 0.50) cos (-30o)]cos (-17.5o)
= 0.783
Thus,  = 38.5o

Example 3:
Calculate the solar incidence angle for a collector that faces 15° west of south and has a
slope of 50° in Omaha, Nebraska (41.37°N) on January 30 at solar noon.
Solution
For January 30, n = 30,
 360
  23.45Sin  284  n
 365 

 360
  23.45Sin  284  30  18.04 o
 365 


Cos  Sin (18.04 o ) Sin 41.37 o Cos50 o  Cos 41.37 o Sin50 o Cos(15 o ) 

Cos(18.04 o ) Cos 41.37 o Cos50 o Cos0 o  Sin 41.37 o Sin50 o Cos(15 o )Cos0 o  Sin50 o Sin (15 o ) Sin 0 o 

Hence,  = 15.40°.

Example 4:
a. A solar e nergy collected is located at latitude 40ºN with the energy absorbing surface tilted
towards the south. On June 6th, the solar declination angle is 18º. Determine:
i. The magnitude of  n
ii. At the noon, the zenith angle (  z ), the altitude of the sun (  ) and the value of
cos  i
iii. The amount of incident radiation at 3hours after solar noon if the
transmission coefficient  a  0.7 and   28
Take the solar constant E0  1361W / m 2

Solution
i.   40   180 ,  n      40  18  22

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 ii. Cos z  SinSin  CosCos  Sin 40Sin18  Cos 40Sin18  0.9272
 z  22   90   z  90  22  68
Cos it  1 for    n   it  0

iii.  a  0.7,   3 15  45

Cos z  SinSin  CosCosCos
 Sin 40Sin18  Cos 40Cos18Cos 45  0.7138
 z  44.5

m  Secant  z  Secant 44.5  1.401

 
E n  E 0  a  1361(0.7)1.404  825.7 W / m 2
m

Cos it  Sin   Sin  Cos   CosCos

 Sin12Sin18  Cos12Cos18Cos45  0.722
 
E i  E n Cos it  825.7  0.722  596.2 W / m 2
Incident radiation, =596.2 W/m2

Question
For a location, some 32 langsleys were measured on 17 January, noon solar time. Determine the
following for a south facing surface at angle 60o slope.
(a) The angle of incidence
(b) The Zenith angle
(c) The direct radiation, IbT
(d) The diffuse radiation
(e) The reflected radiation IrT
(f) The total radiation, IT

2.5 Solar Collectors

2.5.1 Types of solar collectors

1. Flat-plate collectors -used in low temperature operation such as water heater, air heaters,
refrigeration and air conditioning, drying etc. Operation temperature below 100oC
2. Concentrators -used for high temperature operation for steam generation
3. Sun tracking -those capable of changing their positions in order to continuously achieve
maximum radiation with time.

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2.5.2 Components of a flat plate solar collector
1. Cover plate
2. Absorber plate
3. Heat exchanger
4. Insulation
5. Framework

i. Cover plate
The purpose of the cover plate is to stop the loss of heat from the absorber plate to the
surrounding. The cover plate for the collector should have a high transmittance for solar
radiation and should not deteriorate with time. Commonly used materials are glass and
transparent sheet of plastic.

(a) Plastics as cover plates

The plastics have the following advantages
• They are cheap and lighter than glass
• They can be used in very thin sheets and hence they give higher transmittance

Disadvantages of plastic cover plates

i. They are not as durable as glass and they often degrade with exposure to ultraviolet
radiation or with high temperature
ii. Most transmittance plastics have an effective outdoor life time of 1.5 -3 years.
iii. A few treated for solar collectors can last 15 -20 years but the treatment is expensive.

(b) Glass
Advantages of glass as a cover plate are
1. Glass have high durability and negligible deterioration due to exposure to ultra-violet
radiation
2. Glass is readily available
3. Glass is quite transparent to visible light and opaque to infrared wavelength meaning that
it blocks heat loss from absorber due to radiation.

Disadvantage of the glass as a cover plate are:

Ordinary glass has iron in it and absorbs approximately 6 -7% of the light passing through it. The
higher iron content it has the more light it absorbs. Considering all the factors, the advantages of
glass outweighs its disadvantages.

A solar collector can have one or more cover plates. The higher the number the less the
transmittance though the net heat lost by the cover plates is also small. For lower temperatures of

15
up to 80oC one cover plate is satisfactory. At these temperatures the heat radiated by cover plate
have long wavelength, which cannot be transmitted through the gas.

ii. Absorber plate

The absorber plate is a vital element of the solar collector. It affects both collector efficiency and
total system efficiency because it acts as an energy absorber and heat exchanger.

The absorber plate is usually made of copper steel or plastic. The surface is covered with a black
material of high absorptance if the absorber plate is made of copper or steel it is possible to apply
a selective coating that maximizes the absorptance of solar energy and minimizes the radiation
emitted by the plate. Plastics can be used for low temperature of 60 70oC.

The spacing between the absorber and the cover plate is an important design parameter. The
spacing must be such that the values of convective heat transfer coefficients are minimized. At a
particular temperature difference between the cover and absorber plate the conductivity is
maximum. This value is between 1 -8 am. Beyond this range, the conductivity decreases.

The spacing at which the minimum and the maximum values occur varies with the temperature
difference and the tilt.

iii. Piping
The piping material should have high conductivity, longer durability and exhibit corrosion free
characteristics. This characteristics is met by copper although steel is normally used because
copper is more expensive. Fluid conducts in solar systems are usually circular or rectangular in
shape. Rectangular ducts are normally used for air whereas circular pipes are used for liquids.

Positioning and joining of the pipes to the absorber plate

There are three basic ways of positioning the pipes and the absorber plate with respect to each
other. These are;

(a) Placing the pipes under the absorber plates

(b) Forming the pipes and the absorber plate so that they appear clamped
(c) Placing the pipes on top of the absorber

The pipes must be thermally bounded to the absorber plate in such a way that there is a good
thermal conductance.

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 iv. Insulation
Insulation in a solar collector separates the hot absorber plate from the cool outside environment.
The insulation should be of closed cell construction it should also be nonflammable. Several
insulation materials are available and can be chosen depending on the operation temperature. For
example, Urethane foam has the following characteristics;
Urethane foam: density= 32-64 kg/m3
Temperature range = 120-205 C
Thermal conductivity, k = 0.02885

The of insulation of panels and pipes is based on a trade-off between insulation thickness and the
value of heat cost.

2.6 Energy Flow in a Flat Plate Solar Collector and Thermal Collection Efficiency

2.6.1 Heat gains and losses in a flat plate solar collector

Heat gains and losses on the cover plate
Heat gains: -Visible light from the sun
-Infrared and ultraviolet light from the sun
-Infrared radiation from the absorber plate

Heat losses: -Infrared radiation from the cover plate

-Reflected component
-Convective losses on the top surface of the cover plate.

Heat gains and losses on the absorber plate

Heat gains: -Visible light transmitted through the cover plate
-Infrared and ultraviolet reflected by the cover plate

Heat losses: -Infrared radiation from the absorber plate

-Convective losses on the top surface of the absorber plate.

Other losses
- losses through insulating material (mainly conduction of heat through the rear and
sides of collector

2.7 Design Factors for Flat Plate Collectors

2.7.1 Introduction
In designing or choosing/purchasing a solar collector, the following factors should be
considered:

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 i. efficient
ii. long lasting
iii. economic to buy, install and maintain

From the definition of solar efficiency, as the ratio of useful heat output divided by light energy
available, an efficient collector must;
i. Absorb as much of the incoming light as possible
ii. Minimise heat losses to the environment
iii. Effectively transfer its collected heat to heat transfer fluid flowing through it.

To be long lasting, a solar collector must;

i. Withstand occasional extreme temperatures
ii. Withstand daily temperature fluctuation
iii. Withstand continuous bombardment by the ultraviolet radiation in sunlight
iv. Resist corrosion from the heat transfer fluid and other sources.

To be economical to buy, install, and maintain, a collector must;

i. Be relatively light in weight
ii. Be simple to mount and simple to connect to air or liquid headers
iii. Require cleaning and maintenance only at frequent intervals

2.7.2 Increasing the efficiency of the cover plate

To increase the efficiency of the cover plate;
(i) Attempt to increase transmittance coefficient
(ii) Attempt to reduce reflectance and emmitance coefficients
There are two materials for cover plate; glass and plastic

(a) Glass:
Glazing material its efficiency can be improved transmittance coefficient of a glass depends on
the iron content. A 0.32 cm thick sheet of a window glass (iron content 0.12%) transmits 85% of
solar energy while if iron content reduced to 0.01% (water-white glass) transmittance of
improving the properties of glass is by special treatment of the glass.

(i) Acid bath -acid bath creates macro porous surface that effectively has reduced inlet of
refraction (reflection). Anti-reflective glass may transmit 6.7% more light than ordinary glass.
The disadvantage of acid bath is that the porous surfaces laid to absorb grease readily and hold it
others losing its properties.
(ii) Infrared reflective coating. This reduces the heat loss since the in radiation from the absorber
plate will be reflected back.

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(b) Plastic:
Efficiency can be by reducing weary on their plates. Some plastic materials can be used for
collector glasing. They are cheaper and lighter than glass and because they can be used in very
thin sheets, they often have a higher transmittance. However, they are not as durable as glass and
they often degrade with exposure to ultraviolet radiation or high temperature. Cover plate
performance Single cover plate transmits more radiation than double cover plate. But since the
radiation of rays by the absorber plate increases with temperature it follows that single-cover
plate are more effective at low absorber plate temperature whole double cover plate are more
effective at higher absorber plate temperature.

2.7.3 Increasing the efficiency of the absorber plate

The absorber plate is the element that performs the actual work of converting light to heat energy
and transferring the heat to flowing air or liquid. It is a vital element of any collector and several
considerations affect its design. The surface of the absorber plate determines how much the
incident solar radiation is absorbed and how much is emitted at a given temperature. A good
absorber plate should absorb as much solar radiation as possible but emits as little infrared
radiation as possible. To increase the absorptance of the absorber plates, the surfaces can be
given black painting or selective coatings.

2.5.3.1. Absorber plates for air-type collectors

The use of air, as the heat transfer fluid leads to the simplest collector designs and has certain
other advantages over liquid fluid. For example, air does not corrode absorber plate, does not
freeze or boil. Whereas air can leak, they do affect system performance, do not have the same
destructive consequences that water leaks have. The disadvantage of air system is its relatively
poor heat transfer characteristics: it does not accept or release heat as readily as water does. Air
absorbers, therefore normally contain fins that increase the heated area and improve heat
transfer. Heat transfer is also improved if large volumes of air, is blown through the collector to
remove the heat. The design considerations, which affect the performance of air-type absorber
plate are:

1. An air type absorber should present a relatively flat surface to the sun, especially if it has the
standard, non-selective black coating. Fins on the back of the absorber provide a large surface
area for good heat transfer. The fins should be aligned in the direction of the air-flow to offer
minimum resistance.
2. An air type absorber should present a lot of surface to the flowing air, in order to increase the
heat transfer area and consequently the amount of heat transferred to air. That is why afinned
absorber performs better than as flat absorber, the fins add more surface area, the flowing air
touches more hot metal and more heat transferred.

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3. An air type absorber should not add a large amount of turbulence to the air flowing through
the collector. Whereas turbulent air is very effective to remove heat from the absorber,
turbulence also causes increased resistance to airflow, this means that there is more pressure drop
through the collector and a large fan is needed to circulate the air.

4. The best material for air-type absorber is metal. Aluminium and galvanised steel works the
best. Corrosion is not a problem, except over very long time spans and metals conduct heat so
well that localised hot and cold spots will not develop, the temperature remains fairly uniform
over the entire plate.

2.5.3.2. Absorber plates for water-type collectors

There are a large number of successful water-type systems in operation. It has been found that
care must be taken to avoid corrosion and freezing problems. A mixture of water, antifreeze and
other additives as the heat transfer fluid eliminates the threat of frozen water and broken pipes.
Since it is expensive to fill the entire system including the storage with glycol antifreeze, an extra
heat exchanger is needed to separate the small collector loop with the storage loop and the rest of
the system. Usually corrosion inhibitors are added. There are several design considerations that
affect the performance of liquid absorber plates.

1. Good performance is largely a matter of maintaining a balanced flow throughout all of the
liquid passages.

2. Performance is greatly affected by the bond between the absorber plate and fluid-flow
passages. Often a pipe is simply bent in to serpentine shape and welded onto the back of a flat
sheet of metal. With this design, any heat collected between the pipes must travel across the plate
plate, through the weld and through the pipe before it reaches the liquid. This reduces heat
transfer efficiency. In certain designs, the tubes are made integral part of the absorber plate, the
heat readily flows to the liquid and the collector efficiency will be greater. If the tubes are
eliminated completely and the liquid allowed to flow through the entire absorber plate,
performance will be better.

3. Corrosion can be a very serious problem in liquid type absorber plates. A poorly designed or
improperly used liquid absorber can be full of leaks within weeks of installation. The best way to
prevent corrosion is to use only copper absorber plates and copper pipes in a liquid type system.
Under certain circumstances any of the other commonly used materials – aluminium, stainless
steel, carbon steel – can cause problems. In open loop system, tap water has the disturbing
tendency to eat rapidly both aluminium and carbon steel absorbers. Even stainless steel is
susceptible to corrosion in areas where it has been welded. Some of the solutions against
corrosion include use of corrosion inhibitors, use of electrically insulating materials such as
ceramic at joints of dissimilar materials and use of distilled water in closed loop system.

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2.5.3.3. Surface coatings
The most important function of an absorber plate is the conversion of the suns radiant energy to
thermal energy. The surface treatment on the absorber plate is what actually performs this
function. The most commonly used surface treatment are black coatings, either flat black paint or
selective surface. A solar absorber coating must meet several criteria if it is to work well in
practice:

1. It must absorb nearly all the visible light that strikes it, that is, it should be very black.
Absorption of 98 % is typical
2. It must resist high temperature of 150-200 o C which can be reached in double glazed
collector under unusual conditions
3. It must be durable under widely varied conditions
4. It must not add excessively to the cost of the collector.

(a) Painting
When paint is used as the surface coating, it must be heat resistant and flat black. Heat resistant
paints often contain silicone-based resins. They can typically withstand temperatures up to 425C
– far above the maximum reached in an average solar collector. Flat black paint, which is widely
used as a coating as an absorptance of about 95% of incident short-wave solar radiation.

It is durable and easy to apply. When paint is used as the surface coating it must be heat resistant
and flat black. The typical method of applying paint, is by spray gun and require good
preparation of the surface prior to painting. Flat black paint radiates a very large fraction of black
body radiation at long wavelength and therefore is inferior to selective coating from the point of
view of thermal efficiency. Due to their large radiation of infrared rays, flat black paint is more
efficient at low operating temperatures.

(b) Surface coatings;

The selective surfaces are coatings that absorbs most visible light as black paint does, but emit
far less infrared radiation than do black painted surfaces. This results in lower heat loss from the
collector, which in turn, means higher efficiency, especially at higher collection temperatures. A
solar collector can operate at a low temperature or a high temperature, depending on how fast the
heat transfer fluid is forced through. If fluid moves through slowly, it has more time to warm up
whereas if it moves fast, more fluid passes in unit time, so the absorber operates at low
temperature. In general, the higher the operating temperature, the more rapidly the collector loses
heat so the less efficient it is.

The decision whether or not to use a selective surface in a given collector depends to a large
extent on how hot the collectors are intended to be run. For solar powered air conditioning,

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industrial-process heating and other applications requiring high temperature heat output, it is
often advantageous to use selective surfaces. Heat loss must be minimized so that the absorber
can operate at high temperatures without losing all its heat. It may also be desirable to use
selective surfaces in liquid type solar collectors since hotter liquid will mean that heat
exchangers will operate at higher efficiency. Generally, there are no universal guidelines, the
choice between selective and non-selective being based on individual, cases by case basis. In
general it has been determine that single glazed collector with a selective surface is
approximately equivalent in performance to a double glazed collector with a standard
nonselective surface.

Materials:
The most commonly used selective surfaces are very thin layers of metal oxides that are
deposited by electrolysis on the polished metal surface of the absorber plate. The materials used
include black chrome, black zinc, black copper and black nickel. One the most popular and
durable selective surfaces is black chrome, It can be applied to most metals.

2.7.4 Frame, Boxes and Insulation

The materials for the construction of solar collector frames can be wood, metal or plastic. Wood
has been used for many years and may certainly be an acceptable material if properly used. A
wood-framed collector is easy to build and has some natural insulating capability, but there is
one inherent problem – wood and heat do not go together well. Initially the danger of fire is low;
temperatures of 175-200 are about the maximum that can be expected in a flat plate collector.
However, as wood ages in the presence of heat it pyrolysis, becoming dry, weak and more
susceptible to fire. Furthermore, if a collector is constructed of wood that has not been properly
seasoned and preferably treated to resist ageing.

Metal is strong and fire resistant but heavier than wood, more expensive and an excellent
conductor of heat. As a result, metal collector frames tend to be heavy, expensive and heat losers.
However, they can be thermally isolated from absorber plates.

Plastics are being considered for collector frames. New materials are becoming available that can
withstand high temperatures and are as strong as metals. Plastics are light, fire resistant and
attractive, but plastic frame would possibly have to be painted to protect it from ultraviolet
exposure.
The insulation in a solar collector separates the hot absorber plate from the cool outside
Environment. Allowance must always be made for the thermal expansion of various materials,
particularly glass, which tends to self-destruction if not given sufficient room for expansion. For
example at 150 C, the linear expansion of aluminium would be 0.43 % whereas that of glass;
steel and plastic would be 0.14, 0.18 and 3.3 %, respectively.

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The main features of the physical structure of a flat plate collector frame are

1. The frame must provide firm support for the collector and at the same time insulate the
absorber plate from the outer edges of the collector.
2. A weather proof and air tight seal cover, an allowance for thermal expansion and firm
physical support for the glazing.
3. Simple access through the frame into the collector or a simple way to remove the cover
and replace broken glazing, clean the absorber plate or perform other maintenance
4. The frame must allow for watertight or airtight fluid passage

2.8 Storing solar heat

Water storage systems are especially susceptible to corrosion and sealing. Hand water sealing
can be reduced by the use of water softener.

It is generally agreed that 75% of storage water should be provided for every square meter of
optimized liquid type collector area. A solar heated water storage tank can be made of concrete,
fibre glass or metal. To minimise heat loss from the storage unit, a cylindrical or cubic tank
constructed carefully to avoid excess stress on the cover with a diameter/higher ratio near 1.1 is
preferred.

2.8.1 Phase Change Storage System

Phase change takes advantage of energy that can be stored and then retained during a phase
change (from solid to liquid to solid) of certain substances. Phase-change storage materials are
usually contained in small tubes, trays, or packets and stacked in the storage unit. They are
primarily used with air type collectors.

The major advantage of phase change storage is the compactness. It requires significantly less
space than either rock or water storage. This compactness however is usually accomplished at a
high cost and when lost is considered the advantage often disappears.

Substances used for phase-change storage

Water -Has very high heat of fusion but out to its low melting points, its use is restricted.
Paraffin Wax- High heat of fusion but less dense therefore require big quantity. It has the
advantage of melting and re solidifying very easily always returning to its original form.
Salt Hydrates- Has high heat of fusion, dense and therefore make a more compact storage
medium. As a result they are most often used.

Disadvantages of phase change system

The main disadvantage of phase change system is super-cooling

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