SENSORS

Sensors and Actuators

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Transducers
• Transducer
• a device that converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding signal with a different
energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical, chemical, etc.
• take the form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
• a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
• acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
• a device that generates a signal or stimulus
sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world
actuator system

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Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
• convert the desired parameter into an electrically measurable signal.
• General Electronic Sensor
• primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into an electrical signal
• Conditional Circuit: converts the electrical signal into analog or digital values
• Typical Electronic Sensor System

input
signal sensor data microcontroller
(measurand)
sensor signal processing
analog/digital
communication

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Example Electronic Sensor Systems
• Components vary with the application
• digital sensor within an instrument
• microcontroller keypad
sensor µC
• signal timing signal timing
• data storage sensor memory display
handheld instrument
• analog sensor analyzed by a PC
sensor interface e.g., RS232
PC
sensor A/D, communication
signal processing comm. card

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Primary Transducers
• Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
• thermocouple: temperature difference
• compass (magnetic): direction
• Microelectronic Sensors
Millimetre-sized, highly sensitive, less robust
• photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
• infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
• Piezo-resisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
• Micro-accelerometers: vibration, ∆-velocity (car crash)
• chemical sensors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives).

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Example Primary Transducers
• Light Sensor
• photoconductor
• light  ∆R

• photodiode
• light  ∆I

• membrane pressure sensor

• resistive (pressure  ∆ R)
• capacitive (pressure  ∆C)

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Displacement Measurements
• Measurements of size, shape, and position utilize displacement sensors
• Examples
• diameter of part under stress (direct)
• movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid movement through the heart
(indirect)
• Primary Transducer Types
• Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)
• Inductive Sensors
• Capacitive Sensors
• Piezoelectric Sensors
• Conditional Circuit
• Wheatstone Bridge
• Amplifiers

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Strain Gage: Gage Factor
• Remember: for a strained thin wire
• ∆R/R = ∆L/L – ∆A/A + ∆ρ/ρ D L
• A=π (D/2)2, for circular wire

• Poisson’s ratio, µ: relates the change in diameter D to change in length L

• ∆D/D = - µ ∆L/L
• Thus
• ∆R/R = (1+2µ) ∆L/L + ∆ρ/ρ piezoresistive effect
dimensional effect

• Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials

• G = ∆R/R = (1+2µ) + ∆ρ/ρ

∆L/L ∆L/L

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Temperature Sensor Options
• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
• Platinum, Nickel, and Copper metals are typically used
• positive temperature coefficients
• Thermistors (“thermally sensitive resistor”)
• formed from semiconductor materials, not metals
• often composite of a ceramic and a metallic oxide (Mn, Co, Cu or Fe)
• typically have negative temperature coefficients
• Thermocouples
• based on the Seebeck effect: dissimilar metals at diff. temps.  signal

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Fiber-optic Temperature Sensor
• Sensor operation
• small prism-shaped sample of single-crystal undoped GaAs attached to ends of two optical
fibers.
• light energy absorbed by the GaAs crystal depends on temperature
• percentage of received vs. transmitted energy is a function of temperature
• Can be made small enough for biological implantation

GaAs semiconductor temperature probe

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Example MEMS Transducers
• MEMS = micro-electro-mechanical system
• miniature transducers created using IC fabrication processes
• Micro-accelerometer
• cantilever beam
• suspended mass

• Rotation
• gyroscope

Diaphragm (Upper electrode)

• Pressure Lower electrode 5-10mm

Passive Sensor Readout Circuit
• Photodiode Circuits

• Thermistor Half-Bridge
• voltage divider
• one element varies

• Wheatstone Bridge
• R3 = resistive sensor
• R4 is matched to nominal value of R3 VCC
• If R1 = R2, Vout-nominal = 0
• Vout varies as R3 changes R1+R4
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Operational Amplifiers
• Properties
• open-loop gain: ideally infinite: practical values 20k-200k
• high open-loop gain  virtual short between + and - inputs
• input impedance: ideally infinite: CMOS opamps are close to ideal
• output impedance: ideally zero: practical values 20-100Ω
• zero output offset: ideally zero: practical value <1mV
• gain-bandwidth product (GB): practical values ~MHz
• frequency where open-loop gain drops to 1 V/V
• Commercial opamps provide many different properties
• low noise
• low input current
• low power
• high bandwidth
• low/high supply voltage
• special purpose: comparator, instrumentation amplifier

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Basic Opamp Configuration
• Voltage Comparator
• digitize input

• Voltage Follower
• buffer
• Inverting Amp
• Non-Inverting Amp

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More Opamp Configurations
• Summing Amp

• Differential Amp

• Integrating Amp

• Differentiating Amp

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Converting Configuration
• Current-to-Voltage

• Voltage-to-Current

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Instrumentation Amplifier
• Robust differential gain stage
gain amplifier

• Input stage input stage

• high input impedance
• buffers gain stage
• no common mode gain
• can have differential gain

• Gain stage total differential gain

• differential gain, low input impedance 2 R2 + R1  R4 
Gd =  
R1  R3 
• Overall amplifier
• amplifies only the differential component
• high common mode rejection ratio
• high input impedance suitable for biopotential electrodes with high output impedance

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Connecting Sensors to Microcontrollers
sensor µC keypad

• Analog sensor
signal timing
memory display
• many microcontrollers have a built-in A/D instrument

• 8-bit to 12-bit common

• many have multi-channel A/D inputs
• Digital
• serial I/O
• use serial I/O port, store in memory to analyze
• synchronous (with clock)
• must match byte format, stop/start bits, parity check, etc.
• asynchronous (no clock): more common for comm. than data
• must match baud rate and bit width, transmission protocol, etc.
• frequency encoded
• use timing port, measure pulse width or pulse frequency

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Connecting Smart Sensors to PC
• “Smart sensor” = sensor with built-in signal processing & communication
• e.g., combining a “dumb sensor” and a microcontroller
• Data Acquisition Cards (DAQ)
• PC card with analog and digital I/O
• interface through LabVIEW or user-generated code
• Communication Links Common for Sensors
• asynchronous serial comm.
• universal asynchronous receive and transmit (UART)
• RS232 Serial Port on PCs uses UART format (but at +/- 12V)
• I2C = Inter-Integrated Circuit bus
• designed by Philips for comm. inside TVs, used in several commercial sensor systems
• IEEE P1451: Sensor Comm. Standard
• several different sensor comm. protocols for different applications

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Sensor Calibration
• Sensors can exhibit non-ideal effects
• offset: nominal output ≠ nominal parameter value
• nonlinearity: output not linear with parameter changes
• cross parameter sensitivity: secondary output variation with, e.g., temperature

• Calibration = adjusting output to match parameter 7.000

• analog signal conditioning 6.000

T1
• look-up table 5.000
100

• digital calibration 1

Frequency (MHz)
101

T2
4.000 0
• T = a + bV +cV2, 100
1

offset
3.000 110
• T= temperature; V=sensor voltage; 1
111
• a,b,c = calibration coefficients 0

T3
2.000

• Compensation 1.000

• remove secondary sensitivities 0.000

• must have sensitivities characterized -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30

Temperature (C)
40 50 60 70

• can remove with polynomial evaluation

• P = a + bV + cT + dVT + e V2, where P=pressure, T=temperature

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