Grade: 12

Chapter-1

Electric Charges and Fields

Learning Objectives: -
 To define and give examples of the process of electric charging by friction
(Electrification).
 To list the properties of electrostatic force and charge.
 To explain the theory of atomic structure as it applies to electrostatic
charging.
 To identify common instruments used to produce and detect electrically
charged objects.
 To recognize the shape of various electric field patterns.
 To state the mathematical definitions of Coulomb force, electric field.
 To construct physical representations of various types of electric field
patterns given the nature of charges involved.
 To use diagrams and written descriptions to describe the process of
charging objects by conduction and by induction.
 To identify variables in the electric fields and forces surrounding point
charges or charged parallel plates.
 To use mathematical and vectorial operations to quantify and analyze the
nature of electric forces and fields.
 To use electrostatic units of measurement correctly in calculations, reports
and tables.
 To solve problems involving combinations of electric force and electric field.
 To propose reasons for observable effects in our common experience which
may be due to electrostatic effects.
 To describe a force field and calculate the strength of an electric field due
to a point charge
 To calculate the force exerted on a test charge by an electric field
 To explains the relationship between electrical force (F) on a test charge
and electric field strength (E).
 To state and explain Gauss’s law and its applications

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Electric Charge:-
Charge is one of the inherent properties of matter. There are two types of
charges, positive and negative charges .like charges repel each other and unlike
charges attract each other that we have studied in grade 10.
S.I unit of electric charge is Coulomb(C)
Static electricity
When two different materials are rubbed each other, charges are acquiring on it.
It is called static electricity. Electricity produced in this way are not taken out, it is
static.
When two different materials rub each other electrons are transferred from one
material to other. This can be find by using Tribo-electric series. Two substances in
the series when rubbed each other acquire electric charges in such a way that the
former loses electron (gain +ve) and later gains electron (gain –ve).
The series is
Glass, flannel, wool, silk, hard metal, rubber, wax, resin, sulphur etc.
Eg.when plastic pen rubbed with dry hair can attract small bits of paper because
during rubbing plastic acquire charge.
Glass rod with silk- glass rod gain positive charge and silk gains negative charge.
Amber with fur-amber gains positive and fur gains negative charge.
Methods of charging:-
There are two methods for charging
i) By contact
A body can be charged by bringing a charged body in contact with it.in
this case same type of charge is transferred.

Here when an ebonite rod is keep in contact with metal ball electron
transferred from ebonite to metal rod so that both gain negative charge.
ii) By induction

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A body can be charged in the presence of another charged body without
direct contact. This is known as charging by induction.

In this charge acquired by the body is opposite to the charge on the

charging body.
Properties of electric charge:
i) Quantisation of electric charge
The charge of an electron is represented by ‘–e’ and the charge of the
proton is represented by ‘+e’.
“The charge possessed by any charged body will be an integral multiple of
′ ± 𝑒’.
that is q = ±𝒏𝒆 where n = 1,2,3……..

ii) Conservation of charges

“Charge can neither be created nor be destroyed.” Or in an isolated
system, the net charge always remains constant.
Eg. Nuclear fission
1 235 141 92 1
0𝑛 + 92𝑈 → 56𝐵𝑎 + 36𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛 +E
Here number of proton before collision = 0+92 = 92
Number of proton after collision = 56 + 36 + 3x0=92
So the net charge is same. Therefore charge is conserved.

iii) Additive nature

The total charge on a body is the algebraic sum of all the charges located
anywhere on the body.
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 Let us consider the following body have charges.

+2q -1q +3q

-5q

Then the total charge is given by Q = +2q + 3q - 1q - 5q = -1q

Coulomb’s law
According to coulomb’s law the force of attraction or repulsion between
any two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
Consider two point charges ‘q1’ and ‘q2’placed in the air at points A and B
separated by a small distance ‘r’

q1 q2
q1
r
1
1
then by coulomb’s law the force between them is
F ∝ q1q2 ……………………………………… (1)
1
F∝ ………………………………………. (2)
𝑟2

Combining equations (1) and (2) ,we get

𝑞1𝑞2
F∝
𝑟2
𝑞1𝑞2
F=𝐾
𝑟2
Where ‘K’ is constant of proportionality which depends on nature of
medium in which the charges are located.

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 1
The value of K is given by , K = where ’ 𝜀′ (epsilon) is the permittivity and
4𝜋𝜀
can be expressed as 𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 , 𝜀0 is the permittivity of the free space and
𝜀𝑟 is the relative permittivity of the medium.
1 𝑞1𝑞2
Then F=
4𝜋𝜀 𝑟2
For vacuum 𝜀0 = 8.854x10-12C2N-1m-2
For air 𝜀𝑟 = 1.002≈ 1
Then by putting this value , the value of ‘K’ become
K = 9x 109
Then the Coulomb’s law becomes
𝑞1𝑞
2
F = 9x 109
𝑟2

Dielectric constant (𝜺𝒓 )

We have
1 𝑞1𝑞2
Fair = ……………….. (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

1 𝑞1𝑞2
Fmed = …………………… (2)
4𝜋𝜀0𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2

(1) Fair
gives = 𝜀𝑟
(2) Fmed

That is dielectric constant of a medium is defined as the ratio of the force acting
between the two charges placed in air to the force acting between same charges
placed at the same distance apart in that medium.
Define 1 coulomb.
We know that S.I unit of electric charge is coulomb
By coulomb’s law

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 𝑞1 𝑞2
F = 9x109
𝑟2

If q1 = q2 =1 C , r=1m
Then F = 9x109 N
That is “one coulomb is that charge which when placed in air at a distance of 1
meter from an equal and similar charge repels with a force of 9x109 N.
 Calculate the number of electron in 1 coulomb of charge?
Charge of an electron = 1.6x 10-19 c
1.6x 10-19 c = 1 electron
1
1 coulomb = electro
1.6𝑥10−19

1 coulomb = 6.25x1018 electron

Principle of superposition
The principle of superposition states that when a number of charges are
interacting, the total force on a given charge is the algebraic sum of the forces
exerted by all other charges.
Consider charges q1, q2, q3, q4 ….. placed in air at a distance r1,r2,r3,r4…
respectively from a point ‘Q’ q2

q1 r2 q3
r1 r3
Q r4 q4
let
Force on Q due to q1 = F1
Force on Q due to q2 = F2
Force on Q due to q3 = F3
Force on Q due to q4 = F4
Then total force acting on ‘Q’ is the algebraic sum of all forces

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That is F = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
Continuous Charge Distribution:
Any charge which covers a space with dimensions much less than its distance
away from an observation point can be considered a point charge.
A system of closely spaced charges is said to form a continuous
charge distribution.

It is useful to consider the density of a charge distribution as we do for density of

solid, liquid, gas, etc.

(i) Line or Linear Charge Density ( λ ):

If the charge is distributed over a straight line or over the circumference of a

circle or over the edge of a cuboid, etc, then the distribution is called ‘linear
charge distribution’.

Linear charge density is the charge per unit length. Its SI unit is C / m.

𝒒 𝒅𝒒
𝛌= or 𝛌=
𝒍 𝒅𝒍

Total charge on line l is given by

𝐿
𝑞 = ∫𝑙 λdl

(ii) Surface Charge Density (σ ):

If the charge is distributed over a surface area, then the distribution is called
surface charge distribution’.
Surface charge density is the charge per unit area.
2
Its SI unit is C / m .

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 𝒒 𝒅𝒒
𝛔= or 𝛔=
𝒔 𝒅𝒔

Total charge on surface S is given by

𝑆
𝑞 = ∫𝑠 𝛔ds

(iii) Volume Charge Density ( ρ ):

If the charge is distributed over a volume, then the distribution is called
volume charge distribution’.
Volume charge density is the charge per unit volume
3
Its SI unit is C / m .

𝒒 𝒅𝒒
𝛒= or 𝛒=
𝒗 𝒅𝒗
Total charge on volume V is given by

𝑉
𝑞 = ∫𝑣 𝛒dv

Electric Field: -
The region or space around a charge where experience its influence is called
electric field.
Electric Field Intensity: -
The electric field intensity at any point due a point charge is defined as the force
experienced per unit positive test charge placed at that point. It is expressed as
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞0

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S.I unit of electric field intensity is ------N/C or NC-1
Dimensional formula is
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 [𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇−2 ]
E , electric field intensity, = = [𝐼𝑇]
= [𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −3𝐼 −1]
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

Electric Field Intensity (EFI) due to a Point Charge :-

𝑞0

Consider a point charge ‘q’ placed in air .let ′𝑞0 ’ be the test charge placed at
a point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ from ‘q’
Force experienced by ‘𝑞0 ′
1 𝑞𝑞0
𝐹= − − − − − − − −(1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Electric field intensity at point ‘P’ is given by
𝐹
𝐸=
𝑞0
1 𝑞𝑞
𝑥 0
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
Then 𝐸=
𝑞0

1 𝑞
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
,
Electric field intensity varies with square of distances. larger distances lesser
intensity.

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Electric field due to system of charges:-
Let us consider a system of four charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 , 𝑞4. and 𝑟1, 𝑟2, 𝑟3, 𝑟4. be the
position vector with respect to ‘O’ . Let a unit positive charge be placed at ‘O’.

Then by superposition principle, the total electric field at a point in space is given
by.
𝐸 = 𝐸2 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + 𝐸4
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞4
𝐸= [ + + + ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12 𝑟22 𝑟32 𝑟42
If the system consists of ‘n’ charges then
𝑛
1 𝑞𝑛
𝐸= ∑ 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑛
𝑁=1

Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines are a pictorial way of representing electric field around a
configuration of charges.

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Properties of Electric Field Lines

 The field lines never intersect each other.

 The field lines are perpendicular to the surface of the charge.
 The magnitude of charge is proportional to the number of field lines.
 The field lines start at the positive charge and ends on negative charge.
 For the field lines to either start or end at infinity, a single charge must be
used.
 Electric lines of force do not pass through a conductor. Hence, the interior
of the conductor is free from the influence of the electric field.
 Electric lines of force can pass through an insulator

Electric Flux:-
Number of electric field lines passing through an area is known as electric flux through
that area.
Or it is the product of the magnitude of the electric field and the surface area, A,
perpendicular to the field.
It is a scalar quantity.

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Φ = E.A
Electric flux ϕ = EAcosθ
SI unit of electric flux is Nm2/C

Electric dipole
A pair of equal and opposite point charges separated by a small distance is known
as electric dipole. The direction of the dipole is said to be from +q to -q.

Electric Dipole moment:

The product of either of the charges and the separation between them is known
as dipole moment. The dipole moment is a vector quantity whose direction is
from negative to a positive charge.
Its S.I unit is Coulomb-meter.
Dipole Moment (P) = Charge (q) X distance of separation (2a)

𝑃⃗ = 2𝑞𝑎

Electric field due to electric dipole

i) Electric field intensity at a point on the axial line of an electric dipole
Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment ‘P’ and length ‘2a’ placed in air.
let ‘Q’ be the point on axial line at a distance ‘x ’from the centre of dipole.

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The electric field at the point Q due to -q at A is,
1 −𝑞
𝐸𝐴 = (𝑄𝐴)2
(along QA)
4πε0

1 −𝑞
𝐸𝐴 =
4πε0 (𝑥+𝑎)2

The electric field at the point Q due to +q at B is,

1 +𝑞
𝐸𝐵 = (𝑄𝐵)2
(along BQ)
4πε0

1 +𝑞
𝐸𝐵 =
4πε0 (𝑥−𝑎)2

Net field at Q due to dipole is given by

E = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐵
1 −𝑞 1 𝑞
E= +
4πε0 (𝑥+𝑎)2 4πε0 (𝑥−𝑎)2

𝑞 1 1
E= [(𝑥−𝑎)2 − (𝑥+𝑎)2 ]
4πε0

𝑞 𝑥 2 +2𝑥𝑎+𝑎2 −(𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑎+𝑎2 )

E= [ ]
4πε0 (𝑥 2 −𝑎2 )2

𝑞 4𝑥𝑎
E= [ ]
4πε0 (𝑥 2 −𝑎2 )2
1 2.2𝑞𝑎.𝑥
E= [(𝑥 2 ] but 2qa = P, dipole moment
4πε0 −𝑎2 )2
1 2.𝑃.𝑥
E= [(𝑥 2 ]
4πε0 −𝑎2 )2

If 2a ≪ 𝑥 then ‘a’ is very small

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 1 2.𝑃.𝑥
E= [(𝑥 2 )2 ]
4πε0
1 2.𝑃.𝑥
E= [ ]
4πε0 𝑥4

1 2𝑃
E= The field is along PX
4πε0 𝑥 3

The field intensity varies inversely as the cube of the distance.

ii) Electric field intensity at a point on the equatorial line of an electric

dipole
Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment ‘P’ and length ‘2a’ placed in air.
let ‘P’ be the point on equatorial line at a distance ‘x ’from the centre of
dipole. (equatorial line :-line passing through the centre of dipole and
perpendicular to axial line )

The electric field at the point ‘P’ due to -q at A is,

1 −𝑞
𝐸𝐴 = (𝐴𝑃)2
4πε0
1 −𝑞
𝐸𝐴 = ……………………(i) (along PA)
4πε0 (𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )2
The electric field at the point ‘P’ due to +q at B is,
1 +𝑞
𝐸𝐵 = (𝐵𝑃)2
4πε0

1 +𝑞
𝐸𝐵 = ……………………… (ii ) (along BP)
4πε0 (𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )

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From (i) and (ii)
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐴 | and |𝐸
To find the resultant field at ‘P’ |𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐵 | can be resolved into two
mutually perpendicular components 𝐸𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝐸𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝐸𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐸𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 are equal and opposite so cancel each other. Hence the
resultant field at ‘P’ is
𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐸𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 2𝐸𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ……………(iii)
( ∴ 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝐵 )
1 𝑞
𝐸 = 2𝑥 . 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃………………………..(iv)
4πε0 (𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )
𝐴𝑑𝑗.𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎
But from fig. 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = = 1
𝐻𝑦𝑝. (𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )2

Then (iv) becomes

1 𝑞 𝑎
𝐸 = 2𝑥 1
4πε0 (𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )1 (𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )2

1 2𝑞𝑎
𝐸= . 1
4πε0 (𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )1 (𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )2

1 𝑃
𝐸= 3 along PQ
4πε0 (𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )2

If 2a ≪ 𝑥 then ‘a’ is very small, then

1 𝑃
𝐸=
4πε0 𝑥 3

 Electric field at axial line is twice the field on equatorial line

Torque on an Electric Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field:

Consider an electric dipole ‘AB’ of dipole moment ‘P’ and length ‘2a’
placed in an electric field ‘E’. Let dipole make an angle ′𝜃′ with the field

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 Force on charge +q = 𝑞𝐸⃗ along 𝐸⃗

Force on charge -q = 𝑞𝐸⃗ opposite to 𝐸⃗

These two equal and opposite parallel forces constitute a couple. Hence torque
acts on a dipole tending to align field’s direction.

Torque = Electric Force x ⊥distance

𝑂𝑝𝑝.𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒( ⊥distance) ⊥distance
from fig. 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜. 2𝑎

or ⊥ distance = 2aSin θ
then

Torque, 𝜏 = 𝑞𝐸 𝑥 2𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝜏 = 2𝑞𝑎𝐸 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 but 2qa = P, dipole moment

Then torque become

𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑜𝑟

𝜏 = 𝑃⃗ 𝑋𝐸⃗

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 Case i: If θ = 0°, or 180° then 𝜏 = 0. That is torque is minimum when
dipole is parallel to the field
Case ii: If θ = 90°, then 𝜏 = P.E That is torque is maximum when dipole is
perpendicular to the field
Potential Energy of Dipole Placed in Uniform Electric field
Consider an electric dipole ‘AB’ of dipole moment ‘P’placed in a uniform
electric field ‘E’. Let dipole make an angle ′𝜃′ with the direction of field.

When an electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field, it experiences torque

and tends to align in such a way to attain stable equilibrium.the torque acting on
dipole is given by
𝜏 = 𝑃𝐸 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃…………………(i)
Let dipole turned an angle ‘d𝜃’ against torque ,then the work done
dW = 𝜏. 𝑑𝜃 ( ∴ 𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑𝑆 )
dW = 𝑃𝐸 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃.

To find out the total work done integrate the expression from 𝜃1 𝑡𝑜 𝜃2
𝜃2
∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝐸 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝜃1
𝜃
𝑊 = 𝑃𝐸 [−𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 ]𝜃21

𝑊 = 𝑃𝐸 [𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃2]
This work done is stored as potential energy in the dipole, that is
Potential energy,

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 U = 𝑃𝐸 [𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃2]

Suppose the dipole is initially at right angle to electric field and rotate
through an angle ‘𝜃′ then 𝜃1 = 900 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃2 = 𝜃
There fore
U = PE ( Cos 90-Cos 𝜃)
= PE (0 - Cos 𝜃 )
U = - PE Cos 𝜃

U = -𝑃⃗. 𝐸⃗
It’s a vector quantity and measured in joule
Special cases
We have
U = - PE Cos 𝜃

Gauss's theorem: -
The surface integral of electric field intensity over any closed surface is equal
to 1 / ε0 times net charge enclosed by that surface.
Or Gauss’s theorem state that ‘the total electric flux passing through any
closed surface is 1 / ε0 times charge enclosed by that surface’.
Proof:-
Consider a charge ‘q’ placed at a point ‘O’ in free space.

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Now consider a Gaussian surface in the form of sphere with radius ‘r’. Let ‘P’ be
the point on the surface area ‘dS’
The electric field at ‘P’ is given by
1 𝑞
𝐸= …………. (i)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

The electric flux through ‘dS’ is

𝑑𝜑 = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆
Then the total flux over the closed surface is given by

∅ = ∫𝑠 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 ………… (ii )

From (i) and (ii)

1 𝑞
∅=∫ . 𝑑𝑆
𝑠 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

1 𝑞
∅= ∫ 𝑑𝑆
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑆
But ∫ 𝑑𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 , surface area of the sphere
Then
1 𝑞
∅= 2 𝑥4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝟏
∅= 𝒙𝒒
𝜺𝟎
Hence the law is proved
Applications of Gauss’s theorem
1.Electric field due to infinitely long straight wire
Consider a long straight wire of length ‘l’ and linear charge density ‘ λ‘ . Let ‘P’ be
a point at perpendicular distance from wire.To calculate ‘ 𝐸⃗ ’at ‘P’ imagine a
gaussian surface in the form of cylinder including ‘P’.Let ‘dS’ is a small area.

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At the end surfaces 𝐸⃗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆
From Gauss’s law
𝑞
𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∅ = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 =
𝜀 0

But the total flux is given by

∅ = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑

At the end surfaces ‘E’ is perpendicular to ‘dS’

then the flux

∅ = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑠𝐶𝑜𝑠90 + ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑠𝐶𝑜𝑠90 + ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑠𝐶𝑜𝑠0
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐸 ∫
∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠= E x 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑

∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = E x 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 …………………………….(ii)

From (i) and (ii)

𝑞
E x 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 =
𝜀0

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 𝑞
𝐸= ………………………………………….(iii)
2𝜋𝑟𝑙𝜀0

𝑞
But linear charge density, λ=
𝑙

Or q = λl
Then (iii) become
𝜆𝑙
𝐸=
2𝜋𝑟𝑙𝜀0
or
1 2𝜆
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Electric Field Intensity due to an Infinitely Long, Thin Plane Sheet of Charge:
Consider a sheet of charges. let ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’ from the sheet
.To find electric field at ‘P’ imagine a gaussian surface in the form of pill box
including ‘P’ The total flux through the surface is the flux through the both circular
faces pill box.

Then the total flux is given by

∅ = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 + 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠
∅ = 2𝐸𝑑𝑠 …………………….(i)

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 𝑞
We know that surface charge density,𝜎 =
𝑑𝑠

Or 𝑞 = 𝜎𝑑𝑠
By Gauss’s law
1
∅= 𝑥𝑞
𝜀0
1
Or ∅= 𝑥 𝜎𝑑𝑠 …………………….. (ii)
𝜀0

From (i) and (ii)

1
2𝐸𝑑𝑠 = 𝑥 𝜎𝑑𝑠
𝜀0
1
𝐸= 𝑥 𝜎𝑑𝑠
𝜀0 2𝑑𝑠
𝜎
𝐸=
2𝜀0

Electric field due to two sheets of charges: -

Consider two sheets of charges ‘A’ and ‘B’ with surface charge density ′𝜎𝐴 ′
and ′𝜎𝐵 ′respectively. Let EA and EB be the field intensities due to ‘A’ and ‘B’
respectively.

To find out the electric field ’E’ at any region, apply principle of superposition.

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 Electric field intensity in the region ‘I’ ,𝐸1 = −𝐸𝐴 + −𝐸𝐵
−𝜎𝐴 −𝜎𝐵
𝐸𝐼 = − towards left
2𝜀0 2𝜀0

Electric field intensity in the region ‘II”, 𝐸𝐼𝐼 = 𝐸𝐴 −𝐸𝐵

𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝐵
𝐸𝐼𝐼 = −
2𝜀0 2𝜀0

1
𝐸𝐼𝐼 = (𝜎 − 𝜎𝐵 )
2𝜀0 𝐴
Towards right if 𝜎𝐴 > 𝜎𝐵 and towards left if 𝜎𝐴 < 𝜎𝐵
Electric field intensity in the region ‘III”, 𝐸𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝐸𝐴 +𝐸𝐵
𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝐵
𝐸𝐼𝐼𝐼 = +
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
1
𝐸𝐼𝐼𝐼 = (𝜎𝐴 + 𝜎𝐵 ) towards right
2𝜀0

Special case: -
If 𝜎𝐴 = −𝜎𝐵 = 𝜎
Then electric field in region ‘II’
1
𝐸𝐼𝐼 = [𝜎 − (−𝜎)]
2𝜀0
1
= 2𝜎
2𝜀0
𝜎
𝐸𝐼𝐼 =
𝜀0
This shows that ‘E' is independent of distance between the sheet.
Electric Field Intensity due to a Uniformed Charged Spherical Shell:
Consider a spherical shell with centre ‘O’ and radius ‘R’. Let ‘𝜎′ is the surface
charge density. Let ‘P’ is the point outside the shell at distance ‘r’ from centre ‘O’
.To find out the ‘E’ at ‘P’ ,imagine a Gaussian surface in the form of shell including
‘P’

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 Flux through ‘ds’ is 𝑑∅ = 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠
By Gauss’s law
𝑞
∅ = ∫𝑠 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = …………………….. (i)
𝜀0

But ∫𝑠 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = ∫𝑠 𝐸𝑑𝑠 = E∫𝑠 𝑑𝑠

∫𝑠 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸4𝜋𝑟 2 ………….. (ii)

From (i) and (ii)

𝑞
𝐸4𝜋𝑟 2 =
𝜀0
𝑞
𝐸=
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜀0
1 𝑞
Or 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

 If ‘P’ lies on the surface of shell then

r=R
then
1 𝑞
𝐸= … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
𝑞
But Surface charge density, 𝜎 =
4𝜋𝑅 2

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 or
𝑞 = 4𝜋𝑅 2 𝜎

1 4𝜋𝑅 2 𝜎
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2

𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀0

 If ‘P’ is inside the shell

E=0
Because Gaussian surface does not enclose any charge (i.e., q = 0)
Graphical representation of variation of field with distances: -

xx Thank you xx

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