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Circulatory System

F 14

chapter
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Animal life is dependent on their daily supply of nutrients, oxygen, water and minerals,
as well as the removal of carbon dioxide and other metabolic wastes products. All these
substances are being transported to the body through circulatory system.

However, in single-celled animal-like protists, circulatory system is usually absent

because simple diffusion from their watery environment allows these activities to take place. On
the other hand, complex forms of animals rely on a transporting system which consists mainly of
heart, blood and blood vessels.

Functions

• Transport of nutrients, hormones, gases, and waste materials among invertebrates and
vertebrates

• Protection against blood loss through blood clotting and foreign microbes in
vertebrates

• Regulation and maintenance of body temperature and pH of tissues in all animals

2 Basic Types of Circulation in Animals (Figure 14.1)

• Open (lacunar)

o characterized by the absence of capillaries

o blood is often referred to as hemolymph

o hemolymph is pumped by the heart, usually an enlarged blood vessel, in low

pressure out into the body cavity, mixes with interstitial fluid and bathes cells
of the body then blood is slowly returned to the heart through body spaces
known as hemocoel

o occurs mostly among invertebrates such as in molluscs, and arthropods such

as insects
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pores
pump heart

hemocoel

b. hemocoel
a.
pump hearts

c. small-diameter blood vessels d. blood vessels

heart artery

systemic
capillaries

gill systemic
capillaries gill capillaries atrium capillaries
ventricle
e. f.

pulmonary capillaries pulmonary capillaries

left atrium
right atrium left atrium right atrium
ventricle right ventricle left ventricle

g. systemic capillaries h. systemic capillaries

Figure 14.1. Types of circulatory system in animals. Open system of a grasshopper (a, b). A
tubular “heart” pumps blood through open-ended vessels. The blood moves into body spaces
(hemocoel) and mixes with fluid bathing the cells, then return to the heart through pores in the
heart wall. Closed system of an earthworm (c, d) in which blood is confined within five pairs of
anterior “hearts” and within blood vessels. In fishes (e, f), a two-chambered heart pumps blood in
one circuit. Blood is oxygenated in the gills and is delivered to the body cells and deoxygenated
blood returns to the heart. In amphibians (g), there is partial mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood inside the ventricle and blood flows into two partially separate circuits. In
birds and mammals (h), the heart is fully separated into two halves and blood circulates in two
circuits.
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Circulatory System

• Closed

o blood remains within a completely enclosed system of vessels

o never comes in direct contact with tissue cells

o materials move between the blood and interstitial fluid through capillaries

o blood flows in high pressure

o occurs among annelids, squids and mostly among vertebrates such as fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals

Transport Systems in Invertebrates

• Among protozoas, gas, nutrient and waste exchange happens through diffusion

• Sponges circulate water from the external environment through their bodies, instead
of circulating an internal fluid

• Cnidarians posses gastrovascular cavity containing water that provides oxygen and
serves as reservoir of carbon dioxide and wastes, simple body movement moves the
fluid

• Pseudocoelomates such as rotifers and nematodes use the coelomic fluid of their
body cavity for transport of nutrients, gases and waste products. Their body
movement produces adequate transport

• In molluscs and insects, a circulatory system is present in which blood termed as

hemolymph is being pumped by the heart into spaces known as hemocoel

Transport Systems in Vertebrates

• Cardiovascular System

o composed of blood, blood vessels, and a muscular pump which is the heart

• Lymphatic System

o a pumpless system of vessels that aids the cardiovascular system in its

function

o composed of lymph, lymphatic vessels, and structures and organs containing

lymphatic tissues
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Cardiovascular System

• Heart

o a muscular pump which forces blood out to the tissues of the body through
blood vessels.

o the pulsating, contractile organ that provides the energy for moving the blood
throughout the body

o in invertebrates, particularly insects, the heart consists of one longitudinal

vessel that runs in the median dorsal of the thorax

ƒ it has no chambers but rather is pierced by series of openings termed

as ostia, which serve as entry and exit of the blood; when heart
contracts, it forces blood to the anterior end, into the head region,
and when it relaxes, blood is drawn in through ostia

o in vertebrates, the heart is a muscular organ divided into a number of

chambers

ƒ in fishes, with two chambers, one atrium and one ventricle; exhibit
single pathway or circulation of blood

ƒ in amphibians and reptiles, with three chambers, two atria and one
ventricle; exhibit double but incomplete circulation, slight mixing of
venous and arterial blood may possibly occur in the ventricles

ƒ in birds and mammals, with four chambers, two atria and two
ventricles; exhibit double and complete circulation, no mixing of
venous and arterial blood in the ventricle

• Blood

o complex connective tissue containing plasma and cellular components

o called as hemolymph among invertebrates

o the circulating fluid of the body

o characterized by a temperature of about 38oC, pH of 7.35 – 7.45

o about 8% of total body weight, in humans, 5 to 6 liters (male) and 4 to 5

liters (female)
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Circulatory System

o perform the following functions

ƒ transport of nutrients, metabolites, hormones, and waste products

ƒ transport of cells (lymphocytes and platelets)

ƒ thermoregulation

Components of Blood

ƒ plasma

¾ straw-colored liquid portion

¾ about 91.5% of water and 8.5% solutes

¾ 55% of the whole blood

ƒ formed elements (Table 14.1)

¾ consist of erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets

¾ make up about 45% of whole blood

Erythrocytes

9 also known as red blood cells (RBCs)

9 appear as biconcave discs of 8 um in diameter

9 contain the oxygen -carrying pigment hemoglobin,

which is responsible for the red color of the whole
blood

9 lack nucleus

9 about 5 million cells per cubic millimeter of blood

9 continuously manufactured in the red bone marrow

9 have a life span of 120 days which are destroyed

after in liver and spleen where they are engulfed by
large phagocytic cells

Leuckocytes

9 also known as white blood cells (WBCs)

9 irregularly –shaped
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Circulatory System

9 have nuclei and colorless since they do not contain

hemoglobin

9 crucial for immune system

9 about 4,000 – 11,000 per cubic millimeter of blood

9 grouped into two major types, granulocytes and

agranulocytes

™ granulocytes include basophils, eosinophils

and neutrophils (polymorphonuclear
leucocytes or PMNs); characterize by the
presence of large granules in the cytoplasm;
with lobed nuclei

™ agranulocytes include lymphocytes and

monocytes; they lack visible cytoplasmic
granules

Thrombocytes

9 facilitate blood clotting or coagulation

9 known as blood platelets in mammals which are

fragments of large multinucleate cells called
megakaryocytes in red bone marrow

™ about 300,000 per cubic millimeter of blood

™ produced at a rate of 200 billion a day

• Blood vessels (Figure 14.2)

o network of tubes through which blood is moved

o among invertebrates, there are no small blood vessels or capillaries that

connect the arteries with the veins but rather smaller cavities or spaces
collectively known as hemocoel are present through which blood circulates

o different types are based on the type and direction of blood they carry

ƒ arteries

¾ with more elastic, thicker walls

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¾ carry oxygenated blood away from the heart except for

pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood

¾ arterioles are arteries with smaller diameter; walls are mostly

covered with smooth muscle which reduces blood flow as it
enters capillaries

ƒ veins

¾ with thin and less elastic walls

¾ carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart except

pulmonary vein which carries oxygenated blood

¾ venules are small veins which collect blood from the

capillary beds (network of capillaries) and deliver it to larger
veins

ƒ capillaries

¾ network of microscopic vessels which connect arterioles

with venules less than 10 um in diameter and its wall is
made up of single layer of endothelial cells

¾ allows exchange of nutrients and wastes between blood and

tissue cells

Major blood vessels

The major blood vessels and the areas that are drained and supplied by veins and arteries
respectively are illustrated in Figure 14.8.

Mammalian Circulatory System

Heart (Figure 14.3)

o located in the center of the chest between the lungs

o it is protected by a breast bone (sternum)

o its apex is directed toward the left hip and rests on the diaphragm

o has four chambers

ƒ left and right atrium

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Circulatory System

¾ receiving chambers of the heart, the right receives blood

from the body tissues and the left from the lungs

¾ thin-walled separated by interatrial septum

ƒ left and right ventricles

¾ pumping chambers that force the blood out of the heart;

thick-walled

¾ separated by interventricular septum, left ventricular wall is

thicker than the right

o contains valves

ƒ atrioventricular valves (AV valves) separate the cavities of the

atrium and ventricle in each half of the heart; permit blood to flow
from atrium to ventricle but prevent backflow

¾ tricuspid valve with three cusps that allow blood to move

from right atrium to right ventricle

9 prevents backflow of blood from right ventricle to

right atrium

¾ bicuspid valve or mitral valve with two cusps that allow

blood to move from left atrium to left ventricle

9 prevents backflow of blood from left ventricle to left

atrium

ƒ semilunar valves prevent backflow of blood from aorta to the

ventricles

¾ pulmonary semilunar valve prevents backflow from

pulmonary artery to right ventricle

¾ aortic semilunar valve prevents backflow from aorta to left

ventricle

o contain transverse septa which prevent mixing of oxygenated from the left
side of the heart and deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart

ƒ interatrial septum separates the left and the right atria

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ƒ interventricular septum separates the left and right ventricles

valve
tunica intima tunica intima

tunica media tunica media

tunica externa tunica externa

artery vein

venule
arteriole

capillary
Figure 14.2. The structure of blood vessels.
Cambell et al 1997)
brachiocephalic trunk left common carotid a.
left subclavian a.

arch of aorta
pulmonary as.

superior vena cava

(SVC)
pulmonary vs.
pulmonary semilunar
valve left atrium

right atrium bicuspid valve

aortic semilunar valve
left ventricle

tricuspid valve interventricular

right ventricle septum
chordae tendinae endocardium
papillary muscle myocardium
inferior vena cava epicardium
(IVC)

Figure 14.3. Human heart’s general structure.

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Circulatory System

Conduction System (Figure 14.4)

ƒ sinoatrial (SA) node

¾ located in the right atrium near the entrance of the caval

veins

¾ it is the heart’s pacemaker where the electrical impulse

originates

ƒ atrioventricular (AV) node

¾ located at the lower middle part of right atrium

¾ receives impulses from the SA node

¾ excites the bundle of cardiac muscle cells at the base of atria

ƒ bundle of His / AV bundle

¾ impulse conducting muscle fibers that divide into right and

left bundle branches

¾ the only electrical connection between the atria and

ventricles

ƒ right and left bundle branches

¾ ramify into numerous smaller conduction myofibers

ƒ conduction of myofibers or Purkinje fibers

¾ causes simultaneous contraction of right and left ventricles

Phases of the heart (Figure 14.5)

ƒ diastole

¾ relaxation phase

¾ ventricle walls relax

¾ tricuspid and mitral valves open

¾ blood flows into the heart

¾ pulmonary and aortic valves are closed

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sinoatrial (SA) node

Atrioventricular (AV)
node Bundle of His (AV
bundle)

right and left bundle

branches

Purkinje fibers

Figure 14.4. Human heart’s conduction system.

to lungs to body to lungs to body

LA LA
RA
RA

LV
LV RV
RV

Diastole Systole

Figure 14.5. Phases of the heart.

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Circulatory System

ƒ systole

¾ contraction phase

¾ ventricle walls relax

¾ tricuspid and mitral valves are closed

¾ pulmonary and aortic valves are opened

¾ blood flows away from the heart

Heart sounds

ƒ LUB is heard when vibrations occur due to closing of

atrioventricular valves

ƒ DUP is heard when vibrations occur due to closing of semilunar

valves

Heart beat

ƒ adult human heartbeat : 72 beats/ minute

ƒ the total volume of blood pumped by the heart is the cardiac output
which is 5.0 liters/min

Blood flow through the heart (Figure 14.6)

o deoxygenated blood from the superior vena cava (SVC, draining blood from
upper body portion above the heart) and inferior vena cava (IVC, draining
blood from the portion of the body below the heart) goes into the right atrium
(RA)

o blood flows into the right ventricle (RV) passing through the tricuspid valve

o when the ventricle pumps, blood flows out of the pulmonary trunk passing
through the pulmonary semilunar valve

o blood flows into pulmonary arteries then into pulmonary arterioles leading to
pulmonary capillaries where blood picks up O2 and releases CO2

o oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary venules draining
into larger pulmonary veins which empty into the left atrium (LA)
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o from the left auricle (LA) blood flows into the left ventricle (LV) passing the
bicuspid or mitral valve

o when the ventricle pumps blood flows out of the heart going to the aorta and
passes the aortic semilunar valve

o from the aorta, oxygenated blood will be distributed to the body cells

Blood Pressure

o pressure of blood against the wall of blood vessel, particularly large

systemic arteries in the heart

o measured by sphygmomanometer in millimeter mercury (mmHg)

o the lowest arterial pressure is called diastolic blood pressure while the
highest pressure reached during ejection of blood from heart is systolic blood
pressure

o normal average blood pressure is 80 to 100 mmHg (diastolic) and 100 to 120
mmHg (systolic), written as 120/80

o factors affecting blood pressure include age, temperature, chemicals, and

diet

Pulse

o alternate expansion and contraction of the arterial wall that runs close to the
surface

o indicates heart action, elasticity of large blood vessel wall, viscosity of blood
resistance in arterioles and capillaries

Pulse rate

ƒ indicates the rate of heartbeat because the arterial walls pulse

whenever the left ventricle contracts

ƒ average pulse rate is 60 to 80 per minute in adult; 80 to 120 per

minute in children

Pathways of Circulation in Vertebrates (Figure 14.6)

o pulmonary circulation

ƒ concerned with the oxygenation of deoxygenated blood

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Circulatory System

right atrium

right ventricle

pulmonary trunk

pulmonary arteries

pulmonary capillaries (alveoli of lungs)

pulmonary veins

left atrium

o systemic circulation

ƒ includes blood flow from the heart to the various organs and
systems then back to the heart

left atrium

left ventricle

aorta

systemic arteries

systemic capillaries (body tissues)

systemic veins

caval veins
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pulmonary arteriole

pulmonary arteries
aorta

pulmonary capillary

pulmonary venule
pulmonary trunk
pulmonary vein
right atrium right atrium

left ventricle

right ventricle

systemic artery

systemic vein

systemic arteriole

systemic venule

systemic capillaries

Figure 14.6. Systems of circulation. Blood is circulated in the body in two main circuits.
Pulmonary circulation is concerned with the oxygenation of blood (trace blue arrows) while
systemic circulation is concerned with distribution of oxygenated blood to body tissues (trace red
arrows).
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Circulatory System

Blood Types

• the presence of certain substance identifies the individual blood type

• ABO blood group (Figure 14.7)

o based on 2 substances: agglutinogen A and agglutinogen B on the surfaces of

WBCs

o for blood transfusion, the blood type must be matched as closely as possible
to prevent agglutination (clumping of RBC) caused by the antibodies in the
plasma

o a person has no agglutinins/antibodies that would react with the

antigens/agglutinogens of his/her own erythrocytes

Table 14.2. ABO Blood Grouping

TYPE ANTIGEN ANTIBODIES DONOR RECIPIENTS
(on RBC) ( in plasma)
A A Anti – B O, A A, AB
B B Anti - A O, B B, AB
AB AB None A, B, AB, AB
O
O None Anti- A, Anti – B O A, B, AB, O

On surface of red blood cells

Antigen A Antigen B Antigen A and B No Antigen

In plasma
Antibody B Antibody A No Antibodies Antibody A and B

Figure 14.7. ABO blood groups. Agglutinogens or antigens are bound to the surface of red blood
cells while the agglutinins or antibodies are found in the plasma of the blood. (Seeley et al.
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• Rh blood group

° was originally identified in Rhesus monkeys

° based on the presence of antigen D on the surfaces of erythrocytes

° Rh+: RBCs with agglutinogen (D)

° Rh-: RBCs without agglutinogen (D)

° If mother is Rh-, the second and the subsequent children may suffer from
erythroblastosis fetalis or hemolytic disease of the newborn (HDN)

ƒ Clotting Process

¾ platelets clump and plug wound

¾ enzyme thromboplastin is released from damaged tissues

¾ prothrombin activator is released and converts prothrombin

in plasma to thrombin

¾ presence of thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin

¾ fibrin threads wind around the platelet plug and forms the
clot

REFERENCES

Purves, W.K. 2001. Life: The Science of Biology. U.S.A. Sinauer Associates, Inc.

Tortora, G.J. & Grabowski, S.R. 1989. Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. U.S.A.

HarperCollins College Publishers.