Chapter1 Introduction to Internet of Things

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Characteristics of IoT
1.3 Applications of IoT
1.4 IoT Categories
1.5 IoT Enablers and connectivity layers
1.6 Baseline Technologies
1.7 Sensor
1.8 Actuator
1.9 IoT components and implementation
1.10 Challenges for IoT

1.1 Introduction
Internet of Things (IoT) is presently an emerging technology worldwide. IoT cuts
across different application domain such as agriculture, space, healthcare,
manufacturing, construction, water and mining, which are presently transitioning their
legacy to support IoT.
Definition: The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical devices,
vehicles, home appliances and other items embedded with electronics, software,
sensors, actuators and network connectivity which enables these objects to get
connected and exchange data. Each thing is uniquely identifiable through its
embedded computing system but is able to inter-operate within the existing
Internet infrastructure.
® Internet of Things can also be defined as an Internet technology connecting
devices, machines and tools to the Internet by means of wireless technologies
like Bluetooth, WiFi, ZigBee etc.
® The IoT allows objects to be sensed or controlled remotely across existing
network infrastructure, creating opportunities for more direct integration of the
physical world into computer-based systems and resulting in improved
efficiency, accuracy and economic benefit in addition to reduced human
intervention.
® IoT also results in unification of technologies such as low power embedded
systems, cloud computing, big data, machine learning and networking.
® The two solutions for the networking technologies in IoT are either to expand
the existing network or to build a separate network from the scratch.

1.2 Characteristics of IoT

The fundamental characteristics of IoT are as follows.
1. Interconnectivity/ Interoperable: With regards to IoT, anything can be
interconnected with the global information and communication infrastructure.
Connectivity enables network accessibility and compatibility. Accessibility allows to
connect with a network while compatibility provides the common ability to consume
and produce data. In IoT, when the device is no longer in use, the connection can be
removed whereas when the device needs to be connected when it wants to generate,
transfer or receive data.
2. Things related services: IoT is capable of providing “thing”related services within
the constraints of things, such as privacy protection and semantic consistency(without
disturbing its meaning) among physical things and their associated virtual things

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 3. Heterogeneity: The devices in the IoT are heterogeneous based on different hardware
platforms, applications and networks. They can interact with other devices or service
platforms through different networks such as sleeping nodes, mobile devices and non-
IP devices.
4. Dynamic changes and and self-adapting: The state of device change dynamically,
e.g., sleeping and waking up, connected or disconnected as well as the context of
devices including location, speed and the number of devices can be changed
dynamically.
5. Scalability: The number of devices that need to be managed and that communicate
with one another will be at least in an order of magnitude larger than the devices
connected to the current Internet that means a system that can handle a growing amount
of work by adding resources to the system like management of generated data and their
interpretation for application purposes for semantics of data, as well as efficient data
handling.
6. Safety/Security: IoT must be designed with safety in mind. This includes the security
of our personal data and the safety of our physical devices. Securing the endpoints, the
networks and the data moving across these networks, creating a security model in IoT.
7. Naming and Addressing: The names and addresses of devices connected to Internet
of Things should be unique. Efficient and unambiguous addressing mechanisms should
be deployed for devices connected in IoT. And also the conversion and translation of
addresses from one network to the other should take place efficiently.

1.3 Applications of IoT

1. Smart Homes
Smart homes are the most practical applications of IoT taking both, convenience and
home security, to the next level. There are different levels at which IoT is applied for smart
homes, the best is the one that blends intelligent utility systems and entertainment together. For
example, your electricity meter with an IoT device giving you insights into your everyday water
usage, your set-top box that allows you to record shows from remote, Automatic Illumination
Systems, Advanced Locking Systems fit into this concept of smart homes.

2. Smart City
Internet access to people in a city as well as to the devices in it make smart cities.
Incorporating existing technology into infrastructural requirements and some vital concerns
like Traffic Management, Waste Management, Water Distribution, Electricity Management,
and more. All these work towards eliminating some day-to-day challenges faced by people
and bring in added convenience.

3. Self-driven Cars/ Smart Cars

One of the best applications of IoTs are Smart Cars. The cars use several sensors and embedded
systems connected to the Cloud and the internet to keep generating data and sending them to
the Cloud for informed decision-making through Machine Learning. It will take a few more
years for the technology to evolve completely and for countries to amend laws and policies to
ensure the technology has all that it takes to ensure better safety for the passenger and those on
the roads. As of now Google tried it out, Tesla tested it, and even Uber came up with a version
of self-driven cars that was later put on hold.
4. IoT Retail Shops
Perhaps this is the best use of the technology in bridging the gap between an online store and
a retail store. The retail store allows you to go cashless by deducting money from your Amazon
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wallet. It also adds items to your cart in real-time when you pick products from the shelves. If
you put back one item and pick another, the previous one gets deleted and replaces your cart
with the new item. The best part of this smart store is that there is no cashier to bill your
products. You don’t have to stand in line but just walk out after you pick up your products from
shelves. For Example, Amazon Go – the concept store from the eCommerce giant, you should
check it out right away.
5. Smart Farming
Farming is one sector that will benefit the most from the Internet of Things. Tools are being
developed for Drip Irrigation, understanding crop patterns, Water Distribution, drones for Farm
Surveillance, and more. These will allow farmers to come up with a more productive yield and
take care of the concerns better.
6. Wearables
Wearables remain a hot topic in the market, even today. These devices serve a wide range of
purposes ranging from medical, wellness to fitness. For Example, smart watches, smart glasses,
smart ring, smart belts etc.
7. Smart Grids
One of the many useful IoT examples, a smart grid, is a holistic solution that applies an
extensive range of Information Technology resources that enable existing and new gridlines to
reduce electricity waste and cost. A future smart grid improves the efficiency, reliability, and
economics of electricity.
8. Smart Industries
Smart Industry is the new buzz in the industrial sector, also termed as Industrial Internet of
Things (IIoT). The IIoT consists of interconnected sensors, instruments, and other devices
connected with computers’ industrial applications like manufacturing, energy management,
etc. to create smart machines. IIoT holds great potential for quality control and sustainability.
Applications for tracking goods, real time information exchange about inventory among
suppliers and retailers and automated delivery will increase the supply chain efficiency.
9. Smart Healthcare System
IoT in healthcare is aimed at empowering people to live healthier life by wearing connected
devices. The collected data will help in personalized analysis of an individual’s health and
provide tailor made strategies to combat illness. In smart healthcare, devices are connected to
hospitals, doctors and relatives to alert them of medical emergencies and take preventive or
necessary measures. IoT Examples of smart healthcare system include the digital
communication of Medical Imaging, Remote Medical Diagnosis & Evaluations, Video
Consultations with Specialists, etc.
10. Smart Dust:
This consists of sensors at the nanotechnology level that can be deployed in the millions to
billions, with a myriad of applications. They are computers smaller than a grain of sand and
can be sprayed or injected almost anywhere to measure chemicals in the soil or to diagnose
problems in human body.

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1.4 IoT Categories/Types of IoT
1. Consumer Internet of Things (CIoT)

Consumer IoT (CIoT) refers to the use of IoT for consumer applications and devices.
Common CIoT products include smartphones, wearables, smart assistants, home
appliances, etc.

Typically, CIoT solutions leverage Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and ZigBee to facilitate

connectivity. These technologies offer short-range communication suitable for
deployments in smaller venues, such as homes and offices.

2. Commercial Internet of Things

While CIoT tends to focus on augmenting personal and home environments,

Commercial IoT goes a bit further, delivering the benefits of IoT to larger venues.
Think: commercial office buildings, supermarkets, stores, hotels, healthcare facilities,
and entertainment venues.

There are numerous use cases for commercial IoT, including monitoring environmental
conditions, managing access to corporate facilities, and economizing utilities and
consumption in hotels and other large venues. Many Commercial IoT solutions are
geared towards improving customer experiences and business conditions.

3. Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)

Industrial IoT (IIoT), is perhaps the most dynamic wing of the IoT industry. Its focus
is on augmenting existing industrial systems, making them both more productive and
more efficient. IIoT deployments are typically found in large-scale factories and
manufacturing plants and are often associated with industries like healthcare,
agriculture, automotive, and logistics.The Industrial Internet is perhaps the most well-
known example of IIoT.

4. Infrastructure IoT

Infrastructure IoT is concerned with the development of smart infrastructures that

incorporate IoT technologies to boost efficiency, cost savings, maintenance, etc. This
includes the ability to monitor and control operations of urban and rural infrastructures,
such as bridges, railway tracks, and on-and-off shore windfarms.

Technically speaking, infrastructure IoT is a subset of Industrial IoT. However, due to

its significance, it’s often treated as its own separate thing.

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 5. Internet of Military Things (IoMT)

The last type of IoT is the Internet of Military Things (IoMT), often referred to as
Battlefield IoT, the Internet of Battlefield Things, or simply IoBT. IoMT is precisely
what it sounds like — the use of IoT in military settings and battlefield situations. It is
chiefly aimed at increasing situational awareness, bolstering risk assessment, and
improving response times.

Common IoMT applications include connecting ships, planes, tanks, soldiers, drones,
and even Forward Operating Bases via an interconnected system. In addition, IoMT
produces data that can be leveraged to improve military practices, systems, equipment,
and strategy.

1.5 IoT Enablers and connectivity layers

What do u mean by IoT enabler ?
Any communication framework or implementation which is capable of
realizing IoT completely or partially can be considered an IoT enabler.

Who are IoT Enabler?

System installers, repairers, craftsmen, electricians, plumbers, designers etc. who connect
devices and systems to the Internet for personal use and for commercial and other business
uses.

Based on several discussions on the topic of IoT with operators, there are some key enablers
for IoT which are imperative to achieve success in this new area. For each of the areas of IoT,
the requirement will be different from various contributors. For example, a use case may
require low latency for decision making whereas another would require high throughput for
live video streaming.

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Below are the Top 5 enablers for Internet of things,

1. Selection of use cases with future growth: The most important enabler for IoT is careful
selection of a use case today which has potential growth opportunities in the future. For
example, a use case for agriculture may be based on adding sensors for extracting the
information about the water and fertilizer level today, but in the long run there may be an
evolution to send a drone with fertilizer if levels are observed to be low!

Note: Use case a specific situation in which a product or service could potentially be used.

2. Technology Selection and Evolution: There are multiple options for IoT technologies
available in the markets today, but what is important is to go with the mainstream 3GPP
technologies for inter-working with advanced technologies like 5G in the future and at the same
time providing the highest level of security. For example, like the case of agriculture stated
above, there could be a trigger to plow the field based on water levels by an unmanned ground
vehicle (UGV) in the future based on 5G. Thus is it very important to select technologies today
which can support the evolution of the selected use cases to the next level.

3. Industry Partnerships: IoT has a vast landscape and it is essential for an enabler to have
partnerships to facilitate development of long term solutions, it is very unlikely for a IoT
enabler to have it all in-house. Industry partnerships are required for different aspects, an
enabler would require them for understanding the vertical (Like automobiles, education etc),
partnering for providing devices or associated hardware (like sensors, cameras etc) and for
providing IT systems and platforms for enabling IoT. It is assumed that the basic IoT
connectivity would be always provided by a Mobile operator.

4. IT Transformation: When we talk about IoT, we are not talking about humans, so it will
not make sense to send a connectivity bill to a sensor! Thus it is essential that a IoT enabler has
a IT system which can cater to the needs of IoT, mechanisms for flexibility and scalability for
admitting billions of devices. There are also certain use cases where a system has to cater to
requirements for multi country solutions like you cannot expect that your connected car stops
working when you drive from Malaysia to Singapore.

5. Marketing with a Non-Mobile Mindset: The first and foremost requirement for IoT is
to have a non-mobile mindset – we are no longer talking about mobile phones and humans, we
have a plethora of other devices which will be connected and provide solutions so a sensor will
not walk upto a shop to enroll for connectivity! For any big enterprise investing in IoT it will
be imperative to have a long term view where the short term vision solutions will not fly –
bring the futuristic thought the first!

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IOT LAYERS

IoT Block Diagram for layers

These Elements of IoT define the fundamentals of almost every IoT system on the globe. Still,
they are divided into multiple architecture layers to further refine the overall IoT network.

These IoT layers are :

• Perception Layer that manages smart devices across the system.
• Connectivity/Transport/Network Layer allows transferring data from the cloud to
devices and vice-versa, different aspects of gateways and networks.
• Processing Layer that controls and manages IoT levels for streamlining data
across the system.
• Application Layer that aids in the procedures of analytics, device control, and
reporting to end-users.
With continuous changes in the IT environment, many organizations have added three
additional layers to their infrastructure. Here is an IoT Block diagram showing the
various stages of IoT architecture layers.

• Business layer that derives information and decision-making analysis from data.
• Security Layer that covers all aspects of protecting the whole IoT architecture
which includes device security, cloud security and connectivity security.
• Edge Computing Layer that works at an edge or near the device information
collection.

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5 Layer Architecture of Internet of Things
1. Perception Layer :
This is the first layer of IoT architecture. In the perception layer, number of sensors
and actuators are used to gather useful information like temperature, moisture content,
intruder detection, sounds, etc. The main function of this layer is to get information
from surroundings and to pass data to another layer so that some actions can be done
based on that information.
2. Network/Connectivity/Transport Layer :
As the name suggests, it is the connecting layer between perception and middleware
layer. It gets data from perception layer and passes data to middleware layer using
networking technologies like 3G, 4G, UTMS, WiFi, infrared, etc. This is also called
communication layer because it is responsible for communication between perception
and middleware layer. All the transfer of data done securely keeping the obtained data
confidential.
3. Middleware/Processing Layer :
Middleware Layer has some advanced features like storage, computation, processing,
action taking capabilities. It stores all data-set and based on the device address and
name it gives appropriate data to that device. It can also take decisions based on
calculations done on data-set obtained from sensors.
4. Application Layer :
The application layer manages all application process based on information obtained
from middleware layer. This application involves sending emails, activating alarm,
security system, turn on or off a device, smartwatch, smart agriculture, etc.
5. Business Layer :
The success of any device does not depend only on technologies used in it but also
how it is being delivered to its consumers. Business layer does these tasks for the
device. It involves making flowcharts, graphs, analysis of results, and how device can
be improved, etc.
6. Additional Layers of IoT-
A) Security Layer: This layer covers all aspects of protecting the whole IoT
architecture which includes device security, cloud security and connectivity
security. Data breach, tracking malicious software, and hacking are the main
challenges with Security Layer in integrating IoT systems.
B) Edge Computing Layer: This layer works at an edge or near the device
information collection.

1.6 Baseline Technologies

There are various baseline technologies that are very closely related to IoT. They include (a)
Machine-to-Machine Communication (b) Cyber-Physical Systems (c) Web of Things
a) Machine-to-Machine Communication (M2M) —
® M2M refers to communications and interactions between machines and devices.
(M2M) is a broad label that can be used to describe any technology that enables
networked devices to exchange information and perform actions without human
interference.
® M2M was introduced by telecommunication providers and pays emphasis on
machine interactions via one or more communication networks like 3G, 4G, 5G,
satellite or other public networks.

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 ® In product restocking, for example, a vending machine can message the distributor
when a particular item is running low.
® M2M communication is an important aspect of warehouse management, remote
control, robotics, traffic control, logistic services, supply chain management, fleet
management and tele-medicines.
® Key components of an M2M system include sensors, RFID, a Wi-Fi or cellular
communications link and autonomic computing software programmed to help a
networked device interpret data and make decisions.
® The most well-known type of M2M communication is telemetry, which has been
used since the early part of the last century to transmit operational data.
® Pioneers in telemetries first used telephone lines and later used radio waves to
transmit performance measurements gathered from monitoring instruments in remote
locations.
® The Internet and improved standards for wireless technology have expanded the role
of telemetry from pure science, engineering to Internet-connected home appliances.
Hence, making them smart but many M2M systems are built to perform device
specific task.

b) Cyber-Physical Systems —
® Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) represent the next generation embedded intelligent
ICT systems that are interconnected, interdependent, collaborative, autonomous
and provide computing and communication, monitoring/ control of physical
components/ processes in various applications.
® Future CPS needs to be scalable, distributed, decentralized allowing interaction
with humans, environment and machines while being connected to Internet or to
other networks. Adaptability, reactivity, optimality and security are features to be
embedded in such systems , as the CPS is now forming an invisible ‘neural network’
of the society.
® Cyber-Physical systems are systems that integrate computing elements with the
physical components and processes. The computing elements coordinate and
communicate with sensors, which monitor cyber and physical indicators and
actuators, which modify the cyber and physical environment.
® Cyber-Physical systems use sensors to connect all distributed intelligence in the
environment to gain a deeper knowledge of the environment, which enables more
accurate actions and tasks.
® Common applications of CPS typically fall under sensor-based communication-
enabled autonomous systems. For example, many wireless sensor networks monitor
some aspects of the environment and relay the processed information to a central
node.
® Other types of CPS include smart grid, autonomous automotive systems, medical
monitoring, process control systems, distributed robotics, and automatic pilot
avionics.

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c) Web of Things —
® The Web of Things (WoT) is a term used to describe approaches, software
architectural styles and programming patterns that allow real-world objects to be
part of the World Wide Web.
® Similarly to what the Web (Application Layer) is to the Internet (Network Layer),
the Web of Things provides an Application Layer that simplifies the creation of
Internet of Things applications.
® Rather than re-inventing completely new standards, the Web of Things reuses
existing and well-known Web standards used in the programmable Web (e.g.,
REST, HTTP, JSON), semantic Web (e.g., JSON-LD, Microdata, etc.), the real-
time Web (e.g., WebSockets) and the social Web (e.g., OAuth or social networks).
From a developer’s perspective, the WoT enables access and control over IoT
resources and applications using mainstream Web technologies like HTML 5.0,
Javascript, Ajax, PHP etc.
® The approach to build WoT is therefore based on Representational State Transfer
(REST) principles and REST APIs, which enable both developers and deployers to
benefit from the popularity and maturity of Web Technologies.
® This API is then used to create a physical Mashup. (i)Nimbits is an open source data
historian server built on cloud computing architecture that provides connectivity
among devices using data points. (ii)ThingSpeak is an open source Internet of
Things platform created by Hans Scharler to collect, analyze and to act on data
generated by sensors and actuators. (iii)EVRYTHING is a platform for making
unconnected products and connected devices as part of the Web based on Web of
Things architecture.

1.7 Sensor
It is a device that converts signals from one energy domain to electrical domain.

Example: An Automatic Flight Control System consists of several sensors for various tasks
like speed control, height monitoring, position tracking, status of doors, obstacle detection, fuel
level, manoeuverings and many more. A Computer takes data from all these sensors and
processes them by comparing them with pre-designed values.

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The simplest example of a sensor is an LDR or a Light Dependent Resistor. It is a device,
whose resistance varies according to intensity of light it is subjected to. When the light falling
on an LDR is more, its resistance becomes very less and when the light is less, well, the
resistance of the LDR becomes very high.

Classification of Sensors

In the first classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Active and Passive.
® Active Sensors are those which require an external excitation signal or a power signal.
® Passive Sensors, on the other hand, do not require any external power signal and
directly generates output response.
® The other type of classification is based on the means of detection used in the sensor.
Some of the means of detection are Electric, Biological, Chemical, Radioactive etc.
® The next classification is based on conversion phenomenon i.e., the input and the
output. Some of the common conversion phenomena are Photoelectric, Thermoelectric,
Electrochemical, Electromagnetic, Thermo-optic, etc.
® The final classification of the sensors are Analog and Digital Sensors. Analog Sensors
produce an analog output i.e., a continuous output signal (usually voltage but sometimes
other quantities like Resistance etc.) with respect to the quantity being measured.
Digital Sensors, in contrast to Analog Sensors, work with discrete or digital data. The
data in digital sensors, which is used for conversion and transmission, is digital in
nature.

Different Types of Sensors

The following is a list of different types of sensors that are commonly used in various
applications. All these sensors are used for measuring one of the physical properties like
Temperature, Resistance, Capacitance, Conduction, Heat Transfer etc.
1. Temperature Sensor
2. Proximity Sensor
3. IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
4. Pressure Sensor
5. Light Sensor
6. Ultrasonic Sensor
7. Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
8. Touch Sensor
9. Color Sensor
10. Humidity Sensor
11. Position Sensor
12. Magnetic Sensor (Hall Effect Sensor)
13. Microphone (Sound Sensor)
14. Tilt Sensor
15. Flow and Level Sensor
16. PIR Sensor
17. Strain and Weight Sensor

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1. Temperature Sensor
One of the most common and most popular sensors is the Temperature Sensor. A Temperature
Sensor, as the name suggests, senses the temperature i.e., it measures the changes in the
temperature.

® There are different types of Temperature Sensors like Temperature Sensor ICs (like
LM35, DS18B20), Thermistors, Thermocouples, RTD (Resistive Temperature
Devices), etc.
® Temperature Sensors can be analog or digital. In an Analog Temperature Sensor, the
changes in the Temperature correspond to change in its physical property like resistance
or voltage. LM35 is a classic Analog Temperature Sensor.
® The Digital Temperature Sensor, the output is a discrete digital value (usually, some
numerical data after converting analog value to digital value). DS18B20 is a simple
Digital Temperature Sensor.
® Temperature Sensors are used everywhere like computers, mobile phones, automobiles,
air conditioning systems, industries etc.

2. Proximity Sensors
A Proximity Sensor is a non-contact type sensor that detects the presence of an object.
Proximity Sensors can be implemented using different techniques like Optical (like Infrared or
Laser), Sound (Ultrasonic), Magnetic (Hall Effect), Capacitive, etc.

® Some of the applications of Proximity Sensors are Mobile Phones, Cars (Parking
Sensors), industries (object alignment), Ground Proximity in Aircrafts, etc.

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 ® Proximity Sensor in Reverse Parking is implemented in this Project: REVERSE
PARKING SENSOR CIRCUIT.

3. Infrared Sensor (IR Sensor)

IR Sensors or Infrared Sensor are light based sensor that are used in various applications like
Proximity and Object Detection. IR Sensors are used as proximity sensors in almost all mobile
phones.

® There are two types of Infrared or IR Sensors: Transmissive Type and Reflective Type.
In Transmissive Type IR Sensor, the IR Transmitter (usually an IR LED) and the IR
Detector (usually a Photo Diode) are positioned facing each other so that when an object
passes between them, the sensor detects the object.
® The other type of IR Sensor is a Reflective Type IR Sensor. In this, the transmitter and
the detector are positioned adjacent to each other facing the object. When an object
comes in front of the sensor, the infrared light from the IR Transmitter is reflected from
the object and is detected by the IR Receiver and thus the sensor detects the object.
® Different applications where IR Sensor is implemented are Mobile Phones, Robots,
Industrial assembly, automobiles etc.

4. Ultrasonic Sensor
An Ultrasonic Sensor is a non-contact type device that can be used to measure distance as
well as velocity of an object. An Ultrasonic Sensor works based on the properties of the
sound waves with frequency greater than that of the human audible range.

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 ® Using the time of flight of the sound wave, an Ultrasonic Sensor can measure the
distance of the object (similar to SONAR). The Doppler Shift property of the sound
wave is used to measure the velocity of an object.

5. Light Sensor
Light Sensors are one of the important sensors. It is also known as Photo Sensors. A simple
Light Sensor available today is the Light Dependent Resistor or LDR. The property of LDR
is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the ambient light i.e., when
the intensity of light increases, its resistance decreases and vise-versa.

® There are two other Light Sensors (or Photo Sensors) which are often used in complex
electronic system design. They are Photo Diode and Photo Transistor. All these are
Analog Sensors.

® There are also Digital Light Sensors like BH1750, TSL2561, etc., which can calculate
intensity of light and provide a digital equivalent value.

6. Smoke and Gas Sensors

One of the very useful sensors in safety related applications are Smoke and Gas Sensors.
Almost all offices and industries are equipped with several smoke detectors, which detect any
smoke (due to fire) and sound an alarm.

® Gas Sensors are more common in laboratories, large scale kitchens and industries. They
can detect different gases like LPG, Propane, Butane, Methane (CH4), etc.
® Now-a-days, smoke sensors (which often can detect smoke as well gas) are also
installed in most homes as a safety measure.
® The “MQ” series of sensors are a bunch of cheap sensors for detecting CO, CO2, CH4,
Alcohol, Propane, Butane, LPG etc. You can use these sensors to build your own
Smoke Sensor Application.

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7. Alcohol Sensor
As the name suggests, an Alcohol Sensor detects alcohol. Usually, alcohol sensors are used in
breath analyzer devices, which determine whether a person is drunk or not. Law enforcement

personnel uses breath analyzers to catch drunk-and-drive culprits.

8. Touch Sensor
All touch screen devices (Mobile Phones, Tablets, Laptops, etc.) have touch sensors in them.
Another common application of touch sensor is trackpads in our laptops.
® Touch Sensors, as the name suggests, detect touch of a finger or a stylus. Often touch
sensors are classified into Resistive and Capacitive type. Almost all modern touch
sensors are of Capacitive Types as they are more accurate and have better signal to
noise ratio.

9. Color Sensor
A Color Sensor is an useful device in building color sensing applications in the field of image
processing, color identification, industrial object tracking etc. The TCS3200 is a simple Color
Sensor, which can detect any color and output a square wave proportional to the wavelength
of the detected color.

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10. Humidity Sensor
Weather Monitoring Systems, provides temperature as well as humidity data. So, measuring
humidity is an important task in many applications and Humidity Sensors help us in achieving
this.

® Often all humidity sensors measure relative humidity (a ratio of water content in air to
maximum potential of air to hold water). Since relative humidity is dependent on
temperature of air, almost all Humidity Sensors can also measure Temperature.
® Humidity Sensors are classified into Capacitive Type, Resistive Type and Thermal
Conductive Type. DHT11 and DHT22 are two of the frequently used Humidity Sensors
in DIY Community (the former is a resistive type while the latter is capacitive type).

11. Tilt Sensor

Often used to detect inclination or orientation, Tilt Sensors are one of the simplest and
inexpensive sensors out there. Previously, tilt sensors are made up of Mercury (and hence
they are sometimes called as Mercury Switches) but most modern tilt sensors contain a roller
ball.

1.8 Actuator
An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller (“brain”) + Sensors +
Actuators + Networks (Internet).

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An actuator is a machine component or system that moves or controls the mechanism or the
system. Sensors in the device sense the environment, then control signals are generated for the
actuators according to the actions needed to perform.
® A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can
move to a given specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT
applications and make the motor rotate to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.
The following diagram shows what actuators do, the controller directs the actuator based on
the sensor data to do the work.

Working of IoT devices and use of Actuators

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source of
energy and a control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source of energy
to a mechanical operation. On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it has different types
given below.
Types of Actuators :
1. Hydraulic Actuators –
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are
actuated by a cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or
oscillatory motion, according to the need of the IoT device. Ex- construction equipment uses
hydraulic actuators because hydraulic actuators can generate a large amount of force.
Advantages :
• Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
• Used in welding, clamping, etc.
• Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.
Disadvantages :
• Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
• It is expensive.
• It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance
systems.

2. Pneumatic Actuators –
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure to
convert into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors that work
like human fingers by using compressed air.

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Advantages :
• They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is
a safer option than chemicals.
• They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
• It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.
Disadvantages :
• Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.
• The air compressor should be running continuously.
• Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.

3. Electrical Actuators –
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts
electrical energy into mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a solenoid based
electric bell.
Advantages :
• It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.
• It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
• It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.
Disadvantages :
• It is expensive.
• It depends a lot on environmental conditions.
Other actuators are –
4. Thermal/Magnetic Actuators –
These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys
(SMAs) or Magnetic Shape‐Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these
actuators. An example of a thermal/magnetic actuator can be a piezo motor
using SMA.
5. Mechanical Actuators –
A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into
linear motion. It involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to
operate. Example – A crankshaft.
• Soft Actuators
• Shape Memory Polymers
• Light Activated Polymers
• With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in
commercial and domestic applications along with the pre-existing use in industry.

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1.9 IoT components and implementation

• Sensors
• Networks
• Standards
• Intelligent Analysis
• Intelligent Actions

1. Sensors

According to (IEEE) sensors can be defined as: An electronic device that produces electrical,
optical, or digital data derived from a physical condition or event. Data produced from sensors
is then electronically transformed, by another device, into information (output) that is useful in
decision making done by “intelligent” devices or individuals (people).

Types of Sensors: Active Sensors & Passive Sensors

The selection of sensors greatly impacted by many factors, including:
• Purpose (Temperature, Motion, Bio…etc.)
• Accuracy
• Reliability
• Range
• Resolution
• Level of Intelligence (dealing with noise and interference)
The driving forces for using sensors in IoT today are new trends
in technology that made sensors cheaper, smarter and smaller.

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 2. Networks

The second step of this implantation is to transmit the signals collected by sensors over
networks with all the different components of a typical network including routers, bridges in
different topologies, including LAN, MAN and WAN. Connecting the different parts of
networks to the sensors can be done by different technologies including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Low
Power Wi-Fi , Wi-Max, regular Ethernet , Long Term Evolution (LTE) and the recent
promising technology of Li-Fi (using light as a medium of communication between the
different parts of a typical network including sensors).

The driving forces for wide spread network adoption in IoT can be summarized as
follows

• High Data rate

• Low Prices of data usage
• Virtualization (X - Define Network trends )
• XaaS concept (SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS)
• IPv6 deployment

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 3. Standards

The third stage in the implementation process includes the sum of all activities of handling,
processing and storing the data collected from the sensors. This aggregation increases the value
of data by increasing, the scale, scope, and frequency of data available for analysis but
aggregation only achieved through the use of various standards depending on the IoT
application in used.

Types of Standards

Two types of standards relevant for the aggregation process; technology standards (including
network protocols, communication protocols, and data-aggregation standards) and regulatory
standards (related to security and privacy of data, among other issues).

Technology Standards

• Network Protocols (e.g.: Wi-Fi)

• Communications Protocols (e.g.: HTTP)
• Data aggregation standards (e.g.: Extraction, Transformation, Loading (ETL))

Regulatory Standards

Set and administrated by government agencies like FTC (Federal Trade Commission), for
example Fair Information Practice Principles (FIPP) and US Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act (HIPAA) just to mention few.

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 4. Intelligent Analysis

The fourth stage in IoT implementation is extracting insight from data for analysis, Analysis is
driven by cognitive technologies and the accompanying models that facilitate the use of
cognitive technologies.

With advances in cognitive technologies’ ability to process varied forms of information, vision
and voice have also become usable. Below is a list of selected cognitive technologies that are
experiencing increasing adoption and can be deployed for predictive and prescriptive analytics:

• Computer vision refers to computers’ ability to identify objects, scenes, and activities
in images
• Natural-language processing refers to computers’ ability to work with text the way
humans do, extracting meaning from text or even generating text that is readable.
• Speech recognition focuses on accurately transcribing human speech

Factors driving adoption intelligent analytics within the IoT

• Artificial intelligence models can be improved with large data sets that are more readily
avail- able than ever before, thanks to the lower storage costs.
• Growth in crowdsourcing and open- source analytics software: Cloud-based
crowdsourcing services are leading to new algorithms and improvements in existing
ones at an unprecedented rate.
• Real-time data processing and analysis: Analytics tools such as complex event
processing (CEP)enable processing and analysis of data on a real-time or a near-real-
time basis, driving timely decision making and action.

5. Intelligent Actions

Intelligent actions can be expressed as M2M and M2H interfaces for example with all the
advancement in UI(user interface) and UX(user experiences) technologies.

Factors driving adoption of intelligent actions within the IoT

• Lower machine prices

• Improved machine functionality
• Machines “influencing” human actions through behavioural-science rationale
• Deep Learning tools

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1.10 Challenges in IoT
1. Challenges facing IoT sensors

• Power consumption
• Security
• Interoperability

2. Challenges facing network implementation in IoT

• The enormous growth in number of connected devices

• Availability of networks coverage
• Security
• Power consumption

3. Challenges facing the adoptions of standards within IoT

• Standard for handling unstructured data: Structured data are stored in relational
databases and queried through SQL. Unstructured data are stored in different types
of noSQL databases without a standard querying approach.
• Security and privacy issues: There is a need for clear guidelines on the retention,
use, and security of the data as well as metadata (the data that describe other data).
• Regulatory standards for data markets: Data brokers are companies that sell data
collected from various sources. Even though data appear to be the currency of the
IoT, there is lack of transparency about, who gets access to data and how those data
are used to develop products or services and sold to advertisers and third parties.

4. Challenges facing the adoptions of intelligent analytics within IoT

• Inaccurate analysis due to flaws in the data and/or model: A lack of data or
presence of outliers may lead to false positives or false negatives, thus exposing
various algorithmic limitations
• Legacy systems’ ability to analyze unstructured data: Legacy systems are well
suited to handle structured data; unfortunately, most IoT/business interactions
generate unstructured data
• Legacy systems’ ability to manage real- time data: Traditional analytics software
generally works on batch-oriented processing, wherein all the data are loaded in a
batch and then analyzed.

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 • Technical skills to leverage newer aggregation tools: Companies that are keen on
leveraging big-data tools often face a shortage of talent to plan, execute, and
maintain systems.

5. Challenges facing the adoption of intelligent actions within IoT

• Machines’ actions in unpredictable situations

• Information security and privacy
• Machine interoperability
• Mean-reverting human behaviors
• Slow adoption of new technologies

The Internet of Things (IoT) is an ecosystem of ever-increasing complexity, it’s the next weave
of innovation that will humanize every object in our life, which is the next level to automating
every object in our life. Convergence of technologies will make IoT implementation much
easier and faster, which in turn will improve many aspects of our life at home and at work and
in between.

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 CHAPTER-2 IOT NETWORKING
2.1 Terminologies
2.2 Gateway Prefix allotment
2.3 Impact of mobility on Addressing
2.4 Multihoming
2.5 Deviation from regular Web
2.6 IoT identification and Data protocols

2.1 Terminologies
An IoT network refers to a collection of interconnected devices that communicate
with other devices without the need for human involvement, such as autonomous
cars, smart appliances, and wearable tech.

IoT Node- These are machines, things or computers connected to other nodes inside
a LAN via the IoT LAN. This node may be sometimes connected to the Internet
through a WAN directly.
IoT LAN- Local Area Network or LAN is short to medium range, where distances can
be up to hundreds of meters, such as home automation or sensors that are installed
within a factory production line that communicate over Wi-Fi with a gateway device
that is installed within the same building. It is an organization wide network which
may or may not be connected to internet.
IoT WAN- Wide Area Networks or WAN is the connection of various network segments
organizationally and geographically wide which connects to the Internet. It may
consist of several LANs. Each node in a LAN will have a unique address but another
node in a different LAN may have the same address. Different LANs are connected to
WAN via gateways.
IoT Gateway- This is a router connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN or to the Internet. It
can implement several LANs and WANs. The main responsibility of IoT gateways is
to forward packets between LAN and WAN on the IP layer.
IoT Proxy- This performs active application layer functions between IoT nodes and
other entities.

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2.1.1 Gateways
IoT gateways with or without proxies are responsible mainly for:
§ Internet connectivity
§ IoT LAN intra-connectivity
§ Upstream address prefixes are obtained using mechanisms like DHCPv6 and delegated
to the nodes using SLAAC (stateless addressing).
§ LU addresses are maintained independently of globally routable addresses, in cases
were internal address stability is of prime concern.
§ Despite providing address stability, LU cannot communicate directly with the
internet or the upper layers, which is solved by implementing an application layer
proxy.
§ Application layer proxies may be additionally configured to process data, rather than
just passing it.
§ In nodes with no support for computationally intensive tasks, IoT proxy gathers data
sent to the link-local multicast address and routes them globally.

Note: Tunnelling works by encapsulating packets: wrapping packets inside of other packets. Packets are small pieces of data that
can be re-assembled at their destination into a larger file.
Tunnelling is often used in virtual private networks (VPNs). It can also set up efficient and secure connections between networks,
enable the usage of unsupported network protocols, and in some cases allow users to bypass firewalls.

Presently, the Internet is mainly IPv4, based with little or no IPv6 uplink facilities or support.
Due to the lack of a universal transition solution to IPv6, lots of un-optimized solutions are
being used for IoT deployment.
These makeshift solutions mainly address:
§ IPv6 to IPv4 translation
§ IPv6 tunneling over IPv4
§ Application layer proxies (e.g: data relaying)

2.2. Gateway Prefix Allotment

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 § In IoT addressing, since there are huge number of devices connected, we need to
conserve the address space. Each device connected to IoT network needs a unique IP
address. Nodes within a gateway’s jurisdiction have addresses that are valid within the
gateway’s domain only. The same addresses may be repeated in the domain of another
gateway . The gateway has a unique network prefix which can be used to identify them
globally. This strategy saves a lot of unnecessary address wastage although the nodes
have to communicate to the Internet via the gateway.

§ The network connected to the internet has routers with their set of addresses and ranges.
These routers have multiple gateways connected to them which can forward packets
from the nodes, to the Internet, only via these routers. These routers assign prefixes to
gateways under them, so that the gateways can be identified with them.

2.3. Impact of Mobility on Addressing

® The network prefix changes from 1 to 2 due to movement, making the IoT LAN safe
from changes due to movements.
® IoT gateway WAN address changes without change in LAN address. This is achieved
using ULA(Unique Local Adressing).
® The gateways assigned with prefixes, which are attached to a remote anchor point by
using various protocols such as Mobile IPv6, and are immune to changes of network
prefixes. This is achieved using LU.
® The address of the nodes within the gateways remain unchanged as the gateways provide
them with locally unique address and the change in gateway’s network prefix doesn’t
affect them.
® Sometimes, there is a need for the nodes to communicate directly to the internet. This is
achieved by tunneling, where the nodes communicate to a remote anchor point instead
of channeling their packets through the router which is achieved by using tunneling
protocols such as IKEv2:internet key exchange version 2.
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2.4. Multi-homing
Multihoming is the practice of connecting a host or a computer network to more than one
network. This can be done in order to increase reliability or performance, or to reduce cost.
There are several different ways to perform multihoming.
(a) Host multihoming: In this a single host may be connected to multiple networks. For
example, a mobile phone might be simultaneously connected to a Wi-Fi network and a
3G network, and a desktop computer might be connected to both a home network and
a VPN. A multihomed host usually is assigned multiple addresses, one per connected
network.
(b) Classical multihoming: In classical multihoming, a network is connected to multiple
providers, and uses its own range of addresses (typically from a Provider Independent
(PI) range). (i)The network’s edge routers communicate with the providers using a
dynamic routing protocol, typically Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), which announces
the network’s address range to all providers. (ii)If one of the links fail, the dynamic
routing protocol recognizes the failure within seconds or minutes, and reconfigures its
routing tables to use the remaining links, transparently to the hosts. (iii)Classical
multihoming is costly, since it requires the use of address space that is accepted by all
providers, a public Autonomous System (AS) number, and a dynamic routing protocol.
(iv) Since multihomed address space cannot be aggregated, it causes growth of the
global routing table.
(c) Multihoming with multiple addresses: In this approach, the network is connected to
multiple providers, and assigned multiple address ranges, one for each provider.
(i)Multihoming with multiple addresses is cheaper than classical multihoming, and can
be used without any cooperation from the providers (e.g. in a home network) but
requires additional technology in order to perform routing. (ii)In case of small IoT
LANs where allotment of address prefixes is not feasible and possible, a proxy based
approach is used to manage multiple IP addresses. And map them to link local
addresses. (iii)In another approach, gateway based approach is used for assigning link
local addresses to the nodes under it. (iv)Providing source addresses, destination
addresses and routing information to the multihomed nodes is the real challenge in
multihoming networks. (v)In case the destination and source addresses originate from
the same prefix, routing between gateways can be employed for IoT gateway selection.
(vi)Presently, IEFT is still trying to standardize this issue.

2.5 Deviation from regular Web

It is a comparison of the communication networks in Web and communication networks in
IoT. The various layers in ISO/ OSI layer and communication layers in IoT have many
similarities. But there are differences in the protocols used at various layers of IoT. In the Figure
below shows the comparison of the protocols of IoT stack and Web stack. We have already
seen the four layers of IoT in Chapter 1. The four layers include the sensing layer, network
layer, service layer and interface layer. The sensing layer in IoT is equivalent to physical layer
and data link layer of OSI reference model. The protocols used in IoT are IEEE 802.15.4 MAC
and IEEE 802.15.4 PHY/ Radio for this layer while protocols for OSI layer are Ethernet, DSL,
ISDN, Wireless LAN, Wi-Fi. Similarly in the network layer, the protocols used are IPv6 and
6LowPAN in IoT whereas the protocols used in OSI are IPv4, IPv6 and IPSec. Again the
protocols used in service layer in IoT are UDP and DTLS while the protocols in transport layer
for web are TCP and UDP. The application layer in OSI is similar to the interface layer in IoT.
The protocols used in IoT and web are different as they are intended for different purposes.
Unlike web stack, we can see in addition to the protocols in IoT, there is a management
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component in IoT stack. This is essential because there are a large number of devices, networks
and other resources which needs to be managed efficiently.

2.6 IoT identification and Data protocols

® An Iot identifier has a string of characters used to identify any physical or virtual entity.
For example, an IP address is an identifier of a computer connected to the network .
Basically, the IoT devices or the applications need to be recognized before being used in
an IoT environment. There are many platforms that use a variety of globally unique
Identification Schemes (ISs) or their own proprietary methods.
® The problem arises when devices from different platforms need to exchange data or
communicate with other applications. Due to the lack of an identification standard, the
inter-working among IoT platforms remains challenging .
® The identifiers in an IoT standard can be typically divided into the following categories:
object identifier, communication identifier, and application identifier.
® Object identifiers represent physical or virtual objects. Barcodes and Radio Frequency
IDentifier (RFID) are some examples of identifiers that cannot be used for addressing or
communicating.
® Communication identifiers uniquely identify nodes on a network having communication
capabilities. Any sensor or network device is an example of a network node. The
Communication identifier, which is generally made of an IP address, is used for addressing.
® Application identifiers identify service layer applications, objects, and logical entities, etc.
Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) and Uniform Resource Locator (URL) are some
examples for application identifiers.

There are various universal ISs, such as Object IDentifier (OID), Electronic Product Code
(EPC), Universally Unique IDentifier (UUID), and International Mobile Equipment Identity
(IMEI), etc.

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1. OID
• The OID is an identification mechanism developed by the ITU-T (International
Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector) and the ISO/IEC
(International Organization for Standardization/International Electrotechnical
Commission), to name specific objects so that the objects can be distinguished easily.
• Objects are represented as a sequence of base integer values and corresponding unicode
values according to a hierarchical name structure so that they can be identified.
• The OIDs address the interoperability issues of heterogeneous inter-industry identification
systems.
• The OID scheme uses a tree-like hierarchy to assign unique numbers to objects so that they
are not duplicated.
• The OID can be used in various fields, such as Internet management, security, medical care,
and the RFID (In the RFID, EPC and ISO codes are used for existing barcodes. Therefore, special identification methods are
needed for the new RFID service to avoid collision with the system that uses previous code systems, such as the EPC. Based on these
reasons, the concept of OID is essential in the RFID.).
• It can also be used for digital signature certificate items used by banks or various security
duties to manage them efficiently and safely.

Example: There is no name for the root, and it only has three of the top-level areas, which are
managed by the ISO. 0 is the ITU-T, 1 is the ISO, and 2 is jointly managed by the ISO and the
ITU-T.
Below is an example scheme based on the OID:

{ 0.2.481.1.999.xxxx }

Each digit in the OID hierarchy is called an arc. The first arc represents the managing
organization, and 0 here represents the ITU-T. The second arc represents the type for which it
is used. In this example, 2 represents the administration. The third arc is the Data Country Code
(DCC), which is assigned to each country. In Korea, 450, 480 and 481 codes are assigned, and
KISA is responsible for the management. 450 is used to discriminate the RFID code type. The
other two numbers are not used nowadays, but number 1 of 481 is experimentally granted and
used by SKT. The fifth arc 999 means the grant for the IoT, and the sixth arc means the given
organization or company.
Fig. 1 shows the OID structure, which is managed by the ITU-T.

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 Fig. 1. OID structure by ITU
2. EPC
• An EPC is a universal identifier that assigns the identity to any physical object that is unique
amongst all objects and categories all around the world.
• These unique identifiers can be used for referring to or tracking objects in information
systems that are part of the EPCglobal Network. EPCglobal and other third-party providers
aim to achieve a common goal towards an enhancement in business flows and computer
applications through the use of EPCs.
• The identification of each object, such as an asset, a trade item and a document, has a
corresponding GS1 key, which is shown in Table 1. GS1's EPC Tag Data Standard (TDS)
1.11 specifies the data format of the EPC and provides encodings for numbering schemes,
which include the GS1 keys within an EPC. The TDS is concerned with the encoding of
EPCs onto the RFID tags, as well as with defining the standards for other data apart from
the EPC that may be stored on a Gen 2 RFID tag.
Table 1. EPC identification schemes.
EPC Scheme Identifier Syntax
Serialised Global Trade urn:epc:id:sgtin:CompanyPrefix.ItemRefAndIndicator.SerialNumber
Identification Number (SGTIN)
Global Location Number with or urn:epc:id:sgln:CompanyPrefix.LocationReference.Extension
without Location (SGLN)
Global Returnable Asset Identifier urn:epc:id:grai:CompanyPrefix.AssetType.SerialNumber
(GRAI)
Global Document Type Identifier urn:epc:id:gdti:CompanyPrefix.DocumentType.SerialNumber
(GDTI)
Component/Part Identification (CPI) urn:epc:id:cpi:CompanyPrefix.ComponentPartReference.Serial
Serialised Global Coupon Number urn:epc:id:sgcn:CompanyPrefix.CouponReference.SerialComponent
(SGCN)
Global Identification Number of urn:epc:id:ginc:CompanyPrefix.ConsignmentReference
Consignment (GINC)
Global Shipment Identification urn:epc:id:gsin:CompanyPrefix.ShipperReference
Number (GSIN)
General Identifiers (GID) urn:epc:id:gid:ManagerNumber.ObjectClass.SerialNumber

3. UUID
• The UUID is a 128 bit number that is used to uniquely identify an entity or object across
space and time. It is also termed as Globally Unique IDentifier (GUID).
• The probability of having a duplicated UUID is almost zero and can be considered
negligible. Because of this characteristic, it can be safely used as a unique Identification
Schemes(IS). UUIDs were initially used Apollo Network Computing System (ANCS) and
later on Open Software Foundation's (OSF) Distributed Computing Environment (DCE)
and in Microsoft Windows platforms. The first design of the UUID was based on the ANCS
UUIDs.
• In the canonical structure of the UUID, 32 hexadecimal (base 16) digits represent the
sixteen octets of a UUID. The display format of the UUID is in five groups as 8-4-4-4-12
for a total of 36 characters, four of which are hyphens.

The following is a sample UUID:

61f8a73e-52bf-11e8-9c2d-fa7ae01bbebc GUID used by Microsoft is usually represented in
surrounding braces which are shown as below:
{61f8a73e-52bf-11e8-9c2d-fa7ae01bbebc}.
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4. IMEI
• The International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) is a number usually unique to
identify 3G mobile phones, as well as some satellite phones. It is usually found printed
inside the battery compartment of the phone, but can also be displayed on-screen on most
phones by entering *#06# MMI Supplementary Service code on the dialpad, or alongside
other system information in the settings menu on smartphone operating systems.
• GSM networks use the IMEI number to identify valid devices, and can stop a stolen phone
from accessing the network. For example, if a mobile phone is stolen, the owner can have
their network provider use the IMEI number to blocklist the phone. This renders the phone
useless on that network and sometimes other networks, even if the thief changes the
phone's subscriber identity module (SIM).
• However, the IMEI only identifies the device and has no particular relationship to the
subscriber. The phone identifies the subscriber by transmitting the International mobile
subscriber identity (IMSI) number, which it stores on a SIM card.
2.6.1 Data protocols
IoT protocols are an integral part of the IoT technology stack. Without IoT protocols and
standards, hardware would be deemed useless. This is because IoT protocols enable hardware
to exchange data. And, out of these transferred pieces of data, useful information can be
extracted by the end-user.
And while the interaction between devices, iot sensors, gateways, servers, and user applications
are essential components of the IoT, communication would fall down without the right IoT
protocols.
the IoT Protocols on top of existing architecture models like OSI Model, we have broken the
protocols into the following layers to provide some level of organization:
1. Infrastructure (ex: 6LowPAN, IPv4/IPv6, RPL)
2. Identification (ex: EPC, uCode, IPv6, URIs)
3. Comms / Transport (ex: Wifi, Bluetooth, LPWAN)
4. Discovery (ex: Physical Web, mDNS, DNS-SD)
5. Data Protocols (ex: MQTT, CoAP, AMQP, Websockets, Node)
6. Device Management (ex: TR-069, OMA-DM)
7. Semantic (ex: JSON-LD, Web Thing Model)
8. Multi-layer Frameworks (ex: Alljoyn, IoTivity, Weave, Homekit)

What protocols do IoT-qualified devices use majorly?

IoT protocols and standards are broadly classified into two separate categories. These are:
1. IoT data protocols (Presentation / Application layers)
2. Network protocols for IoT (Datalink / Physical layers)

2.6.2 IoT Data Protocols

IoT data protocols are used to connect low-power IoT devices. They provide communication
with hardware on the user side – without the need for any internet connection.
The connectivity in IoT data protocols and standards is through a wired or cellular network.
Some examples of IoT data protocols are:

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1. MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport)
§ An MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) is a lightweight IoT data protocol. It
features a publisher-subscriber messaging model and allows for simple data flow between
different devices.
§ MQTT’s main selling point is its architecture. Its genetic make-up is basic and lightweight
and, therefore, it’s able to provide low power consumption for devices. It also works on top
of a TCP/IP protocol.
§ IoT data protocols were designed to tackle unreliable communication networks. This
became a need in the IoT world due to the increasing number of small, cheap, and lower-
power objects that have appeared in the network over the past few years.
§ Despite MQTT’s wide adaptation, mostly IoT standard with industrial applications doesn’t
support a defined data representation and device management structure mode. As a result,
the implementation of data and device management capabilities is entirely platform- or
vendor-specific.

2. CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol)

§ A CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol) is an application layer protocol. It’s designed
to address the needs of HTTP-based IoT systems. HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer
Protocol, and it’s the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web.
§ While the existing structure of the internet is freely available and usable by any IoT device,
it’s often too heavy and power-consuming for most IoT applications. This has led to many
within the IoT community dismissing HTTP as a protocol not suitable for IoT.
§ However, CoAP has addressed this limitation by translating the HTTP model into usage in
restrictive devices and network environments. It has incredibly low overheads, is easy to
employ, and has the ability to enable multicast support.
§ Therefore, it’s ideal for use in devices with resource limitations, such as IoT
microcontrollers or WSN nodes. It’s traditionally used in applications involving smart
energy and building automation.

3. AMQP (Advanced Message Queuing Protocol)

§ An Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP) is an open standard application layer
protocol used for transactional messages between servers.
§ The main functions of this IoT protocol are as follows:
• Receiving and placing messages in queues
• Storing messages
• Setting up a relationship between these components
§ With its level of security and reliability, it’s most commonly employed in settings that
require server-based analytical environments, such as the banking industry.
§ However, it’s not widely used elsewhere. Due to its heaviness, it’s not suitable for IoT
sensor devices with limited memory. As a result, its use is still quite limited within the
world of the IoT.

4. DDS (Data Distribution Service)

§ DDS (Data Distribution Service) is another scalable IoT protocol that enables high-quality
communication in IoT. Similar to the MQTT, DDS also works to a publisher-subscriber
model.
§ It can be deployed in multiple settings, from the cloud to very small devices. This makes it
perfect for real-time and embedded systems. Moreover, unlike MQTT, the DDS protocol
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 allows for interoperable data exchange that is independent of the hardware and the software
platform.

5. WebSocket
§ WebSocket was initially developed back in 2011 as part of the HTML5 initiative. Via a
single TCP connection, messages can be sent between the client and the server.
§ Like CoAp, WebSocket’s standard connectivity protocol helps simplify many of the
complexities and difficulties involved in the management of connections and bi-direction
communication on the internet.
§ It can be applied to an IoT network where data is communicated continuously across
multiple devices. Therefore, you’ll find it used most commonly in places that act as clients
or servers. This includes runtime environments or libraries.

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 Chapter--3
Connectivity Technologies
3.1 Introduction
3.2 IEEE 802.15.4
3.3 ZigBee, 6LoWPAN
3.4 RFID, HART and wireless HART
3.5 NFC, Bluetooth, Z wave, ISA100.11.A

3.1 Introduction
So, we have been through different protocols which include XMPP protocol, MQTT protocol,
CoAP protocol and AMQP protocol. But, there are other different communication protocols
that are primarily involved with offering connectivity services at higher levels.

3.2 IEEE 802.15.4

IEEE 802.15.4 is a standard that was developed to provide a framework and the lower
layers in the OSI model for low cost, low power wireless connectivity networks.

P The concept of IEEE 802.15.4 is to provide communications over distances up to

about 10 metres and with maximum transfer data rates of 250 kbps.

Fig: Architecture of IEEE 802.15.4

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3.2.1 IEEE 802.15.4 standard
The IEEE 802.15.4 standard has undergone a number of releases. In addition to this there
are a number of variants of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard to cater for different forms of
physical layer, etc. These are summarised below in the table.

IEEE 802.15.4 STANDARD SUMMARY

IEEE 802.15.4 VERSION DETAILS AND COMMENTS

IEEE 802.15.4 - 2003 This was the initial release of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. It provided for
two different PHYs - one for the lower frequency bands of 868 and 915
MHz, and the other for 2.4 GHz.
IEEE 802.15.4 - 2006 This 2006 release of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard provided for an increase
in the data rate achievable on the lower frequency bands. This release
of the standard updated the PHY for 868 and 915 MHz. It also defined
four new modulation schemes that could be used - three for the lower
frequency bands, and one for 2.4 GHz.
IEEE 802.15.4a This version of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard defined two new PHYs. One
used UWB technology and the other provided for using chirp spread
spectrum at 2.4 GHz.
IEEE 802.15.4c Updates for 2.4 GHz, 868 MHz and 915 MHz, UWB and the China 779-
787 MHz band.
IEEE 802.15.4d 2.4 GHz, 868 MHz, 915 MHz and Japanese 950 - 956 MHz band.
IEEE 802.15.4e This release defines MAC enhancements to IEEE 802.15.4 in support of
the ISA SP100.11a application.
IEEE 802.15.4f This will define new PHYs for UWB, 2.4 GHz band and also 433 MHz
IEEE 802.15.4g This will define new PHYs for smart neighbourhood networks. These
may include applications such as smart grid applications for the energy
industry. It may include the 902 - 928 MHz band.

Note: Although new versions of the standard are available for use by any of the higher layer standards, Zigbee still
uses the initial 2003 release of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard.

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 Fig: Variants of IEEE 804.15.4

3.2.2 IEEE 802.15.4 network topologies

There are two main forms of network topology that can be used within IEEE 802.15.4.
These network topologies may be used for different applications and offer different
advantages.

The two IEEE 802.15.4 network topologies are:

• Star topology: The star format for an IEEE 802.15.4 network topology has one central
node called the PAN coordinator with which all other nodes communicate.
Having a star network topology does limit the overall distances that can be covered.
It is limited to one hop.

• Peer to Peer network topology: In this form of network topology, there is still a PAN
coordinator, but communications may also take place between different nodes and
not necessarily via the coordinator.
It is worth defining the different types of devices that can exist in a network. There are
three types:

• Full Function Device (FFD): - a node that has full levels of functionality. It can
be used for sending and receiving data, but it can also route data from other
nodes.
• Reduced Function Device (RFD) : - a device that has a reduced level of
functionality. Typically it is an end node which may be typically a sensor or
switch. RFDs can only talk to FFDs as they contain no routing functionality.
These devices can be very low power devices because they do not need to route
other traffic and they can be put into a sleep mode when they are not in use.
These RFDs are often known as child devices as they need other parent devices
with which to communicate.
• Coordinator: This is the node that controls the IEEE 802.15.4 network. This is
a special form of FFD. In addition to the normal FFD functions it also sets the
IEEE 802.15.4 network up and acts as the coordinator or manager of the
network.

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In the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, two different operation modes are specified: the beacon
enabled networks, and non-beacon networks.
Beacon-enabled network:
P In a beacon-enabled network, there will be periodic transmission of beacon
messages. Data frames are sent via slotted CSMA/CA with a super frame structure
managed by PAN coordinator.
P Beacons are used for synchronization and association of other nodes with the
coordinator.
P A beacon-enabled device is hard to implement. High processing power is required
to meet the constrained timing events and process the beacon packets.
P The scope of operation spans the whole network.

Non Beacon-enabled network:

P In non-beacon enabled networks, data frames are sent via un-slotted CSMA/CA.
P Beacons are used only for link layer discovery.
P Non-beacon enabled networks require both source and destination IDs.
P As 802.15.4 is primarily a mesh protocol, all protocol addressing must adhere to
mesh configurations.
P In non-beacon enabled networks, there is decentralized communication amongst
various nodes.

3.2.3 IEEE 802.15.4 applications

The IEEE 802.15.4 technology is used for a variety of different higher layer standards.
IEEE 802.15.4 DERIVED STANDARDS
APPLICATION OR SYSTEM DESCRIPTION OF THE IEEE 802.15.4 APPLICATION OR SYSTEM
Zigbee Zigbee is supported by the Zigbee Alliance and provides the higher levels required for
low powered radio system for control applications including lighting, heating and many
other applications.
Wireless HART WirelessHART is an open-standard wireless networking technology that has been
developed by HART Communication Foundation for use in the 2.4 GHz ISM band. The
system uses IEEE802.15.4 for the lower layers and provides a time synchronized, self-
organizing, and self-healing mesh architecture.
RF4CE Radio Frequency for Consumer Electronics(RF4CE) has amalgamated with the Zigbee
alliance and aims to provide low power radio controls for audio visual applications,
mainly for domestic applications such as set top boxes, televisions and the like.
ISA100.11a This standard has been developed by ISA as an open-standard wireless networking
technology and is it described as a wireless system for industrial automation including
process control and other related applications.
6LoWPAN This rather unusual name is an acronym for "IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area
Networks" It is a system that uses the basic IEEE 802.15.4, but using packet data in the
form of Ipv6.

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3.3 ZigBee, 6LoWPAN
3.3.1 ZigBee

P It's low power consumption limits transmission distances to 10-100 meters line-of-
sight.
P ZigBee devices can transmit data over long distances by passing data through a
mesh network of intermediate devices to reach distant ones.
P ZigBee networks are secured by 128 bit symmetric encryption keys.
P ZigBee has a defined rate of 250 Kbits/s best suited for intermittent data
transmissions from a sensor or input device.

Fig: Architecture of ZigBee

3.3.2 Zigbee Topologies

(a) Star Topology:
P The star topology consists of a coordinator and several end devices (nodes).
P In this topology, the end device communicates only with the coordinator. Any packet
exchange between end devices must go through the coordinator.

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Disadvantage:
® The operation of this network topology depends on the coordinator of the
network.
® As all packets between devices must go through coordinator, the coordinator
may become bottlenecked.
® Also, there is no alternative path from the source to the destination.
Advantage:
® It is simple topology and packets go through at most two hops to reach their
destination.

(b) Tree topology:

P In this topology, the network consists of a central node (root tree), which is a
coordinator, several routers, and end devices.
P The function of the router is to extend the network coverage.
P The end nodes that are connected to the coordinator or the routers are called
children. Only routers and the coordinator can have children.
P Each end device is only able to communicate with its parent (router or coordinator).
The coordinator and routers can have children and, therefore, they are the only
parents devices. An end device cannot have children and, therefore, may not be a
parent.
P A special case of tree topology is called a cluster tree topology.

Disadvantages:

® If one of the parents becomes disabled, the children of the disable parent
cannot communicate with other devices in the network.
® Even if two nodes are geographically close to each other, they cannot
communicate directly.

(c) Cluster Tree Topology:

P A cluster tree topology is a special case of tree topology in which a parent with its
children is called a cluster.
P Each cluster is identified by a cluster ID.
P ZigBee does not support cluster tree topology, but IEEE 802.15.4 does support it.

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(d) Mesh Topology:
P Mesh topology, also referred to as a peer-to-peer network, consists of one
coordinator, several routers, and end devices.

P The following are the characteristics of a mesh topology:

® A mesh topology is a multihop network; packets pass through multiple hops to
reach their destination.
® The range of a network can be increased by adding more devices to the
network.
® It can eliminate dead zones.
® A mesh topology is self-healing, meaning during transmission, if a path fails, the
node will find an alternate path to the destination.
® Devices can be close to each other so that they use less power.
® Adding or removing a device is easy.
® Any source device can communicate with any destination device in the network.
® Compared with star topology, mesh topology requires greater overhead.
® Mesh routing uses a more complex routing protocol than a star topology.

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3.3.2 6LoWPAN

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The 128 bits of IPv6 addresses are divided in two parts: The network prefix (64 bits) and the
host address (64 bits). The 6LoWPAN header compression mechanism omits the 64 most
significant bits (network prefix) because they're fixed for a given 6LoWPAN. Moreover, the
64 least significant bits can address very large address space (up to 1.84467441x1019).
Therefore, 6LOWPAN provides options for compressing the host address (the common usage
is 16 bits) In a nutshell, a 128-bit IPv6 address can be compressed down to 16 bits using
6LOWPAN.
Version 4-bit Internet Protocol version number 6.
Traffic Class 8-bit traffic class field.
Flow Label 20-bit flow label.
Payload Length 6-bit unsigned integer. Length of the IPv6 header is in octets.
Next Header 8-bit selector. Identifies the type of header immediately following
the IPv6 header. Uses the same values as the IPv4 protocol field.
Hop Limit 8-bit unsigned integer. Decremented by 1 by each node that
forwards the packet. The packet is discarded if hop limit is
decremented to zero.
Source Address 128-bit address of the originator of the packet.
Destination Address 128-bit address of the intended recipient of the packet (possibly not
the ultimate recipient, if a routing header is present).

6LOWPAN Headers
There are 3 types of header for 6LoWPAN-Dispatch header, Mesh addressing header and
Fragmentation header.

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a) Dispatch Header: It is a 32-bit header. 0, 1 is the identifier for dispatch type.
Dispatch initiates communication. This is a 6-bit and identifies the next header type.
The Type Specific Header is determined by Dispatch header.

b) Mesh Addressing Header: It is a 32-bit header. 1, 0 is the identifier for mesh

addressing header. V has 2 values 0 and 1. The value of V is 0, if originator is 64-bit
extended address and I if 16-bit address. Similarly F has 2 values 0 and 1. The value
of F is 0 if destination is 64-bit address and I if 16-bit address. Hops Left is
decremented by each node before sending to next hop. Originator address is the
source address and Final address is the destination address.

c) Fragmentation header: If an entire payload (e.g., IPv6) datagram fits within a single
802.15.4 frame, it is unfragmented and the LoWPAN encapsulation should not
contain a fragmentation header. If the datagram does not fit within a single IEEE
802.15.4 frame, it SHALL be broken into link fragments. As the fragment offset can
only express multiples of eight bytes, all link fragments for a datagram except the
last one MUST be multiples of eight bytes in length. The first link fragment SHALL
contain the first fragment header as defined below. The second and subsequent link
fragments (up to and including the last) SHALL contain a fragmentation header that
conforms to the format shown below.

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§ Datagram Size: This 11-bit field encodes the size of the entire IP packet before link
layer fragmentation (but after IP layer fragmentation). The value of Datagram Size
shall be the same for all link-layer fragments of an IP packet. For IPv6, this shall be 40
octets more than the value of Payload Length in the IPv6 header [RFC2460] of the
packet. Packet may already be fragmented by hosts involved in the communication,
i.e., this field needs to encode a maximum length of 1280 octets.

§ Datagram Tag: The value of Datagram Tag shall be the same for all link fragments of
a payload (e.g., IPv6) datagram. The sender shall increment Datagram Tag for
successive, fragmented datagrams. The incremented value of Datagram Tag shall
wrap from 65535 back to zero. This field is 16 bits long, and its initial value is not
defined.

§ Datagram Offset: This field is present only in the second and subsequent link
fragments and shall specify the offset, in increments of 8 octets, of the fragment
from the beginning of the payload datagram. The first octet of the datagram (e.g., the
start of the IPv6 header) has an offset of zero; the implicit value of Datagram Offset
in the first link fragment is zero. This field is 8 hits long.

3.4 RFID, HART and wireless HART

3.4.1 Radio-Frequency Identification(RFID)

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 Figure: Working Principle of RFID

3.4.2 HART and wireless HART

P The HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) Protocol is the global standard for
sending and receiving digital information across analog wires between smart devices
and control or monitoring system or Handheld communicators.
P HART is a bi-directional communication protocol in half duplex mode that provides data
access between intelligent field instruments and host/control systems (DCS/PLC or
Handheld Communicator).
P A host can be any software application from technician’s hand-held device or laptop to a
plant’s process control, asset management, safety or other system using any control
platform.
*controllers(DCS/PLC): DCS stands for Distributed Control System and PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controller.
P HART emerged in the late1980s that brought Caller ID to analog telephony.

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P The HART Protocol makes use of the Bell 202 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) standard to
communicate additional device information using a digital signal that is superimposed
at a low level on top of the 4-20mA analog signal.

P The digital signal is made up of two frequencies— 1,200 Hz and 2,200 Hz representing
bits 1 and 0, respectively.
P The digital FSK signal is continuous phase, there is no interference with the 4-20mA
signal.

The HART Protocol implemented in layers 1,2, 3, 4 and 7 of the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) model:

Fig: Layers of HART Protocol

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In the Application Layer, the public commands of the protocol are divided into
four major groups termed as HART Commands.
HART Commands:
1. Universal Commands – provide functions which must be implemented in
all field devices
2. Common Practice Commands – provide functions common to many, but
not all field devices
3. Device Specific Commands – provide functions that are unique to a
particular field device and are specified by the device manufacturer
4. Device Family Commands – provide a set of standardized functions for
instruments with particular measurement types, allowing full generic
access without using device-specific commands.

3.4.3 Wireless HART

P Wireless HART enables device placements more accessible and cheaper such as the
top of a reaction tank, inside a pipe or at widely separated warehouses.

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P The main difference between the wired and unwired versions is in the physical
layer, data link layer and network layer.
P Wired HART doesn’t have a network layer.

3.5 NFC, Bluetooth, Z wave, ISA100.11.A

3.5.1 NFC

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 Fig: Working of NFC

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3.5.2 Bluetooth

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Fig: Diagram of Bluetooth Topology(Piconet & Scatternet)

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3.5.3 Z-Wave

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3.5.4 ISA 100.11A

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 Fig: Architecture of Z-Wave

Fig: Direct path and Healing Path in Z-Wave

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Fig: Architecture of ISA 100.11A

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 Chapter 4
Wireless Sensor Networks
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Components of a sensor node
4.3 Modes of Detection
4.4 Challenges in WSN
4.5 Sensor Web
4.6 Cooperation and Behaviour of Nodes in WSN
4.7 Self-Management of WSN
4.8 Social sensing WSN
4.9 Application of WSN
4.10 Wireless Multimedia sensor network
4.11 Wireless Nano-sensor Networks
4.12 Underwater acoustic sensor networks
4.13 WSN Coverage
4.14 Stationary WSN, Mobile WSN

4.1 INTRODUCTION

4.2 Components Of A Sensor Node

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 i. Sensing unit:
 Sensors are hardware devices that capture data from the environment and produce a
measurable response to a change in a physical condition like temperature or pressure.
 Sensors measure and monitor physical data and have specific characteristics such as
accuracy, sensitivity etc.
 Sensors are classified into three categories: passive omni-directional sensors, passive
narrow-beam sensors and active sensors.
 Passive sensors sense the data without actually manipulating the environment
by active probing. They are self-powered. The energy is needed only to amplify
their analog signal.
a) Narrow-beam sensors have a well-defined notion of direction of
measurement, similar to a camera.
b) Omni-directional sensors have no notion of direction involved in their
measurements.
 Active sensors actively probe the environment, for example, a sonar or radar
sensor and they require continuous energy from a power source.

ii. Location Finding Unit:

 Location finding unit contains a transceiver which transmits or receives data.
 Sensor nodes often make use of ISM band, which gives free radio, spectrum allocation
and global availability.
 WSNs tend to use license-free communication frequencies: 173, 433, 868, and 915
MHz and 2.4 GHz.

iii. Transceiver:
 The functionality of both transmitter and receiver are combined into a single device
known as a transceiver.
 Transceivers often lack unique identifiers.
 The operational states are transmit, receive, idle, and sleep.

iv. Analog to digital convertor(ADC):

 The continual analog signal produced by the sensors is digitized by an analog-to-digital
converter and sent to controllers for further processing.

v. Processor:
 The processor processes data and controls the functionality of other components in
the sensor node.
 The most common processor is a microcontroller. A microcontroller is often used
because of its low cost, flexibility to connect to other devices, ease of programming
and low power consumption.
 A general purpose microprocessor generally has higher power consumption than a
microcontroller.
 Digital Signal Processors may be chosen for broadband wireless communication
applications to process modulation and the signal processing tasks of actual sensing of
data is less complicated.
vi. Storage or External Memory
 The most relevant kinds of memory are the on-chip memory of a microcontroller and
flash memory.
 Flash memories are used due to their cost and capacity.
 Memory requirements are very much application dependent. Two categories of
memory based on the purpose of storage are: user memory used for storing

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 application related or personal data and program memory used for programming the
device. Program memory also contains identification data of the device if present.

vii. Power Source:

 An important aspect in the development of a wireless sensor node is ensuring that
there is always adequate energy available to power the system. The sensor node
consumes power for sensing, communicating and data processing. More energy is
required for data communication than any other process.
 Power is stored either in batteries or capacitors. Batteries, both rechargeable and non-
rechargeable, are the main source of power supply for sensor nodes.
 Current sensors are able to renew their energy from solar sources, temperature
differences or vibration. Two power saving policies used are Dynamic Power
Management (DPM) and Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS).
 DPM conserves power by shutting down parts of the sensor node which are not
currently used or active.
 A DVS scheme varies the power levels within the sensor node depending on the non-
deterministic workload. By varying the voltage along with the frequency, it is possible
to obtain quadratic reduction in power consumption.

4.3 Modes of Detection

1.

In this a single object will be detected by a single sensor node. The detected data will be sent to the
sink node via the intermediate sensors.

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2.

In this there will be a single source for detecting multiple objects. The detected data on reaching the
sink node will identify the various objects.

3.

In this, same object will be detected by multiple sensors. This is expensive and can be applied for
security critical applications.

4(a)

4(b)

This mode of detection contains more than one object and more than one sensor. Each object may
be detected by more than one sensor.

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4.4 Challenges in WSN

4.5

 Sensor Web is a type of sensor network that is well suited for environmental monitoring.
 It is associated with a sensing system which heavily utilizes the World Wide Web.
 Sensor Web is the combination of Service Oriented Architecture (SOA), grid computing and
sensor networks.
 Sensor Web brings the heterogeneous sensors into an integrated and uniform platform
supporting dynamic discovery and access.
 EXAMPLE: A sample scenario would be the client (may be the researchers or other software,
model and workflow system), who wants to utilize the information collected by the
deployed sensors on the target application, such as weather forecast, tsunami or pollution
detection. The client may query the entire sensor web and get the response either from real-
time sensors that have been registered in the web or existing data from a remote database.
The clients are not aware of where the real sensors are and what operations they may have,
although they are required to set parameters for their plan and invoke the service (similar to
when people perform a search on Google, filling in the search field and clicking the search
button). The primary goal of the Sensor Web is to provide the middleware infrastructure and
the programming environment for creating, accessing and utilizing sensor services through
the Web.

4.5.1 Sensor Web Enablement

 SWE is the standard developed by Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) that encompasses
specifications for interfaces, protocols and encodings that enable discovering, accessing.
obtaining sensor data as well as sensor-processing services. The following are the primary
specifications for SWE.

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 1. Sensor Model Language (SensorML) - Information model and XML encodings that describe
either single sensor or sensor platform in regard to discover, query and control sensors.
2. Observation and Measurement (O&M) - Information model and XML encodings for
observations and measurement.
3. Transducer Markup Language (TML) – TransducerML is an OGC standard developed to
describe any transducer (sensor or transmitter) in terms of a common model, including
characterizing not only the data but XML formed metadata describing the system producing
that data.
4. Sensor Observation Service (SOS) - Open interface for a web service to obtain observations
and sensor and platform descriptions from one or more sensors.
5. Sensor Planning Service (SPS) - Service to help users build feasible sensor collection plan
and to schedule requests for sensors and sensor platforms.
6. Sensor Collection Service (SCS) - Service to fetch observations, which conforms to the
Observations and Measurement information model, from a single sensor or a collection of
sensors. It is also used to describe the sensors and sensor platforms by utilizing SensorML..
7. Web Notification Service (WNS) - Service to manage client session and notify the client
about the outcome of one's requested service using various communication protocols.

4.6 Cooperation and Behaviour of Nodes in WSN

4.6.1

4.6.2

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4.6.3

4.6.4

4.6.5

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4.7 Self-Management of WSN

4.8

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 Fig. Social Sensing in WSN

4.9 Application of WSN

4.9.1

4.9.2

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

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 4.9.3 Application of WSN: Surveillance
 Wireless Sensor Networks can be used in surveillance systems which is Known as target
tracking or object tracking.
 It comprises of WSN network containing cameras.
 When a suspicious object is detected by a sensor, it needs to track the trajectory of the object.
 This tracking can be of two types. First one is to keep on following the target as and when the
target moves to know where it is moving using different sensors. This can be done in real time.
 The second one is to predict the trajectory of the target.
 There are three different problems of formulation in target tracking. They are a) Push based
Formulation b) Pull based Formulation and c) Guided Formulation.

4.9.4

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4.10

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4.11

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4.12

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 Communicating links in underwater networks are based on acoustic wireless
communications. The traditional approach for ocean-bottom or ocean column
monitoring is to deploy underwater sensors that record data during the monitoring
mission and then recover the instruments. This approach has the following
disadvantages:
1. Real time monitoring is not possible.
2. No interaction is possible between onshore control systems and the monitoring
instruments.
3. If failures or misconfigurations occur, it may not be possible to detect them before
the instruments are recovered.
4. The amount of data that can be recorded during the monitoring mission by every
sensor is limited by the capacity of the onboard storage devices (memories, hard
disks, etc.).
Major challenges in the design of underwater acoustic networks are:
1. Battery power is limited and usually batteries cannot be recharged, also because
solar energy cannot be exploited.
2. The available bandwidth is severely limited.
3. Channel characteristics, including long and variable propagation delays, multi-path
and fading problems.
4. High bit error rates.
5. Underwater sensors are prone to failures because of fouling, corrosion, etc.
6. Oceanic forces may affect the node's mobility.

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4.13

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 4.13.1

4.13.2

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4.13.3

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4.14 Stationary WSN, Mobile WSN
4.14.1

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4.14.2

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 (A)

(B)

(C)

4.14.3

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4.14.4

4.14.5

4.14.6

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 CHAPTER 5
M2M COMMUNICATION
5.1 M2M communication
5.2 M2M Ecosystem
5.3 M2M service Platform
5.4 Interoperability

5.1 M2M communication

Fig. Scenario of M2M Communication

 In the above example, when an accident occurs, from the emergency sensors in the
car, information is sent to remote servers. The server alerts the hospital, emergency
services paramedics and the doctors. Ambulance and paramedics will be dispatched
to the location where accident took place. Patient's vital information will be
transmitted from the ambulance to the doctors automatically. This may help the
doctors to get ready while the ambulance reaches the hospital. This is a typical
example for M2M communication where there is no intervention of human beings.
 Human intervention is required only for operational stability and sustainability.
 In some situations, the device itself performs data analysis and correlation to trigger
business decisions, with no programming skills required.

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 At the outermost layer lie the sensors which sense the data.
 The sensed data is sent through a network to a server.
 At the server, information is extracted and processing is done.
 The action to be taken is sent to the actuators for appropriate action.

1. Manufacturing
 Every manufacturing environment whether it is food processing or general product
manufacturing relies on technology, to ensure costs are managed properly and
processes are executed efficiently.
 Automating manufacturing processes in the manufacturing world could involve
highly automated equipment maintenance and safety procedures.
 For example MZMI tools allow business owners to be alerted on their smart phones
when an important piece of equipment needs servicing, so they can address issues
as quickly as they arise.

2. Home Appliances
 Manufacturers like LG and Samsung are already slowly unveiling smart home
appliances to help ensure a higher quality of life for occupants.

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 For example, an M2M-capable washing machine could send alerts to the owners
smart devices once it finishes washing or drying and a smart refrigerator could
automatically order groceries from Amazon once its inventory is depleted.
 User can remotely control Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems
by using their mobile devices. In situations where a homeowner decides to leave
work early, he or she could contact the home heating system before leaving work to
make sure the temperature at home will be comfortable upon arrival. He/she can
contact the lighting system also so that the necessary lights will be on before he/she
reaches home.

3. Healthcare Device Management

 In hospitals, M2M technology can automate processes to ensure the highest levels
of treatment.
 Using devices that can react faster than a human healthcare professional in an
emergency situation make this possible.
 For instance, when a patient's vital signs drop below normal, M2M-connected life
support device could automatically administer oxygen and take additional care until
a healthcare professional arrives on the scene.
 M2M also allows patients to be monitored in their own homes instead of in
hospitals or care centres. For example, devices that track frail or elderly person's
normal movements can detect when he or she had a fall and alert healthcare worker
about the situation.
 Telemedicine offers another use. For instance, some heart patients wear special
monitors that gather information about the way their heart is working. The data is
sent to devices that deliver a shock to correct an errant rhythm.

4. Smart Utility Management

 M2M technology helps energy companies automatically gather energy consumption
data, so they can accurately bill customers.
 Smart meters can track how much energy a household or business uses and
automatically alert the energy company, which supplants sending out an employee
to read the meter or requiring the customer to provide a reading. This is even more
important as utilities move toward more dynamic pricing models, charging
consumers more for energy usage during peak times.
5. Traffic Control
 Traffic control is another dynamic environment that can benefit from M2M
communications. In a typical system, sensors monitor variables such as traffic
volume and speed.
 The sensors send this information to computers using specialized software that
controls traffic-control devices, like lights and variable informational signs. Using the
incoming data, the software manipulates the traffic control devices to maximize
traffic flow. Researchers are studying ways to create M2M networks that monitor
the status of infrastructure, such as bridges and highways.

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1.

2.

3.

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5.2 M2M Ecosystem
 M2M ecosystem comprises of device providers, Internet service providers (ISPS),
platform providers, service providers and service users.

 In an M2M ecosystem, we have an M2M network which consists of various devices.

 The device provider is the one who owns the devices.
 The data from the M2M area network will be sent via a gateway to the Internet which
is managed by Internet Service Provider (ISP).
 The RESTful architecture acts as the interface between device providers and ISP.
 RESTful architecture is used in low resource environment.
 From the ISP the data reaches the platform provider.
 The platform provider takes care of device management, user management, data
analytics and user access.
 The data is then through a RESTful architecture which takes care of the business
model to the service providers and users.

Fig. M2M Ecosystem

5.3 M2M Service Platform

 In an M2M service platform, there are several functionalities for devices, users,
applications and access.
 The data from these devices, users, applications and access passes through an access
network like ZigBee, Wi-Fi etc. and are sent to M2M area network.
 Similarly the data from several M2M networks passes through the access network to
the core network which supports all the platforms like devices, users, applications
and access.

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 Fig. M2M Service Platform(M2SP)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

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5.4 INTEROPERABILITY

5.4.1 Need for Interoperability

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 5.4.2 Types of Interoperability

(1)

1a.

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1b.

1c.

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(2)

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Different situations/circumstances in which heterogeneous devices communicate:

1) When a new device is plugged into the UMB-A1,

 The first step is to detect the device and configure the device.
 Then a virtual device is created.
 The information like device online status, device id etc. is sent from the UMB
adaptor to the UMB core.
 From the UMB core, the online status of the device, device id etc. is sent to UMB
adaptor of other devices namely UMB-A2, UMB-A3, UMB-A4-and so on.
 There Virtual Device Proxy Database (VDP DB) is created.
 This is how two heterogeneous devices following different configurations
communicate with each other.

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2) Consider the following scenario in which a device is controlled and monitored.
 The local control or monitoring message is sent from first device to UMB-A1.
 From UMB-A1, local to UMB message conversion takes place and a query/action
request is sent to UMB-C.
 From UMB-C, this query/action request is sent to UMB-A2 of the second device.
Here UMB to local message conversion and local control/monitoring message takes
place.
 A local message is then sent to UMB-A2. From there a query/action response is sent
to UMB-A1 through UMB-C. UMB-A1 sends back local message to first device.

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 Chapter 6
Programming with Arduino
6.1 Features of Arduino
6.2 Components of Arduino Board
6.3 Arduino IDE
6.4 Case Studies

6.1 Features of Arduino

 Chapter-7
Programming with Raspberry Pi
7.1 Architecture and Pin Configuration
7.2 Case studies
7.3 Implementation of IoT with Raspberry Pi

7.0 What is Raspberry Pi?

7.0.1 Specifications of commonly used Ver. Of

Raspberry Pi

7.1 Architecture and Pin Configuration

Sl. Arduino Raspberry Pi
No.
1. Control unit of Arduino is from While control unit of Raspberry Pi is from
ATmega family. ARM family.
2. Arduino is based on a microcontroller. While Raspberry Pi is based on a
microprocessor.
3. It is designed to control the electrical While Raspberry Pi computes data and
components connected to the circuit produces valuable outputs, and controls
board in a system. components in a system based on the
outcome of its computation.
4. Arduino boards have a simple hardware While Raspberry Pi boards have a complex
and software structure. architecture of hardware and software.
5. CPU architecture: 8 bit. CPU architecture: 64 bit.
6. It uses very less RAM, 2 kB. While Raspberry Pi requires more RAM, 1
GB.
7. It clocks a processing speed of 16 MHz. While Raspberry Pi clocks a processing
speed of 1.4 GHz.
8. It is cheaper in cost. While Raspberry Pi is expensive.
9. It has a higher I/O current drive While Raspberry Pi has a lower I/O current
strength. drive strength.
10. It consumes about 200 MW of power. While it consumes about 700 MW of
power.
7.2 CASE STUDIES
7.2.1 Blinking LED
Result

7.2.2 Taking Picture using PiCam

7.3 Implementation of IoT with Raspberry Pi
 Chapter 8.
Software defined Networking
8.1 Limitation of current network
8.2 Origin of SDN
8.3 SDN Architecture
8.4 Rule Placement, Open flow Protocol
8.5 Controller placement
8.6 Security in SDN
8.7 Integrating SDN in IoT
 Chapter 9
Smart Homes
9.1 Origin and example of Smart Home Technologies
9.2 Smart Home Implementation
9.3 Home Area Networks(HAN)
9.4 Smart Home benefits and issues
 Chapter 10
Smart Cities
10.1 Characteristics of Smart Cities
10.2 Smart city Frameworks
10.3 Challenges in Smart cities
10.4 Data Fusion
10.5 Smart Parking
10.6 Energy Management in Smart cities