Critical Employment, Ethical, and Legal

Scenarios in Human Resource Development

CRITICAL EMPLOYMENT, ETHICAL, AND
LEGAL SCENARIOS IN HUMAN RESOURCE
DEVELOPMENT

CLARETHA HUGHES

University of Arkansas Libraries

Fayetteville, AR
Critical Employment, Ethical, and Legal Scenarios in Human Resource Development by Claretha Hughes is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
CONTENTS

Preface 1

Part I. Main Body

Criteria for Case Scenario Analysis 5

Topic 1: Professional Responsibility and Relationships Between Career 6
Development Professionals and clients
Topic 2: Providing Career Services Online 10
Topic 3: Using Technology and Social Media in Human Resource and Workforce 12
Development (HRWD)
Topic 4: Supervising, Training, and Teaching Employees 15
Topic 5: Ethics of Mentoring 18
Topic 6: All Employees’ Access to Career Development, Training and Development, 21
and Organization Development Activities
Topic 7: Power and Privilege Dynamics 24
Topic 8: Authenticity of Allies 26
Topic 9: Ethics of Career Development and Training and Development Assessments 29
Topic 10: Protected Class Bias 32
Topic 11: Covert Conditioning of Girls/Women Away from Male Dominated Fields 35
Topic 12: Educational Opportunity Bias 37
Topic 13: Occupational Segregation and Promotional Ceilings 40
Topic 14: Confidentiality 44
Topic 15: Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) 47
Topic 16: Artificial Intelligence (AI) and HRD 50
Bibliography 54
Author Bio 55
Claretha Hughes
PREFACE

This OER contains problem-based, teaching scenarios for instructors to use as they seek to develop the
ability of students to critically think about employment, ethical, and legal situations that can occur in the
workplace. As organizations seek to achieve their diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts, difficult situations and
conversations may occur between workers. Using teaching case methodology does not seek to provide answers
but opens up questions and debates among students. Of course, legal statutes and mandates are indeed answers
but there are challenges to mandates and statutes in the court systems.
Preparing to engage appropriately within these difficult situations and conversations require knowledge,
workplace training and education, and the appropriate behavior from all employees. Hughes (2019) describes
the knowledge, workplace training and education, and behavior as diversity intelligence. Critical thinking
questions that guide participants’ examination of the case content are included. The learning activities allow
participants to engage individually or with others. Students may be asked to create learning and/or training
activities, assessments, multimedia artifacts, etc… as they engage with the content form this book.
The supplemental readings and bibliography include links to policy documents governing the provision
and regulations of training and development, career development, and organization development such as the
AHRD Code of Ethics, the ATD Code of Ethics, Government Laws, Regulations, and Mandates. There is
also grey literature available such as organizational and institutional reports to provide context and analysis.
There is also scholarly literature on the topics as applicable.
These scenarios are self-guiding and problem-based so that instructors may find them, not just theoretical,
but user-friendly, practical, and relevant. A feedback template containing questions about the relevance,
breadth and depth of content, usability, and user guidance will be available for users of this resource to provide
feedback for updates and/or needed changes.
Are you adopting this book? Please let me know!
PART I
MAIN BODY

Cover image attribution: Claretha Hughes

Wisdom and Growth

CRITERIA FOR CASE SCENARIO ANALYSIS

Define the problem: Students should focus on defining the problem by determining the root cause, not the
underlying symptom(s).
Develop reasonable alternatives: Students should develop three to four reasonable alternatives to deal
with the problem. Most laws are written around the concept of what a reasonable person would do.
Evaluate each alternative: Generally, any alternative has both advantages and disadvantages. Students
should provide at least two advantages and two disadvantages for each alternative.
Select the preferred alternative: Students should select one alternative or a combination of alternatives to
resolve the underlying problem. Additionally, students should provide a reasonable and logical explanation as
to why one alternative or combination of alternatives is better than another alternative.
Support the decision with empirical evidence: Students should support their decisions with empirical
evidence as applicable. Not all empirical evidence is generalizable to every problem.
TOPIC 1: PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY
AND RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CAREER
DEVELOPMENT PROFESSIONALS AND
CLIENTS

Abstract
Topic 1 provides scenarios that ask students to consider the role of professional responsibility and relationships
when working as career development professionals. The differences in clients and/or workers must be
considered at all times when providing professional services. Career development strategies and concepts
changes along with workers and workplace policies.

Scenario 1: Coaching Responsibly

Regina is a mid-career, Black female supervisor for a multinational corporation. Regina would like to be
promoted to an executive level position within her company. She realizes that the culture of her organization
does not favor the advancement of Black professionals and less so Black women. Regina has decided to hire a
career coach. She decides that she would like the perspective of a white male because, white males appear to be
the only ones successfully reaching the executive suite in her organization.
After a few weeks of searching for a career coach, Regina finds Steve. Steve has been recommended by several
white males in Regina’s organization who have used his services and have been promoted to the executive suite.
Regina arranges a meeting with Steve. Steve advises Regina using the exact same resources that he has provided
to her white male colleagues. After 6 months of career coaching from Steve, Regina has received no results from
the changes that she has implemented after recommendations from Steve. Steve is baffled. He cannot begin
to comprehend why his coaching is not working for Regina when he has seen phenomenal results in all of his
other clients with the same information.

Discussion Questions
TOPIC 1: PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY AND RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CAREER DEVELOPMENT PROFESSIONALS
AND CLIENTS | 7

1. What are some of the potential problems that Steve is missing in his coaching of Regina?
2. Should Regina continue to seek career coaching from Steve? Why or why not?
3. Please find a real world example similar to this scenario. What happened and if resolved,
how was the problem resolved?

Scenario 2: Professional responsibility of the career

development professional
The country is trying to recover from a global recession. There are millions of people unemployed. However,
the unemployment rate for Black workers is always double, if not triple, the rate of white workers with the
same skills. There is a continuous stream of unemployed, skilled Blacks who come to meet with you in your
role as career advisor at the unemployment office. You have access to information about jobs that you know the
Black workers are qualified to do, but you also know that the employers with the most jobs do not like to hire
Black workers.

Discussion Questions:

1. How do you help Black workers prepare to interview with employers who do not like to hire
them?
2. What is your professional responsibility to these workers?
3. What is your professional responsibility to your employer?
4. What is your professional responsibility to the hiring organization?
5. What do you do with the information that you have about available jobs?
6. How do you help the Black workers obtain jobs?
8 | TOPIC 1: PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY AND RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CAREER DEVELOPMENT
PROFESSIONALS AND CLIENTS

Scenario 3: Career Development Expertise

Scotty is interested in changing careers. He schedules a career counseling appointment with a professional
career development specialist, Carol. Carol meets with Scotty and documents his previous work history,
education, and accomplishments to complete a professional resume for him. Carol tells Scotty that her fee
is $2,500. Scotty pays Carol because she assures him that the amount of money he pays her is miniscule in
comparison to what he will earn on his next job. Carol offers Scotty no other service other than a sample cover
letter. It has been a year since Carol met with Scotty. Scotty has not obtained a new job.

Discussion Questions:

1. Has Scotty been career counseled by Carol? Why or why not?

2. What more can Scotty do to obtain another position?
3. Is Carol obligated to further assist Scotty?

Supplemental Readings
Brotman, L. E., Liberi, W. P., & Wasylyshyn, K. M. (1998). Executive coaching: The need for standards of
competence. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 50(1), 40-46.
Carter, R. T., Scales, J. E., Juby, H. L., Collins, N. M., & Wan, C. M. (2003). Seeking career services on
campus: Racial differences in referral, process, and outcome. Journal of Career Assessment, 11(4), 393–404.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072703255835
Chung, Y. B., & Gfroerer, M. C. A. (2003). Career coaching: Practice, training, professional, and ethical
issues. The Career Development Quarterly, 52(2), 141-152.
Elliott, J. E. (1993). Career development with lesbian and gay clients. The Career Development Quarterly,
41(3), 210-226.
Feldman, D. C. (2001). Career coaching: What HR professionals and managers need to know. Human
Resource Planning, 24(2), 26-35.
Feldman, D. C., & Lankau, M. J. (2005). Executive coaching: A review and agenda for future research.
Journal of Management, 31(6), 829-848.
TOPIC 1: PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY AND RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CAREER DEVELOPMENT PROFESSIONALS
AND CLIENTS | 9

Hall, D. T., Otazo, K. L., & Hollenbeck, G. P. (1999). Behind closed doors: What really happens in
executive coaching. Organizational Dynamics, 27(3), 39-53.
Hatala, J. P., & Hisey, L. (2011). Toward the development and validation of a career coach competency
model. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 24(3), 101-122.
Kampa-Kokesch, S., & Anderson, M. Z. (2001). Executive coaching: A comprehensive review of the
literature. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 53(4), 205-228.
Pearson, S. M., & Bieschke, K. J. (2001). Succeeding against the odds: An examination of familial
influences on the career development of professional African American women. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 48(3), 301-309.
Richie, B. S., Fassinger, R. E., Linn, S. G., Johnson, J., Prosser, J., & Robinson, S. (1997). Persistence,
connection, and passion: A qualitative study of the career development of highly achieving African
American–Black and White women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44(2), 133–148. https://doi.org/
10.1037/0022-0167.44.2.133
Thach, L., & Heinselman, T. (1999). Executive coaching defined. Training & Development, 53(3), 34-40.
TOPIC 2: PROVIDING CAREER SERVICES
ONLINE

Abstract
Topic 2 provides scenarios that ask students to develop an understanding of how technology influences
changes in ways to develop employees or potential employees in their careers. It also suggests that students
consider the digital divide and how access to technology or lack thereof can effect their ability to provide
appropriate career services.

Scenario 1: Limitations of Online Career Services 

Florine has been laid off from her job due to the effects of COVID-19. She is seeking to rejuvenate her career by
exploring new opportunities. She can only receive career services through online processes due to the closure
of government offices; however, the government offices in her county have limited technological resources,
and the services cannot be viewed on cell phones. Florine has a smartphone but can no longer afford to pay
for the data services. She can only receive text messages and phone calls. Florine also does not have a desktop,
computer, laptop, iPad, or access to reliable internet services. She also does not have cable TV and without
streaming services, cannot get a clear signal of public education channels.

Discussion Questions:

1. How can career professionals assist Florine?

2. Describe the best way(s) to improve Florine’s resources to access online career services?
 TOPIC 2: PROVIDING CAREER SERVICES ONLINE | 11

Scenario 2: Rural Living and Technology

Accessibility
Joseph recently graduated community college. While a student, he had access to a computer on campus and
had a part-time job that allowed him free Internet access. Since his graduation, Joseph has lost his part-time
job and his car. Living in a rural area of his community, Internet accessibility is inconsistent. All career services
from his community college are online. Joseph desperately wants a new job, but he has no transportation or
access to seek career support.

Discussion Questions

1. What can be done for individuals like Joseph who have limited Internet access ad need
career assistance?

Supplemental Readings
Davidson, M. M. (2001). The computerization of career services: Critical issues to consider. Journal of Career
Development, 27(3), 217-228.
Haberstroh, S., Rowe, S., & Cisneros, S. (2009). Implementing virtual career counseling and advising at a
major university. Journal of Cases on Information Technology (JCIT), 11(3), 31-44.
Harris‐Bowlsbey, J., & Sampson Jr, J. P. (2005). Use of technology in delivering career services worldwide.
The Career Development Quarterly, 54(1), 48-56.
Kettunen, J., Vuorinen, R., & Sampson Jr, J. P. (2013). Career practitioners’ conceptions of social media in
career services. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 41(3), 302-317.
Kettunen, J., Sampson Jr, J. P., & Vuorinen, R. (2015). Career practitioners’ conceptions of competency for
social media in career services. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 43(1), 43-56.
Kettunen, J., Vuorinen, R., & Sampson Jr, J. P. (2015). Practitioners’ experiences of social media in career
services. The Career Development Quarterly, 63(3), 268-281.
Venable, M. A. (2010). Using technology to deliver career development services: Supporting today’s
students in higher education. The Career Development Quarterly, 59(1), 87-96.
TOPIC 3: USING TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL
MEDIA IN HUMAN RESOURCE AND
WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT (HRWD)

Abstract
As technology and social media have become essential to communication and collaboration among workers,
Topic 3 provides scenarios that ask students to explore barriers that can occur when not all workers understand
or feel comfortable using technology an social media. The rapid changes that occur with technology require
HRWD professionals to remain diligent in their commitment to understanding both the effect and use of
technology on people.

Scenario 1: Age Discrimination and Technology

The average age of employees in your division of the organization is 50. These employees have had limited
use of any kind of technology or social media both at home and in the workplace. You are located in a rural
community that has limited access to consistent, Internet service. You have designed training for them that
includes examples about negative social media usage. As the training progresses, participants begin informing
you that they have never used a computer outside of the workplace. They do not own a home computer
and their telephone is not a smartphone; it is a flip phone. Despite holding this training in the computer lab,
employees are having trouble accessing the Internet. They have never heard of Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat,
Instagram, Netflix, Hulu, or the myriad other social media platforms. They absolutely do not know what an
emoji is.

Discussion Questions:

1. How do you engage these participants without mentioning their age?

 TOPIC 3: USING TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL MEDIA IN HUMAN RESOURCE AND WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT
(HRWD) | 13

2. How do you change the session focus without offending participants?

Scenario 2: Social Class and the Digital Divide

The COVID-19 pandemic forced many employees to work from home. Across the world employees had
little time to adjust. There has always been a digital divide between rural communities and urban areas
regarding access to broadband Internet services. There is also a digital divide based on socio-economic status.
Black families have the least access to broadband both in rural and urban communities. As human resource
development and workforce development professionals seek to help workers facing the digital divide, they
encounter many barriers. The majority of the activities require that they also work from home, so they do not
have the resources to all of the technologies that they need either. Their Internet speed in many homes are
slower than in the workplace and workers cannot apply for new jobs. Most of the required forms are no longer
available in paper copies; therefore, more time is spent on the telephone to try and assist workers as opposed to
virtual computing.

Discussion Questions:

1. How will workplaces sustain the careers of workers whose only limitation is access to
broadband Internet?
2. How do HRWD professionals adjust their ability to use technology from home to meet the
needs of workers?
3. What can be done to bridge the digital divide in Black communities?

Supplemental Readings
Benson, V., Morgan, S., & Filippaios, F. (2013). Social career management: Social media and employability
skills gap. Computers in Human Behavior. 2013, 1-6.
14 | TOPIC 3: USING TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL MEDIA IN HUMAN RESOURCE AND WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT
(HRWD)

Delello, J. A., McWhorter, R. R., & Camp, K. M. (2015). Using social media as a tool for learning: A multi-
disciplinary study. International Journal on E-learning, 14(2), 163-180.
Hughes, C. (2010). “People as technology” conceptual model: Toward a new value creation paradigm for
strategic human resource development. Human Resource Development Review, 9(1), 48-71.
Hughes, C. (2011, April). The five values of people and technology development: Introducing the value
creation model for organizational competitive advantage framework. In American Institute of Higher
Education 6th International Conference Proceedings,4(1), 180-189.
Maloni, M., Hiatt, M. S., & Campbell, S. (2019). Understanding the work values of Gen Z business
students. The International Journal of Management Education, 17(3), 100320.
Oh, E. G., & Huang, W. H. D. (2018). A review of technology research in HRD from a design-based
research perspective. Human Resource Development Review, 17(3), 258-276.
Osborn, D. S. & LoFrisco, B. M. (2012), How do career centers use social networking sites? The Career
Development Quarterly, 60, 263–272.
Roberts, G., & Sambrook, S. (2014). Social networking and HRD. Human Resource Development
International, 17(5), 577-587.
Sampson, J. P., Osborn, D. S., Kettunen, J., Hou, P. C., Miller, A. K., & Makela, J. P. (2018). The validity
of social media–based career information. The Career Development Quarterly, 66(2), 121-134.
Shea, K., & Wesley, J. (2006). How social networking sites affect students, career services, and employers.
NACE Journal. 66(4). 26-32.
Thomas, K. J., & Akdere, M. (2013). Social media as collaborative media in workplace learning. Human
Resource Development Review, 12(3), 329-344.
Turner, J. R., Morris, M., & Atamenwan, I. (2019). A theoretical literature review on adaptive structuration
theory as its relevance to human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 21(3),
289-302.
TOPIC 4: SUPERVISING, TRAINING, AND
TEACHING EMPLOYEES

Abstract
Topic 4 provides scenarios where students can learn how motivational theories play a role in the development
of employees. There are many motivational theories that play a role in supervising, training, and teaching
employees. Understanding how to influence employees’ motivation is central to building successful
relationships with employees for organizational success.

Scenario 1: Motivation Case Study

David was promoted to the position of Training Manager last week. His first project is to motivate the
customer service representatives to provide better customer service despite the loss of three of their co-workers.
The volume of work has not decreased, and no new employees will be hired. There will also not be any pay
increases. Donna is the customer service supervisor, and it is her job to distribute the workload among the
remaining 20 employees.
Donna has contacted David and requested cross-training of her employees as a motivational tool. She is
hoping that the knowledge of new skills will be a motivation to the remaining employees so that they can
obtain enhanced knowledge and skills for possible future promotions.

Discussion Questions:

1. In what way(s) can David motivate the customer service employees to learn new knowledge
and skills?
2. In what way(s) can Donna motivate the customer service employees to apply the knowledge
and skills obtained during training?
3. What key motivational theories are applicable to this case and why?
16 | TOPIC 4: SUPERVISING, TRAINING, AND TEACHING EMPLOYEES

Scenario 2: Late to and Absent from Work

Monica started working at ABC Corporation five years ago. Monica recently married and now has an infant.
Monica recently returned tow work after her pregnancy leave. Monica’s supervisor knows that she was
previously an excellent worker; however, Monica has been late for work two times already and has also missed
two days. If Monica is late or absent one more time, the supervisor will have no choice but to terminate
her. The company policy must be followed and Monica signed the employee handbook agreeing to follow all
policies.

Discussion Questions

1. Is there anything the supervisor can do to assist Monica? If so, what?

2. Should the ABC Corporation make changes to its late and/or sick policies?

Scenario 3: Performance-based Pay and Age

Marcus has been a team leader of his work group since he was 35-years old. He truly enjoys the leadership
role, but now that he is 55-years old, his organization has decided to institute a performance-based pay system.
Despite his documented, stellar performance, he is now required to attend mandatory classroom training.
Marcus does not know how to read or write. He only attended school until 3rd grade.

Discussion Questions:

1. What will you do to ensure Marcus completes the required trainings?

2. Will you allow Marcus to continue to be a team leader? Why?
3. How do you counsel Michael without discriminating against him because of his age?
 TOPIC 4: SUPERVISING, TRAINING, AND TEACHING EMPLOYEES | 17

Supplemental Readings
Badura, K. L., Grijalva, E., Galvin, B. M., Owens, B. P., & Joseph, D. L. (2020). Motivation to lead: A
meta-analysis and distal-proximal model of motivation and leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 105(4),
331-354.
Douglas, C. A., & McCauley, C. D. (1999). Formal developmental relationships: A survey of
organizational practices. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 10(3), 203-220.
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy-value theory to situated expectancy-value theory:
A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 101859.
Geen, R. G., & Gange, J. J. (1977). Drive theory of social facilitation: Twelve years of theory and
research. Psychological Bulletin, 84(6), 1267-1288.
Locke, E. A. (1968). Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives. Organizational  Behavior and
Human Performance, 3(2), 157-189.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task
motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57, 705-717.
Porter, L. W., & Lawler, E. E. (1968). Managerial attitudes and performance. Richard D. Irwin, Inc.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory
perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology,
101860.
Schunk, D. H., & DiBenedetto, M. K. (2020). Motivation and social cognitive theory. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 60, 101832.
Taylor, J. A. (1956). Drive theory and manifest anxiety. Psychological Bulletin, 53(4), 303-320.
Van Vianen, A. E., Rosenauer, D., Homan, A. C., Horstmeier, C. A., & Voelpel, S. C. (2018). Career
mentoring in context: A multilevel study on differentiated career mentoring and career mentoring climate.
Human Resource Management, 57(2), 583-599.
Vroom, V. H. (1995). Work and motivation. Jossey-Bass.
TOPIC 5: ETHICS OF MENTORING

Abstract
Topic 5 introduces scenarios where mentoring and ethics can be explored and considered as complementary
to each other. HRD professionals can develop competencies to complement the skills needed to successfully
develop employees. Both the employees and HRD professionals should engage in continuous learning and
development. Understanding historical context with integrity and honor helps HRD professionals be true to
the career that they have chosen.

Scenario 1: Training Mentor

Sheila has been certified as a mentor for employees in the workplace. She has worked in human resource
development (HRD), specifically training and development for the past seven years. She believed that adding a
mentoring certification as a competency would help her strengthen her ability to help the employees. Shelia has
been asked to develop an employee who is very successful and currently enjoys her position. The employee’s
supervisor has asked Sheila to counsel the employee and mentor her so that she will accept a different position.
The supervisor has a friend who’s child needs a job and the only position the friend’s child can do is the one
that the current employee enjoys.

Discussion Questions:

1. How should Sheila respond to the supervisor?

2. Is it ethical for Sheila to mentor an employee away from a job in which she is successful?
 TOPIC 5: ETHICS OF MENTORING | 19

Scenario 2: Recruitment
Jeremy is a college recruiter for his company. His job is to primarily attend Historically Black Colleges and
Universities (HBCUs) career fairs to recruit minority students. Unbeknownst to many people, students who
attend HBCUs are not all Black. West Virginia State University, for example, is an HBCU whose students are
now predominantly white. The student demographics as of 2018 were:
Student Profile in Fall 2018
74.2%-Caucasian
8.1% African American
3.1% Asian, Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, Hispanic or American Indian
4.9% Multiracial
8.4% undeclared race/ethnicity
1.3% non-resident alien
https://wvstateu.edu/about/administration/institutional-research/wvsu-quick-facts.aspx
Jeremy’s company wants Black applicants specifically because they are not meeting their Affirmative Action
(AA) requirements. Yet, Jeremy knows that the company can meet its AA needs by recruiting white women
instead. Jeremy misleads his company by requesting to go to WV State University. He recruits white females
only and tells his company that he could not find any qualified Black applicants.

Discussion Questions

1. Do you believe Jeremy’s actions were illegal? Why or why not?

2. Do you believe Jeremy’s actions were unethical? Why or why not?

Supplemental Readings
Kram, K., & Isabella, L. (1985). Mentoring alternatives: The role of peer relationships in career development.
The Academy of Management Journal, 28(1), 110-132.
McDonald, K. S., & Hite, L. M. (2005). Ethical issues in mentoring: The role of HRD. Advances in
Developing Human Resources, 7(4), 569-582.
Moberg, D., & Velasquez, M. (2004). The ethics of mentoring. Business Ethics Quarterly, 14(1), 95-122.
20 | TOPIC 5: ETHICS OF MENTORING

Wright, C. A., & Wright, S. D. (1987). The role of mentors in the career development of young
professionals. Family Relations, 36(2), 204-208.
TOPIC 6: ALL EMPLOYEES’ ACCESS TO
CAREER DEVELOPMENT, TRAINING AND
DEVELOPMENT, AND ORGANIZATION
DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES

Abstract
Topic 6 provides scenarios that ask students to examine their role in the access to training and development that
HRWD professionals provide to all employees. Exclusionary tactics are common in organizations and their
effect on organizational climate can determine the success or failure of developmental activities and initiatives.
Having a well-designed, transparent strategy can help HRWD professionals in all aspects of employee
development.

Scenario 1: Exclusionary Tactics

Rosalind arrived at her new job as a single mother. She received an invitation to attend, a yet to be scheduled,
meeting between faculty and graduate students. She responded to the emailed invitation that she was interested
in attending the meeting. Rosalind never received a follow-up email informing her of when the meeting was to
be held and the location.
A few weeks later, Rosalind’s colleague, Robert, asked her why she did not attend the graduate student and
faculty meet and greet the prior evening. Rosalind informed Robert that she had never received the official
invitation after responding to the inquiry about attending. Robert said he did not understand what had
happened and apologized.
Rosalind went to Karen who had sent the original email and asked her why she never received the official
invitation. Karen informed her that she, as the administrative assistant, was informed by another faculty
member, Kitty, that Rosalind probably wouldn’t have childcare and be able to attend.

Discussion Questions:
22 | TOPIC 6: ALL EMPLOYEES’ ACCESS TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT, TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT, AND
ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES

1. How should Rosalind respond to this situation?

2. How can this situation effect Rosalind’s relationship with the graduate students in her
program?
3. How can this situation affect Rosalind’s ability to create collegiality with her peers?

Scenario 2: Strategic HRD Case Study

XYZ company is opening a new facility and does not have the resources to hire additional organizational
development or training professionals. Mary, the training department manager has one organization
development (OD) specialist and three trainers on her staff. She must maintain the implementation of an in-
house performance-based pay system for 500 current employees and integrate the 300 new employees into the
system. She must also manage all of the other trainings required for the new employees to meet mandated,
federal requirements associated with occupational safety and health administration (OSHA) and other entities.
Mary has three months to prepare a strategy to meet the new facility training needs.

Discussion Questions:

1. In what way(s) can Mary ensure that her training goals align with the organization’s goals?
2. What are the essential components that need to be included in Mary’s plan?
3. Identify the key stakeholders whose needs Mary’s plan must address?

Supplemental Readings
Ardichvili, A., & Jondle, D. (2009). Integrative literature review: Ethical business cultures: A literature review
and implications for HRD. Human Resource Development Review, 8(2), 223-244.
Ardichvili, A., Jondle, D., & Kowske, B. (2010). Dimensions of ethical business cultures: Comparing data
from 13 countries of Europe, Asia, and the Americas. Human Resource Development International, 13(3),
299-315.
TOPIC 6: ALL EMPLOYEES’ ACCESS TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT, TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT, AND ORGANIZATION
DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES | 23

Ardichvili, A., Jondle, D., & Kowske, B. (2012). Minding the gap: Exploring differences in perceptions
of ethical business cultures among executives, mid-level managers and non-managers. Human Resource
Development International, 15(3), 337-352.
Ardichvili, A., Mitchell, J. A., & Jondle, D. (2009). Characteristics of ethical business cultures. Journal of
Business Ethics, 85(4), 445-451.
Arthur, W., Jr., Bennett, W., Jr. , Edens, P.S. , & Bell, S.T. (2003). Effectiveness of training in organizations:
A meta-analysis of design and evaluation features. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 234 -245.
Baldwin, T.T., & Ford, J.K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research.
Personnel Psychology, 41, 63 – 105.
Bartels, K. K., Harrick, E., Martell, K. & Strickland, D. (1998). The relationship between ethical climate and
ethical problems within human resource management. Journal of Business Ethics, 17(7), 799-804.
Bunch, K. J. (2007). Training failure as a consequence of organizational culture. Human Resource
Development Review, 6(2), 142-163.
Burke, L. A., & Hutchins, H. M. (2007). Training transfer: An integrative literature review. Human
Resource Development Review, 6(3), 263-296.
Flores, L. Y., & O’Brien, K. M. (2002). The career development of Mexican American adolescent women: A
test of social cognitive career theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49(1), 14–27. https://doi.org/10.1037/
0022-0167.49.1.14
Roberson, L., Kulik, C.T., & Pepper, M.B. (2003). Using needs assessment to resolve controversies in
diversity training design. Group & Organization Management, 28, 148 – 174.
TOPIC 7: POWER AND PRIVILEGE
DYNAMICS

Abstract
Topic 7 provides scenarios that require students to acquire an understanding of how power and privilege
can be misused and/or misunderstood. The appropriate use of power and privilege is essential for a healthy
organizational culture where all employees feel valued. The contributions of all employees should collectively
contribute to the success of the organization.

Scenario 1: Abuse of Training Power

You are the training and development department leader. You have not been able to keep the required two
trainers who report to you for longer than 6 months at a time. The turnover in your department has been
100%, twice, in the past two years. None of the supervisors in other departments want you or your trainers to
interact with their employees. The supervisors have expressed to organization leadership that you are misusing
your power as a training department leader and are not listening to them as they try to explain to you that your
training curriculum and processes do not align with how their employees do their jobs. They also complain
that you try to use your power to force them to send their employees to training sessions. Their employees
always come back from every training session angry about their experience with the training department leader
and the trainer. There has also been no significant productivity improvement by workers after completing
training.

Discussion Questions:

1. In what way(s) is power and privilege dynamics a problem in the above scenario?
2. What should the supervisors do?
3. What should the employees do?
 TOPIC 7: POWER AND PRIVILEGE DYNAMICS | 25

Scenario 2: Privilege of a White Female to Openly

Show Bias
Micah has been employed by his organization for five years. He is a white male, LGBTQ employee who
has received mentorship and positive, biased treatment by his supervisor throughout his time within the
organization. In fact, Micah is being mentored to become a supervisor by a white female who was mentored in
the same way as she is providing mentorship for Micah.
Trevor is also a white male, LGBTQ employee. He has done much more work than Micah, but his work
and achievements have never been publicized by the supervisor. In fact, she ignores all of Trevor’s work and
pretends that he is not there. When asked if she thinks that it is appropriate to show favoritism towards Micah
over Trevor and the other employees, she acknowledges that she recognizes her bias and said that she was told
by her mentor that it was not a problem. Trevor subsequently left the organization.

Discussion Questions:

1. Do you think Trevor made the right decision? Why or why not?
2. How would you have handled the situation if you were Trevor?

Supplemental Readings
Hallett, T. (2003). Symbolic power and organizational culture. Sociological Theory, 21, 128 –149.
Hanscome, L., & Cervero, R.M. (2003). The impact of gendered power relations in HRD. Human
Resource Development International, 6, 509—525.
Shipton, J., & McAuley, J. (1994). Issues of power and marginality in personnel. Human Resource
Management Journal, 4, 1 – 13.
Steinbauer, R., Renn, R., Taylor, R., & Njoroge, P. (2014). Ethical leadership and followers’ moral
judgment: The role of followers’ perceived accountability and self-leadership. Journal of Business Ethics,
120(3), 381-392.
Stevenson, W.B. , & Bartunek, J.M. (1996). Power, interaction, position, and the generation of cultural
agreement in organizations. Human Relations, 49, 75—104.
TOPIC 8: AUTHENTICITY OF ALLIES

Abstract
Topic 8 introduces students to the concept of allies for historically marginalized groups in the workplace. It
can be argued that allies are supposed to be positive influences on the people they purport to help. However,
there are fine lines that allies tend to cross when they covertly or overtly diminish the credentials of those they
are seeking to help. One wonders if they even know the meaning of help and its purpose.

Scenario 1: Diminishing the Credentials of Blacks by

White Allies
Black people have been reporting incidents of discrimination in the workplace, that have been documented,
since the inception of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Prior to 1964, there were few Blacks in the formalized
workplaces in the United States of America. Despite the ability of Blacks to communicate their lived
experiences, they are often ignored until a white ally voices their story for them. They are only acknowledged
because a white person said something. Instances of these occurrences have been chronicled by Black workers
repeatedly; yet, very little has changed. The validity and credibility of what they report is ignored even if they
are more highly credentialed than their white allies.

Discussion Questions:

1. Why does who tell the story matter for action to occur in support of Black workers?
2. Who determines the validity and credibility of Black voices and why?
 TOPIC 8: AUTHENTICITY OF ALLIES | 27

Scenario 2: Controlling the Dialogue of

Conversations Begun by Black People
Black people and Black scholars in America have been against racism (anti-racist) for at least 400 years. Yet, in
2020 white scholars are trying to introduce ant-racism as an emerging trend. White scholars are introducing
the old ideas and attempting to control the dialogue of conversations begun by Black people.

Discussion Questions:

1. How and why is this acceptable?

2. In what way(s) does this diminish the credentials of Black people and Black scholars in
America?
3. How do we get allies to research the scholarship of Black scholars and listen to the lived
experiences of Black people?

Supplemental Readings
Alleyne, A (2004) Black identity and workplace oppression. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 4(1), 4–8.
Ashley, W. (2014). The angry black woman: The impact of pejorative stereotypes on psychotherapy with
black women. Social Work in Public Health, 29(1), 27-34.
Bell, E. L. E., Meyerson, D., Nkomo, S., & Scully, M. (2003). Interpreting silence and voice in the workplace:
A conversation about tempered radicalism among Black and White women researchers. The Journal of Applied
Behavioral Science, 39(4), 381-414.
Delgado, R. (1990). When a story is just a story: Does voice really matter? Virginia Law Review, 95-111.
Ferree, M. M. (2004). Soft repression: Ridicule, stigma, and silencing in gender-based movements. Research
in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, 25, 85-101.
Griffin, R. A. (2012). I AM an angry Black woman: Black feminist autoethnography, voice, and resistance.
Women’s Studies in Communication, 35(2), 138-157.
Kinouani, G. (2020). Silencing, power and racial trauma in groups. Group Analysis, 53(2), 145–161.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0533316420908974
28 | TOPIC 8: AUTHENTICITY OF ALLIES

Newton, J. (2017). Anti-Black racism, resistance, and the health and well-being of Black bodies in public
education. In New framings on anti-racism and resistance (pp. 45-64). Brill Sense.
Wingfield, A. H. (2007). The modern mammy and the angry Black man: African American professionals’
experiences with gendered racism in the workplace. Race, Gender & Class, 196-212.
Wingfield, A. H. (2009). Racializing the glass escalator: Reconsidering men’s experiences with women’s
work. Gender & Society, 23(1), 5-26.
TOPIC 9: ETHICS OF CAREER
DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING AND
DEVELOPMENT ASSESSMENTS

Abstract
Topic 9 allows students to apply concepts to better understand how assessments can be both detrimental and
positive to making successful hires and career transitions when used appropriately. HRWD professionals must
consider all the consequences that can occur prior to using an assessment. Making the right hiring decisions
influences employee morale. Hiring the wrong employee at any level of the organization can be problematic.

Scenario 1: Preparing for a Forklift Assessment

Helen arrived in the United States at the age of 18 as an international exchange student. In her home country
of the Czech Republic, she did not have to learn much about the US language and workplace terminologies.
Now that she has obtained her first job, she is excited to be working and enjoys the work that she does. There
are changes occurring on her job and her supervisor has approached Helen about new training and assessment
requirements for he to progress within her career path.
Helen wants to progress but is required to learn the classroom knowledge about operating a forklift, tow
motor, and other mobile equipment inside the facility. During her first day of class, Helen realizes that she
does not understand anything that the trainer is saying. She does not understand what a triangle is without
being shown a picture. She absolutely cannot understand the concept of a stability triangle which is essential
to understanding how to operate a forklift. Helen must be able to pass the written assessment about operating
a forklift before she will ever be allowed to train to drive one.

Discussion Questions
30 | TOPIC 9: ETHICS OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT ASSESSMENTS

1. What can the trainer do to help Helen?

2. What can the supervisor do to help Helen?
3. What can Helen do to help herself?
4. In what way(s) does this assessment have the potential to have an adverse impact on
Helen?

Scenario 2: Biased Leadership Development

Assessments
XYZ Corporation has introduced new hire assessments into their leadership development program. All new
leaders must complete the assessment prior to participating in the second stage of the leadership program. No
women or minorities have ever made it past the first stage of the leadership development program because there
are gender and culturally biased questions on the assessment. Tricia has just been hired as HRD manager to
oversee the leadership development program and upon discovering the bias in the assessment, it is her job to
inform management, consisting of all white males, about the assessment bias.

Discussion Questions

1. How can Tricia help eliminate assessment bias against women and minority leaders?
2. Is it the role of HRD professionals to determine assessment bias?

Supplemental Readings
Bersin, J., & Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2019). The case for hiring older workers. Harvard Business Review, 26,
2-5.
Boyer, E. P., & Webb, T. G. (1992). Ethics and diversity: A correlation enhanced through corporate
communication. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 35(1), 38-43.
 TOPIC 9: ETHICS OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT ASSESSMENTS | 31

Camara, W. J. (1997). Use and consequences of assessments in the USA: Professional, ethical and legal
issues. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 13(2), 140-152.
Johnson, L. E., & Potter, P. W. (1998). Information systems careers: The role of assessment centers. Career
Development International,  3(4), 142-144.
Kim, S. (2003). Linking employee assessments to succession planning. Public Personnel Management,
32(4), 533-547.
Knight, R. (2017). 7 Practical ways to reduce bias in your hiring process. Harvard Business Review, 2-7.
Kuncel, N. R., & Hezlett, S. A. (2010). Fact and fiction in cognitive ability testing for admissions and
hiring decisions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(6), 339-345.
McGrath, R. E., Mitchell, M., Kim, B. H., & Hough, L. (2010). Evidence for response bias as a source of
error variance in applied assessment. Psychological Bulletin, 136(3), 450-470.
McLagan, P. A. (1989). Models for HRD practice. Training & Development Journal, 43(9), 49-60.
Patton, W. D., & Pratt, C. (2002). Assessing the training needs of high-potential managers. Public
Personnel Management, 31(4), 464-484.
TOPIC 10: PROTECTED CLASS BIAS

Abstract
Topic 10 requires that students have an understanding of protected class groups in the workplace and learn
how discrimination of these groups is illegal and in many instances unethical. There are many real-life cases in
the empirical research and professional literature of discrimination which have led to the creation of all the laws
and mandates that protect these groups of employees in the workplace. As students examine these scenarios, it
should be with the understanding that laws and mandates to do not eliminate discrimination. Only changed
behavior and actions of leaders and employees can help eliminate workplace discrimination.

Culture of Disbelief
Ben arrives at least 20 minutes before his work shift. In his 15 years working for the company, he has never
been late. He also has a spotless disciplinary record. Ben is the only Black male working in a lab full of women.
There are only two Black women working in the lab, the remaining 10 women are white. Ben tries his best to
keep a low profile because he understands the southern culture in the community where he works and does
not want to be perceived as offending the white women with whom he works. He knows, from witnessing the
experiences of other Black males, that the company where he works has a culture of disbelief when it comes to
accepting the word of a Black male when he has to defend himself against the word of a white woman.
Ben would do anything requested of him, on the job, by his peers an supervisors. One day one of the white
women told one of the Black women that she had observed Ben staring at the Black woman a little too long.
Therefore, she decided to turn Ben into human resources and accuse him of sexual harassment through 3rd
person sexual harassment. The Black woman never saw Ben looking at her inappropriately neither did the
supervisor. HR representatives spoke with Ben about the report and Ben quit his job without saying anything
to anyone. Upon hearing that Ben had quit, many of the employees were upset and angry at the woman that
reported Ben to HR. The supervisor learned, from HR, that no negative action was taken against Ben.

Discussion Questions:
 TOPIC 10: PROTECTED CLASS BIAS | 33

1. What can the supervisor do to improve the work environment?

2. Why do you believe Ben quit?
3. What could have been done to prevent Ben from quitting?
4. How can a company get eliminate a culture of disbelief?

Culture of Inaction
Mary and her colleagues have reported situations of covert racism through all avenues available to them
throughout their organizations for the past 20 years. They have watched as those in positions of leadership note
that they have been told of the situations, but there have been absolutely no visible changes in the treatment
that Mary and her colleagues have received from their supervisors. In fact, the treatment has consistently
worsened. None of the young Black employees will stay beyond a year with the organization beyond a year,
if that long, because of the culture inaction displayed by leadership. It is futile to report anything perceived
as discriminatory, so Mary and her colleagues have remained silent abut any ill-treatment. They have chosen
to just go to work, do their job, and go home. The productivity in the company has significantly deteriorated
because of the high turnover and low morale of employees. There is very little camaraderie among employees.

Discussion Questions:

1. What can an organization do to change the culture into a culture of action instead of
inaction?
2. Why do you believe the younger workers are leaving and the older workers choose to stay?

Supplemental Readings
Bampton, R., & Maclagan, P. (2009). Does a ‘care orientation’ explain gender differences in ethical decision
making? A critical analysis and fresh findings. Business Ethics: A European Review, 18(2), 179-191.
34 | TOPIC 10: PROTECTED CLASS BIAS

Banks, C. H. (2006). Career planning: Toward an inclusive model. In M. Karsten (Ed.) Gender, race and
ethnicity in the workplace, (Vol. 3, pp. 99-116). Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.
Barnes, C., & Mercer, G. (2005). Disability, work, and welfare: challenging the social exclusion of disabled
people. Work, Employment and Society, 19(3), 527-545.
Bowe, F. G., McMahon, B. T., Chang, T., & Louvi, I. (2005). Workplace discrimination, deafness and
hearing impairment: The national EEOC ADA research project. Work, 25(1), 19-25.
Brandt, A. M. (1978). Racism and research: The case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Hastings Center
Report, 8(6), 21-29.
Knapp, D.E., Faley, R.H., Ekeberg, S.E., & Dubois, C.L.Z. (1997). Determinants of target responses to
sexual harassment: A conceptual framework. Academy of Management Review, 22, 687 -729.
TOPIC 11: COVERT CONDITIONING OF
GIRLS/WOMEN AWAY FROM MALE
DOMINATED FIELDS

Abstract
Historically, women and underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) technical
careers. The problems usually begin within the educational system. Without the proper educational
foundation, it is extremely difficult for girls to pursue higher education that will provide them the skills
necessary to succeed as women in the workplace. Without women in technical positions both in school and the
workplace, it is difficult for women to overcome barriers to entry in STEM careers.

Scenario 1: Covert Conditioning through Advising

Marsha is excited about the opportunity to major in engineering. She has dreamed of being an aerospace
engineer since childhood. Her first day on campus, she meets with the advisor of the pre-engineering program,
Cheryl. Cheryl politely tells her that there has never been a woman to graduate from the aerospace engineering
program in the history of the institution, and she would advise her to go to the career center and talk to a
career development specialist about what aerospace engineering is and what the men in that field do every day
on the job. She further tells Marsha that women have struggled in that field because of all the time it takes
to complete the work and she will not be able to go shopping or hang out with her girlfriends. She also tells
Marsha that there is no female bathroom inside the lab, she will have to go outside of the lab into another area
of the building to access the women’s facilities.

Discussion Questions:

1. What are some of the covert conditioning comments that Cheryl said to Marsha?
36 | TOPIC 11: COVERT CONDITIONING OF GIRLS/WOMEN AWAY FROM MALE DOMINATED FIELDS

2. How can Marsha overcome those comments and achieve her goal?
3. What would you have done differently than Cheryl?

Scenario 2:
Maria is excited to have graduated with her doctoral degree in Chemistry. She wants to remain on the technical
side of the business and progress through the technical management ranks. However, as the only Hispanic
female, she is always given the least visible technical projects to work on and is provide very little mentoring
to improve her visibility to executive leadership. Maria has been asked to move to the leadership side of the
business where she has very little leadership knowledge. She would need to go back to school and/or spend
a lot of time in leadership development programs before she could even begin to make progress. There is no
guarantee that she could ever return to the technical side of the business.

Discussion Questions

1. What should Maria do to improve her visibility within the organization?

2. How can organizations better develop minority women into technical leadership positions?

Supplemental Readings
Bierema, L. L. (2009). Critiquing human resource development’s dominant masculine rationality and
evaluating its impact. Human Resource Development Review, 8, 68-96.
Glick, P. (1991). Trait-based and sex-based discrimination in occupational prestige, occupational salary, and
hiring. Sex Roles, 25, 351-378.
Miller, G.E. (2002). The frontier, entrepreneurialism, and engineers: Women coping with a web of
masculinities in an organizational culture. Culture and Organization, 8, 145-160.
TOPIC 12: EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY
BIAS

Abstract
Educational opportunity bias has long been a problem in throughout out the world, particularly for girls,
minorities, and low income individuals. Education is sometimes seen as the great equalizer for opportunities in
the workplace and society. Although education can be beneficial, the bias that exists in educational systems can
create irreparable problems for individual students and society.

Scenario 1: Misadvised and Educational Progression

Serena is an undergraduate student in a field of study that requires a master’s degree in order to obtain
sufficient employment. Serena is a first-generation college student, so she does not know much about the
academic process to apply for the graduate program in her field. Serena is also the only African American
student in her program. Serena struggles to complete her degree, but she does meet all the criteria to be
admitted to the master’s program. Her advisor does not inform her that she must apply for the master’s degree
program prior to a specific deadline because her advisor knows that there is a limit to the number of applicants
who can be admitted each academic year. Serena finds out after the deadline that she will have to go to another
institution or wait a year to apply for admission to her current institution.

Discussion Questions:

1. What can Serena do to ensure that what happened to her does not happen to
other students?
2.  Where should Serena complete her master’s degree? Why?
3. Do you think Serena was misadvised on purpose? Why or why not?
38 | TOPIC 12: EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY BIAS

Scenario 2: No Recommendation
April has always loved math. She graduated with the highest math grade point average (GPA) in her high school
and decided to pursue an advanced degree in physics. Because she likes a small school environment for learning,
April decided to attend a small college and major in engineering. She wants to begin her education in a 3-2
transfer program so that she can establish a solid foundation prior to attending a major institution for her last
two years. There is only one physics professor at April’s college, and he is the only person who can write April’s
letter of recommendation as he manages the 3-2 program for the college. At the end of April’s second year, the
physics professor tells April that he will not recommend her for the program even though her grades are just as
good as the white male that he will recommend.

Discussion Questions:

1. What, if anything, can April do to stop this education bias?

2. Has the physics professor violated any laws by not recommending April?

Scenario 3: Educational Tracking

Robert is a first year college student, from a rural farming community and has no idea what he wants to do in
his career. He is undecided but has expressed to his advisor his interests in business and/or journalism. Robert,
faithfully, meets with his advisor as required each semester. However, his advisor never informs Robert that
he must meet pre-core requirements for both his fields of interest or he will not be admitted because of space
limitations. When Robert realizes the situation, he is required to wait another year to potentially be enrolled
in his area of interest. Robert does not want to wait an extra year to complete his degree. He meets with his
advisor and is told that there is always room in a particular degree program in agriculture for students like him.
Robert feels betrayed and that he has been tracked away from his desired educational goal.

Discussion Questions;
 TOPIC 12: EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY BIAS | 39

1. Has Robert been misadvised? Why or why not?

2. Has Robert experienced educational bias? Why or why not.

Supplemental Readings
Alba, R. D., & Lavin, D. E. (1981). Community colleges and tracking in higher education. Sociology of
Education, 223-237.
Ansalone, G. (2001). Schooling, tracking, and inequality. Journal of Children and Poverty, 7(1), 33-47.
Ansalone, G. (2010). Tracking: Educational differentiation or defective strategy. Educational Research
Quarterly, 34(2), 3-17.
Berger, J., & Combet, B. (2017). Late school tracking, less class bias in educational decision-making? The
uncertainty reduction mechanism and its experimental testing. European Sociological Review, 33(1), 124-136.
Cooper, C. W. (2003). The detrimental impact of teacher bias: Lessons learned from the standpoint of
African American mothers. Teacher Education Quarterly, 30(2), 101-116.
Kershaw, T. (1992). The effects of educational tracking on the social mobility of African Americans. Journal
of Black Studies, 23(1), 152-169.
Moller, S., & Stearns, E. (2012). Tracking success: High school curricula and labor market outcomes by race
and gender. Urban Education, 47(6), 1025-1054.
Ozer, M., & Perc, M. (2020). Dreams and realities of school tracking and vocational education. Palgrave
Communications, 6(1), 1-7.
Sadker, D., & Zittleman, K. (2007). Gender bias: From colonial America to today’s classrooms. In J. E.
Banks and C.A.M. Banks (Eds.) Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives, (pp. 135-169). Wiley.
TOPIC 13: OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION
AND PROMOTIONAL CEILINGS

Abstract
Occupational segregation occurs in many ways. Topic 13 provides students with the opportunity to discuss
ways that occupational segregation is used to derail the promising careers of employees. Without a cohesive
work environment, where all employees feel integral to the organization’s success, organizations see high
turnover among high potential employees.

Scenario 1: Research Group Segregation

Peter has an advanced degree plus additional work experience. John has the same advanced degree as Peter
but no work experience. Peter is an African American male and John is a white male. They are both hired
on the same day. However, John is assigned to the most advanced research development team and allowed to
manage his own project immediately. Peter is assigned to a less visible research team and assigned to work under
several junior managers. Peter has noticed that there are no African American or other minorities in the group
within which John has been assigned. If fact, there has never been any diversity within that group including
white women. Peter feels that he and his minority group colleagues have been systematically segregated away
from that particular research group despite their qualifications. Despite being equally qualified with John,
Peter has only been hired for this position because his organization has been cited for occupational segregation
violations.

Discussion Questions

1. Imagine that you are Peter, what would you do about the situation and why?
2. Peter has been asked by his minority group colleagues to file an official grievance and lead
their efforts for change, should Peter agree to their request? Why or why not?
 TOPIC 13: OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION AND PROMOTIONAL CEILINGS | 41

Scenario 2: Intentional Exclusion

Connie comes to work everyday wanting to be a team player. She is the least senior person on her team
and realizes that the most important thing to success in her position is to be perceived by her peers and
supervisor as a team player. Yet, every suggestion and contribution that Connie gives goes unacknowledged
and unrecognized. Connie has also been bullied by her colleagues and is beginning to feel resentment. She has
repeatedly asked to be reassigned, and her requests have been denied.
Connie realizes that if change does not occur, she may become bitter towards her manager and co-workers.
She knows that she is the only person in her position who is being treated this way, and that she is being ignored
on purpose.

Discussion Questions:

1. What can Connie do to ensure recognition of her contributions?

2. How can Connie be expected to feel included when she is consistently excluded?
3. How would you provide career coaching to Connie in this situation?

Scenario 3: Glass Ceiling

Margaret is a 45 -year old, 20-year employee of her organization. She has been with the organization since
inception as a military subcontractor on government contracts. She has received stellar performance reviews on
all of her assignments throughout her tenure with the organization. She has never missed a deadline, and she
chose not to have children because she wanted to progress in her career. Yet, she has been denied promotion
after promotion when every male employee that she has trained has been promoted ahead of her. Margaret
perceives that she has been denied promotions because she is the only woman working for the organization and
has recently learned that all of their partner organizations are led by former military, male leaders. Margaret has
been told that if she pursues opportunities for advancement, she will need to leave the organization because she
will be jeopardizing their opportunity to continue their lucrative partnerships.
42 | TOPIC 13: OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION AND PROMOTIONAL CEILINGS

Discussion Questions:

1. What should Margaret do if she wants to be promoted?

2. Is Margaret’s current employer being fair to her? Why or why not?

Scenario 4: Military Glass Ceiling

Susan graduated form the Naval Academy and has followed all military protocols. Despite, all of her
dedication, Susan knows that she will never be able to ascend to the highest level in the military. The military
has a seniority system and because of that system, the opportunities for advancement are extremely limited.
One of Susan’s options for senior leadership within the government workforce is to retire from the military
and take a civilian position. The only thing that makes the situation better is that there is more availability of
senior positions.

Discussion Questions:

1. What should Susan do to improve her career options?

2. What can organizations do to help women ascend to higher levels and break through glass
ceilings?

Supplemental Readings
Anker, R. (1997). Theories of occupational segregation by sex: An overview. International Labour Review,
136, 315-339.
 TOPIC 13: OCCUPATIONAL SEGREGATION AND PROMOTIONAL CEILINGS | 43

Bergmann, B. R. (1974). Occupational segregation, wages and profits when employers discriminate by race
or sex. Eastern Economic Journal, 1(2), 103-110.
Blau, F. D., Brummund, P., & Liu, A. Y. H. (2013). Trends in occupational segregation by gender
1970–2009: Adjusting for the impact of changes in the occupational coding system. Demography, 50(2),
471-492.
Coleman, I. (2010). The global glass ceiling: Why empowering women is good for business. Foreign
Affairs, 89, 13-20.
Corsun, D. L., & Costen, W. M. (2001). Is the glass ceiling unbreakable? Habitus, fields, and the stalling of
women and minorities in management. Journal of Management Inquiry, 10(1), 16-25.
Evertson, A., & Nesbitt, A. (2004). The glass ceiling effect and its impact on mid-level female military officer
career progression in the United States marine corps and air force. Unpublished thesis, Naval Postgraduate
School.
Finnigan, R. (2020). Rainbow-collar Jobs? Occupational segregation by sexual orientation in the United
States. Socius, 6, 2378023120954795.
Glass, J. (1990). The impact of occupational segregation on working conditions. Social Forces, 68(3),
779-796.
Grassbaugh, J. (2013). The opaque glass ceiling: How will gender neutrality in combat affect military
sexual assault prevalence, prevention, and prosecution. Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 11, 319-352.
Hodges, M. J. (2020, March). Intersections on the class escalator: Gender, race, and occupational
segregation in paid care work. In Sociological Forum, 35(1), 24-49.
Hughes, C. (2014). American Black women and interpersonal leadership styles. Sense Publishers.
Hughes, C. (Ed.) (2015). Impact of diversity on organization and career development. IGI Global. 
Hunt, V. H., Rucker, L., & Kerr, B. (2020). Reconsidering sex-based occupational segregation and agency
missions: An analysis of US state bureaucracies (1987-2015) using two different thresholds. Administration &
Society, 52(3), 431-465.
Tesfai, R., & Thomas, K. J. (2020). Dimensions of inequality: Black immigrants’ occupational segregation
in the United States. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 6(1), 1-21.
TOPIC 14: CONFIDENTIALITY

Abstract
Topic 14 allows for the discussion of confidentiality and how the lack of maintaining confidentiality can be
detrimental to organizational success. Building trust with employees is hard work that can be easily destroyed
when confidentiality is violated. Inadvertent violations of confidentiality are still violations that are difficult to
rectify.

Scenario 1: Mental Health Confidentiality

Terrence had an unexpected death in his family. He has been diagnosed as suffering from anxiety and
depression as a result of his inability to cope with his loss. He informed his supervisor Michael of his situation.
Instead of Michael informing Terrence of the EAP services of the organization, Michael sent an email to all of
Terrence’s peers asking them to be aware that Terrence is suffering from mental illnesses because of his recent
loss and to be alert just in case they witness Terrence’s performance declining.

Discussion Questions:

1. Was Michael wrong to inform Terrence’s peers about his mental diagnosis? Why?
2. What can be done to solve this problem?
3. Should Michael be terminated? Why?

Scenario 2: Learning Ability Confidentiality

Carol is responsible for training all of the organization’s employees. She meets with all employees to ensure
that the appropriate level of training is available for each employee. Employees share their anxiety and concerns
 TOPIC 14: CONFIDENTIALITY | 45

about having to learn new skills to keep their jobs. These conversations are very sensitive to the employees, and
they trust Carol to keep their learning confidence levels confidential.
Carol’s administrative assistant, Melissa, has been privy to many of Carol’s conversations with employees.
Some of the employees have been made aware that Melissa has indiscreetly shared some of their personal
information and comments with other employees. The employees whose information has been shared no
longer feel comfortable seeking training from Carol.

Discussion Questions:

1. Do you think that Carol can win back the trust of the employees? If so, how? If not, why?
2. What should Carol do about Melissa’s violation of employee confidentiality?

Supplemental Readings
Huber, H. E. (2001). Privacy and confidentiality issues in corporate HRD practice. Advances in Developing
Human Resources, 3(1), 75-77.
Hughes, C., Lusk, S., and Strause, S. (2016). Recognizing and accommodating employees withPTSD:
Intersection of human resource development, rehabilitation, and psychology. New Horizons in Adult
Education and Human Resource Development, 28(2), 27-39
Kuchinke, K. P. (2010). Human development as a central goal for human resource development. Human
Resource Development International, 13(5), 575-585.
McDonald, K. S. (2001). Confidentiality issues in management development. Advances in Developing
Human Resources, 3(1), 78-80.
Wiley, C. (2000). Ethical standards for human resource management professionals: A comparative analysis
of five major codes. Journal of Business Ethics, 25(2), 93-114.
Woodall, J. (2001). Adventure training and client confidentiality. Advances in Developing Human
Resources, 3(1), 21-25.
Wooten, K. C. (2001). Ethical dilemmas in human resource management: An application of a
multidimensional framework, a unifying taxonomy, and applicable codes. Human Resource Management
Review, 11(1-2), 159-175.
Zafar, H. (2013). Human resource information systems: Information security concerns for organizations.
Human Resource Management Review, 23(1), 105-113.
46 | TOPIC 14: CONFIDENTIALITY

Zinzow, H. M., Britt, T. W., Pury, C. L., Raymond, M. A., McFadden, A. C., & Burnette, C. M. (2013).
Barriers and facilitators of mental health treatment seeking among active-duty army personnel. Military
Psychology, 25(5), 514-535.
TOPIC 15: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND
INCLUSION (DEI)

Abstract
Topic 15 provides scenarios that provide students an opportunity to examine problems with diversity, equity,
and inclusion in the workplace. There is no law that requires diversity in the workplace. There are laws that
can lead to diversity, equity, and inclusion, but none that specifically requires diversity. Diversity just means
difference. It must be defined in context to be applicable for use to achieve equity and inclusion.

Scenario 1: Presentation of Diverse Employees

throughout Organizations
Many organizations have minority themed activities to celebrate diversity of its employees. In many instances
these activities are appreciated by minority employees representing these groups. However, if these activities
are the only efforts exerted to “present” these minority groups to other organization employees, it may not
be enough to increase understandings of diversity. Some non-minority employees may see these activities
as entertainment while members of the minority groups value their cultural activities as sacred to the
sustainability of their cultural heritage. The way these groups are presented is often perceived as an insult to
their heritage.

Discussion Questions

1. How do you present your minority employees to the majority groups in the organization?
2. Do you value the cultural heritage of all employees within the organization?
3. Should cultural heritage be a part of diversity, equity, and inclusion efforts within
organizations? Why or why not?
48 | TOPIC 15: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION (DEI)

4. Does the cultural heritage of minority groups affect you in the workplace? How?
5. Is the cultural heritage of minority groups offensive to you? Why?

Scenario 2: DEI Leadership

Ray is a Black male who has been selected to lead his organization’s DEI efforts. His organization employees
over 5,000 employees and less than two percent of them are from all minority groups combined. Ray does
not have any specific DEI background because there is no known degree that prepares one to be a DEI
leader. Ray has cultivated relationships with the senior leadership in his organization and because he has made
it, he believes that other minorities can succeed within the organization too. Ray never meets with other
minority groups in the organization. In fact, he has never sent an email to the minority employees in salaried
positions, so those below the salaried ranks have even less of a chance at being heard by Ray. Ray’s DEI
efforts are with external constituents of the organization so that these constituents will continue to invest with
the organization. The organization’s brand must be perceived as promoting DEI regardless of the morale of
internal minority employees. Ray is promoted because of his perceived DEI efforts.

Discussion Questions:

1. Should Ray have worked to improve the DEI situation for internal minorities of the
organization?
2. Has Ray succeeded in meeting the DEI efforts of his organization?
3. Is organizational DEI branding more important to organizational success than the morale of
workers?
4. How should DEI leaders be prepared to lead DEI efforts within organizations?
 TOPIC 15: DIVERSITY, EQUITY, AND INCLUSION (DEI) | 49

Supplemental Readings
Anderson, B. E. (1996). The ebb and flow of enforcing executive order 11246. American Economic Review, 86,
298–301.
Berg, R. K. (1964). Equal employment opportunity under the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Brooklyn Law
Review, 31, 62-97.
Dover, T. L., Kaiser, C. R., & Major, B. (2020). Mixed signals: The unintended effects of diversity
initiatives. Social Issues and Policy Review, 14(1), 152-181.
Elias, T., Honda, L. P., Kimmel, M., & Chun, J. (2016). A mixed methods examination of 21st century
hiring processes, social networking sites, and implicit bias. The Journal of Social Media in Society, 5(1),
189-228.
Fine, C., Sojo, V., & Lawford‐Smith, H. (2020). Why does workplace gender diversity matter? Justice,
organizational benefits, and policy. Social Issues and Policy Review, 14(1), 36-72.
Gutman, A., Koppes, L. L., Vodanovich, S. J. (2011). EEO law and personnel practices (3rd ed.). Routledge.
Hemphill, H., & Haines, R. (1997). Discrimination, harassment, and the failure of diversity training: What
to do now. Quorum Books.
Hughes, C. (2014). American Black women and interpersonal leadership styles. Sense Publishers.
Hughes, C. (2016). Diversity intelligence: Integrating diversity intelligence alongside intellectual, emotional,
and cultural intelligence for leadership and career development. Palgrave MacMillan Publications.
Hughes, C. (2018). Workforce inter-personnel diversity: The power to influence human productivity and
career development. Springer International Publishing.
Hughes, C. (Preface). (2018). The role of HRD in using diversity intelligence to enhance leadership skill
development and talent management strategy. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 20(3), 259-262.
Hughes, C. & Brown, L. (2018). Exploring leaders’ discriminatory, passive-aggressive behavior toward
protected class employees using diversity intelligence. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 20(3),
263-284.
Hughes, C. (2018). Conclusion: Diversity intelligence as a core of diversity training and leadership
development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 20(3), 370-378.
Hughes, C. (Ed.) (2020). Implementation strategies for improving diversity in organizations. IGI Global.
Ng, E. S., & Sears, G. J. (2020). Walking the talk on diversity: CEO beliefs, moral values, and the
implementation of workplace diversity practices. Journal of Business Ethics, 164(3), 437-450.
TOPIC 16: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)
AND HRD

Abstract
Topic 16 allows students to discuss scenarios of how artificial intelligence (AI) and HRD are linked. The
expertise of AI is not ethically sound, and the human expertise of HRD professionals can alleviate some of
these concerns. Understanding the gap between HRD and explainable AI is important as technology becomes
more integrated into workplace activities.

Scenario 1: AI and Data Analysis

Bethany started her new position two weeks ago and is excited to be doing data entry work. She has to
analyze the human resource materials before inputting the content into the human resource information
system (HRIS). Unbeknownst to Bethany, her organization has a plan to begin, in three months, using AI to
replace the work that she does. Bethany has been asked to work with information system (IS) and information
technology (IT) employees to make sure that the process that she is using to input the data is correct. Bethany
does not discuss the way that she analyzes the data. She only informs IS and IT employees of the steps that she
takes to input the data.
When the organization implements its new AI generated HRIS, sensitive confidential employee data is
incorrectly inputted throughout the system. Bethany is asked to meet with leaders including her supervisor and
leaders from IS and IT. When asked why the data is incorrect in the new system, Bethany informs them that
she has an analysis process that she did not share because she did not know that AI would be used to input the
data.

Discussion Questions:

1. What do you believe to be the main reason that data was incorrectly inputted into the HRIS?
 TOPIC 16: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) AND HRD | 51

2. How would you correct this situation and make amends to employees whose data was
incorrectly distributed throughout the organization?
3. What could have been to prevent this situation from occurring?

Scenario 2: Fairness of AI in Promotion

Randy has been with his organization for 10 years and has been working towards a promotion on his job
for five years. He has done everything that his supervisor has asked and has been proactive in leading new
initiatives. Despite all of Randy’s hard work, his organization has determined that they can save money by
using machine learning and AI to replace him. They also used AI to determine how much work Randy actually
performed each day. The organization used AI data in its decision to downsize and has informed Randy that
his position is being eliminated. They do let him know that should he want to apply for other jobs in other
divisions of the organization, that opportunity is available. Randy is in shock and decides to meet with HR to
find out why his position was eliminated. When told about his work being done by AI, Randy becomes angry.

Discussion Questions:

1. Do you think that it was a fair use of AI by the company? Why?

2. Pretend that you are Randy, would you seek another job with the organization?
3. Please find and share a real world example of how AI is being used to replace employees?

Supplemental Readings
Bellamy, R. K., Dey, K., Hind, M., Hoffman, S. C., Houde, S., Kannan, K., … & Nagar, S. (2019). AI Fairness
360: An extensible toolkit for detecting and mitigating algorithmic bias. IBM Journal of Research and
Development, 63(4/5), 4-1.
Brougham, D., & Haar, J. (2018). Smart technology, artificial intelligence, robotics, and algorithms
52 | TOPIC 16: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) AND HRD

(STARA): Employees’ perceptions of our future workplace. Journal of Management & Organization, 24(2),

239-257.
Chermack, T. J. (2003). Decision-making expertise at the core of human resource development. Advances
in Developing Human Resources, 5(4), 365–377.
Davies, J. (2016). Program good ethics into artificial intelligence. Nature, 538, 291.
Etzioni, A., & Etzioni, O. (2016). AI assisted ethics. Ethics and Information Technology, 18(2), 149-156.
https://doi.org.10.1007/s10676-016-9400-6
Githens, R. P., Dirani, K., Gitonga, J. W., & Teng, Y. T. (2008). Technology-related research in HRD
publications: An analysis of content and metaperspectives from 2000 to 2006. Human Resource Development
Quarterly, 19(3), 191–215. doi:10.1002/hrdq.1236
Hew, P. C. (2014). Artificial moral agents are infeasible with foreseeable technologies. Ethics and
Information Technology, 16(3), 197-206.
Hirschi, A. (2018). The fourth industrial revolution: Issues and implications for career research and
practice. The Career Development Quarterly, 66(3), 192-204.
Hughes, C., Robert, L., Frady, K., & Arroyos, A. (2019). Managing technology and middle and low skilled
employees: Advances for economic regeneration. Emerald Publishing.
Ketter, P. (2017). Artificial intelligence creeps into talent development. TD Magazine, 71(4), 22-25.
Kim, P. T. (2019). Big data and artificial intelligence: New challenges for workplace equality. University of
Louisville Law Review, 57(2), 313.
Kok, J. N., Boers, E. J. W., Kosters, W.A., & Van der Putten, P. (2009). Artificial intelligence: Definition,
trends, techniques, and cases. In J. N. Kok (Ed.), Artificial intelligence (pp. 1 – 20). Encyclopedia of Life
Support Systems.
McQuay, L. (2018). Will robots duplicate or surpass us? The impact of job automation on
tasks, productivity, and work. Psychosociological Issues in Human Resource Management, 6(2), 86-91.
http://doi.org/10.22381/PIHRM6220189
Raghavan, M., Barocas, S., Kleinberg, J., & Levy, K. (2020, January). Mitigating bias in algorithmic hiring:
Evaluating claims and practices. In Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and
Transparency (pp. 469-481).
Rai, A. (2020). Explainable AI: From black box to glass box. Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science, 48(1), 137-141.
Robert, L. P., Pierce, C., Marquis, L., Kim, S., & Alahmad, R. (2020). Designing fair AI for managing
employees in organizations: A review, critique, and design agenda. Human–Computer Interaction, 1-31.
DOI: 10.1080/07370024.2020.1735391
Roy, V. V., Vértesy, D., & Vivarelli, M. (2018). Technology and employment: Mass unemployment or job
creation? Empirical evidence from European patenting firms. Research Policy, 47(9), 1762-1776. doi:10.1016/
j.respol.2018.06.008
 TOPIC 16: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) AND HRD | 53

Tzafestas, S. G. (2018). Ethics in robotics and automation: A general view. International Robotics &
Automation Journal, 4, 229–234.
Upadhyay, A., & Khandelwal, K. (2019). Artificial intelligence-based training learning from
application. Development and Learning in Organizations: An International Journal, 33(2), 20-23.
doi:10.1108/DLO-05-2018-0058
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AUTHOR BIO
Claretha Hughes

Dr. Claretha Hughes is Professor of Human Resource and Workforce Development at the University of
Arkansas. Her research interests include valuing people and technology in the workplace, technology
development, diversity intelligence, learning technologies, and ethical and legal issues. She has published over
80 articles and chapters in peer-reviewed journals, books, and conferences and has 14 books including a
textbook along with the Manufacturing Skills Standards Council currently used for certifying manufacturing
workers. She serves as a book proposal reviewer for SAGE, Emerald, IGI Global, Palgrave Macmillan, and
CyberTech Publishing. She also serves as a grant proposal reviewer for the Swiss National Science Foundation
and has served as a grant proposal reviewer for the Minority Business Development Agency in the United
States Department of Commerce. She is currently involved in a National Science Foundation Research in
Formation of Engineers project as a Co-PI.
She has served in manufacturing leadership roles in food, health care, and textile industries for Coca-Cola
Bottling Company Consolidated, Abbott Laboratories, and Burlington Industries. She has served as VP of
Communications, President-Elect, and President of the Valleys of Virginia Chapter of the Association of
Talent Development (ATD) – formerly ASTD. She is a national member of ATD and has twice presented at
the ATD International Conference and Exposition. Dr. Hughes received her PhD in Career and Technical
Education specializing in Training and Development from Virginia Tech. She also holds an MBA from the
Sam M. Walton College of Business at the University of Arkansas, a Master of Textile Technology Management
from NC State University, and a BA in Chemistry from Clemson University. Dr. Hughes has over 29 years of
experience in business and industry and higher education. She is a certified Master Trainer.