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The production equiped b derjgned to be adoptabte to Variations 4 in product Congiqunation Unique products an wade ih pros bateboy | Scanned with CamScannerPanta ber year fixed autowatic Isooe |, Rabetio wel Soo flexibee pee] ed SS Is en rauataabls Lio, , austownation "349 ge loo feos Proctanct Variety © exibee aucbowotion > Wed =e" wld Voduawe prom —ductim pize St peabene poud he tae bet “fines autowatio and pean Levey of Automation §> + Exkerprpe Loved — Gas Corporate. formation fystenp Levdot + Plank Lave + Peeduchion pyptern é Loved 03 Cal | Aston Bevel ? e Mamadeetoneg Ayres — at f eacluiney Lod on «| Machina tevel + Dulividuad weekinn Level ot: Devi Level * Senpors, actuators and Hardioare elements Scanned with CamScannereS Sect, 2.2 MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS 3 stream of innovative product improvements and process modifications. sophisticated information systems integrate the material flow and the information flow, manufacturing inevitably comes to rely more on science than on art, Old thinking about custom markets versus mass markets is obsolete. Big companies will be able to provide custom service and small companies also can serve mass markets. Thus a company’s distinctive competence increasingly would come from the manufacturing system. PROBLEMS 1. Study the four levels of automation discussed in Section 2.1.3 in the context of economies of scale and scope. 2. Give several reasons why scope economies are gait economics. ing prominence over scale 3. Investigate what would be the appropriate mathematical models (c.g. linear programming, integer programming, queuing models, simulation, PERT/CPM (project evaluation and review technique/critical path method), etc.) that could be employed in the various steps of the product cycle. 4. It is believed that integration (material flow, information, functional) has a ‘multiplier effect on the system performance. Can you substantiate how? 5. Prepare a comprehensive term paper on the history and evolution of manufacturing systems. 2.2 MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS In this section we discuss some systemic concepts associated with man- facturing, These are applicable to both continuous and discrete manufacturing systems. Definition: Manufacturing is a transformation process by which raw material, labor, energy, and equipment are brought together to produce high-quality goods ‘The goods produced naturally should have an economic value greater than that of the inputs used and should be salable in the presence of competition. The transformation process generally involves a seq uence of steps called production operations. Each production oe Process of changing the inputs into outputs while adding value to the e Scanned with CamScanner2 AUTOMATED. MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Che Chap. 9 Decisions Disturbances Material —| Product Ener; a iat nett) stanufacturing | serap Labor System }-——> aes Waste Technology| = LE Figure 2.6 Manufacturing system: input-output model entity. Interspersed between these value-adding operations are the non- value-adding operations, such as transporting, storing, and inspecting, Iris necessary to minimize, if not eliminate, the non-value-adding operations 2.2.1 Input-Output Model ‘A manufacturing system can be represented by the inpur-ourput model shown in Figure 2.6. Here the inputs are shown as material, labor, energy, and technology. ‘The raw material is converted into the final quality product. Labor, in the form of blue-collar and white-collar workers, is needed for designing the product, operating the equipment, loading and unloading of the workpieces, and for inspection. The recent trend is to automate most of these functions and elevate the role of the human operator to one of a monitor and supervisor. Manufacturing technology represents the sophistication and flexibility of the equipment and the extent of material flow integration and infor mation integration built into the system. A manufacturing system can be manual or fully automated; highly dedicated or fully flexible; a collection of isolated machine tools or a fully integrated production system. It is the level of technology that determines whether a given system is 2 mass production system, job shop, batch production system, or 2 fully flexible machining system. The technology also determines whether the economies achieved are of the scale type or of the scope type. As We mentioned earlier in Section 2.1.4, the mass production of a narrow range of products leads 10 economies of scale while low-volume production of a wide variety of products leads to economies of scope. ‘The manufacturing process produces three outputs: the com| piece or the quality product satisfying required engineering 5! pleted work| peck Scanned with CamScannerSect. 2.2 MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS 33 fications; serap: and waste. Scrap is an inevitable by-product of metal cutting. Waste is of two types. The first type of waste is represented by tools consumed, product rejected during inspection, etc., and the second type of waste is generated by use of system resources for non-valuc-adding, operations, Of course, scrap and waste are undesirable outputs and should both be minimize: There are two more inputs to a manufacturing system that are important and crucial for its performance. The first one is the sct of decisions made at various levels of the hierarchy (long range, medium range, and short range) regarding products manufactured, equipment purchased, plant layout, sequencing and scheduling of parts, loading of parts, etc. These decisions are very important, and the main goal of this book is to present tools for evaluating by analytical means the various decisions. The second kind of inputs are disturbances; these include government action, market fluctuations, competition, equipment failures, and labor problems. Decisions in the Manufacturing World Decision making in a manufacturing environment can be very complex because of the alternatives available and the serious and uncertain nature of the. outcome of the decisions. There are three levels of decisions in a manufacturing system: strategic, tactical, and operational. The strategic decisions are long term (typically years) and determine the competitiveness.and survivability of the firm. These include introduction of new technology, part-mix changes (allocating a new part type for production), system modification and expansion (adding a new machine center or changing the material handling system layout), etc. The second level, or tactical decisions, have a horizon of weeks/days. These include dividing the overall production target into batches, taking into account the availability of raw materials, tools, and due dates. Typical questions include: (i) how many batches, and (ii) how many part types in each batch. The objective is to maximize the utilization of the machines while balancing the workload on the system so that all the machines finish their work for each batch almost simultaneously. The operational level or level- three decisions are concerned with day-to-day control of manufacturing Operations, ‘These include: (i) which part type to introduce into the system, ii) how many workpieces should coexist in the system simultaneously, ii) which part should be loaded onto the machine next, (iv) how many tools of each type, (v) how to react to tool breakage, and (vi) rescheduling in the case of failures of the machines or the material handling system. . Scanned with CamScannerww M AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS, Chap, d Effective manufacturing management involves addressing simu. ously all three levels af decisions. Failure t0 do so will reduce mang effectiveness, leading to higher costs and reduced competitiveness lane Pema, The ultimate purpose of manufacturing is 10 focus the organiza resources, capabilities, and cnergies toward building a sustainable tage over its competitors, Such an advantage may be Uerived from y cost, from higher product performance (quality), from more inno. products, or from superior service. 2.2.2 Plant Configurations Manufacturing is a very broad term and includes many distinctly types of production operations and products. It can nological and organizational forms. However, it is possible to recognize the following four configurations based on the number of products volume: continuous flow processes, job shops, batch production, ard ded icated production lines. me man Continuous Flow Processes These involve continuous dedicated production of large amounts ef bulk product. Here the product types are few and volumes are tz Process manufacturing involves a continuous flow of raw materials thro a series of sequential operations. ‘These operations transform the © materials into a final product. Typical examples of continuous ‘os processes include chemical plants, oil refineries, plastics, iron and s¥*!. and textile industries. While complete continuity is rare, a pipeline-type system where each section of the plant processes a certain quantity of materials and pas it on to the next section is frequent. Either section-wise oF plantewise feedback control is used 10 maximize the overall yield. Product quality. generally in the nature of chemical composition, is maintained by feed= back and feedforward control strategies. Availability of intelligent S050 relatively inexpensive computer technology, and a sophisticated computer control theory of continuous processes have led to fully auromated fet" ries that run virtually unmanned. Job Shops . iad Low to medium volumes and wide range of products characterize i shops, which are commonplace in mechanical engineering industics- ~ Scanned with CamScannerSect. 22 MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS 35 shop manufacturing is commonly used to”mect specific customer orders, sand there is great variety in the type of work done in the plant. ‘Therefore, the production equipment must be flexible and general purpose 10 allow for this variety of work, and workers should be highly skilled to perform the range of work assignments, Examples include space vehicles, aircraft, missiles, machine tools, and prototypes of future products. Job shops are typically very inefficient and have large lead times, large work-in-process inventory, and high costs. ‘The reasons include: 1. An order for a component or subassembly usually involves operations on several different machine tools and there is one-piece at a time part movements. Generally material movement is done by blue-collar workers involving high costs and large delays. py The equipment and tooling in a job shop are general purpose and can be set up for almost any part in a family, But the time for setup of a particular job on a general purpose machine tool can take hours or even days. y These products have very long development and production times because of the upfront engineering and design times and long lead times for procurement of special components and materials. They also have high cost because of large engineering and design content per order, the higher skilled and nigher paid factory work force, and substantially lower learning curve productivity gains. Batch Production This category involves the manufacture of medium-size lots of the same item or product. The lots may be produced only once or they may be produced at regular intervals, Lot sizes and the frequency of production of a single item are tied up with the inventory control policies adopted by marketing. __ Here again, the manufacturing equipment is general purpose but designed for higher rates of production. Batch production plants include machine shops, casting foundries, plastic moulding factories, and press working shops. Items made in batch-type shops include furniture, text. books, and household appliances. It has been estimated that as much 75% of all batch manufacturing is in lot sizes of 50 pieces or les: Hi ee batch production and job shop production constitute an importa; wenn of the total manufacturing activity. Portant portion Scanned with CamScanner% AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Chap, 2 Batch Production. Product Variety Mass Production Continuous Flow Processes Production Volume Figure 2.7 Four' types of plant configurations Dedicated High-Volume Prod ction Lines This is continuous specialized manufacture of identical products. High-volume production lines are characterized by very high production rates and narrow scope. The equipment is dedicated to the manufacture of a single product type such as automobile, light bulbs, appliances, etc. ‘The entire plant is designed and operated for manufacture of a single product type. A very high fixed investment is required for one-of-a-kind sPe cialization of production facilities, such as fixed wansfer lines, dedicated conveyors, buffers, etc. Each piece of equipment is optimized in terms of cost and time for the operation it performs and material movement | automated. Additional capacity is created by cloning. The four types of plant configurations can be distinguished by product variety and production volume. This is shown in Figure 2.7. ‘There is some overlap in the categorization, as the figure indicates. PROBLEMS Is of automation discussed in Sect figurations of Section 2.2.2? 1. Is there a mapping between the four level: bal 2.1.3 and the different types of plant con Scanned with CamScanner~~» Sect. 23 PERFORMANCE MEASURES a 2. Relate the decision levels (strategic, tactical, and operational) in the rhanu- facturing world to the product cycle diagram (Figure 2.2). 2.3 PERFORMANCE MEASURES terials from vendors, trans- d deliver these value-added fits. Most of them on is that cost Every manufacturer's mission is to buy raw m: form them in a factory into needed products, an items to customers, This is how they wish to eam pro! perform this mission poorly and make losses. The prime reas they ignore competition and effectiveness. They routinely make lo products and stockpile them in the inventory. The products in this inventory can become technologically obsolete in a short time. Compeutiveness requires that the products have one or more of the following advantages: low cost, high quality, good service, and innovation. Product diversity and delivery time performance are other added vires. Cost reduction and delivery time performance can be achieved by eliminating all non- value-adding activities, generally termed as waste. Anything other than the minimum amount of equipment, materials, space, information, people. Waential to add value to the business is 2 non-value-adding ac- mples of waste include: materi rework, machine breakdowns, shortages, and time tivity. Exai inventory. handling customer complaints. We shall consider here cight performance measures of any manufac- dicative of its competitive status in the man- ‘al handling, inspection, storage, warranty costs, and turing system, which are in ufacturing world. These are: Manufacturing Lead Time Work-in-process Machine Utilization Throughput Capacity Flexibility Performability Quality We now consider each of these with respect to waditional job shop wn, We shall discuss these performance measures again and batch productior : n in Section 2.7 in the context of flexible manufacturing systems. The SPN AN REYNE Scanned with CamScanneros AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS analytical models discussed in this book facilitate Chup, » automated manufacturing systems through these aclear understandin, ft Performance measures 2.3.1 Manufacturing Lead Time We have seen earlier that manuracturing is a transformation process that converts raw materials into quality products and that the process Of manufacturing consists of a sequence of machining and assembly Operations. In between these operations, , non-value-adding operations, as discussed above, are performed. Ideally, we would want to eliminate these wasteful operations or at least minimize the time that a part spends in these operations, The term leud time captures the time that a pan spends in a manufacturing system, There are wo variants ot lead time discussed in the literature, namely manufacturing lead time and total lead time, These are defined below. Definition: The Manufacturing Lead Time (MLT) of a product is the total time required to process the product through the manufacturing plant Definition: The Total Lead Time (TLT) of a product is the total time elapsed from the instant at which raw materials are ordered until the instant the finished product is delivered, Ideally, MLT should be equal to the actual machining and assembly time. This is possible with zero inventories, zero material handling, zero setup time, zero defects, zero breakdowns, and a batch size of one. Certainly these are ideal characteristics to attain manufacturing excellence. In actual practice, however, one would wish to minimize the MLT. The TLT is a complex quantity since it involves Procurement, vendor, manufacturing, enginecring, tooling, and customer lead times. Here. we focus on manufacturing lead time and sl tudy the following four components that constitute MLT: 1. Setup time 2. Processing time 3. Move time 4, Queue time While focusing on MLT, we as stock ( sume that raw materials are currently in Procurement lead time is zero and that we have made these Scanned with Camocannery Sect. 2.3 EI x PERFORMANCE MEASURES a2 ems before; we have on hand the design, the process pla! id. the ; and th i i ne he design, th SS . the MLT is rruch greater In conventional batch , In a typical batch processing environment, than the actual processing time for the batch. processing «ual processing time and setup time together represent less than 9 fe of MLT. Queuing and transport times account tor the Fest of the MLT. We now consider each of the four elements oF MLT and discuss methods of reducing each of them. Setup Time the time required by Definition: Setup time or changeover ime is pe 10 switch to another machine or a system manufacturing one product 1¥ product type. The setup time generally includes time changing, and preparing the workplace. Reducing a profound effect on the manufacturing system perform: sreaces the flexibility, reduces the work-in-Prose invent the economic batch size. Low selup times constitute just-in-time (JIT) philosophy of manufacturing. ¢ required for fixturing, tool the setup times has ance since it in- ory, and reduces the basis of the ‘The setup time and thus the setup cost Me incurred whenever a new patch is started on the machine. 70 ininimize the setup time and costs, 2 batch of products is Y anpfactured after a single setup. Large batch sizes aerthe other hand result in high saventory levels. The economic batch Sine (EBS) is the batch size for Which the total cost, which is the sum y costs, is a minimum. ‘The economic batch size Q of setup and inventor SD Q=\VT a) is given by where C = tonal cost = setup cost per batch Se D = demand rate for the item I per item per unit time. = inventory carrying cost Scanned with CamScannerING SYSTEMS Chap, 4 ao AUTOMATED MANUFACTURI Equation (1) can be easily derived by noting that (he tral cost ¢ ; given by i D.,@ Cc a + 7 and then solving fq = 0 for the optimal Q. From (1), we see that if setup time is reduc reduces to Q/Y7i leading 10 smaller lot sizes. then a batch of size unity bec If the setup costs are zero, economic. Faster changeovers reduce the lead time and result in the JIT approach. Suppose we kave, in the route of 2 part, 10 changeovers ezch taking 4 hours and we reduce the changeover time to 10 minutes, then we fave a lot of time, Smaller lots reduce the inventory ©” the shop flor, iy dependence on forecasts, and the cycle time. Also, We do not produce the e nventory that would subsequently be lying idle in store’ VY Reducing changeover times requires more thought, mee modifice tions, and more practice in making quick changes and more investment. The options may range from buying one large flexible computer-conrolled machine with fast changeover times from one product tyPe to another, 0 installing several small dedicated machines capable of producing only product and complete avoidance of changeover. Modifying the existing re rchine tools to create flexibility and fast changeovers is yet another op- tion. ed by n, then the ERS Processing Time i ‘As we discussed earlier, batch processing time i a product's passage through the production system that real added to it. Other times are non-value-adding and should be minimized Reduction of changeover time makes possible economic produc”? of small batches and thus a proportionate reduction in the batch processing times. s the only time dunng value is being Move Time These are the times needed to transport workpieces to another. The moving of workpieces could be within U shop, within a factory, across factories, or between various sul processes performed by the vendors. Small batch sizes imply more number of moves beween th processes for the same production target. The need then woul from one workspot he machine beoneracted e machine Id be for 3 canned with CamScannerSect. 23 PERFORMANCE MEASURES at smart material handling system that can make a large number of deliveries of small loads in a short time. We note that the best material handling ig no material handling and optimal move time is zero move time, There are three ways in which transport times could be reduced: (i) creating ve satile computer-controlled Thine centers with automatic tool changers capable of performing variety of processing operations, (ji) adapting product layouts OF cellular layouts, based on group technology principles, where all machine tools necessary (0 manufacture a given family of items are located together and in a correct production sequence, and (iii) using more efficient transfer mechanisms such as belt conveyors, fork lifts, chutes, and smart AGVs that can make faster delivery of unit loads. Queue Times Queue times or waiting times before the resources such as machine centers, AGVS, etc., are the longest elements that make up the MLT. Queues occur before machine centers and AGVS because there are almost always jobs waiting to be processed by these resources When a new job arrives at a machine center, it usually has to wait until all the preceding jobs are processed before it can be worked on. The queue length is proportional to the amount of work-in-process The irony is that operations are performed very efficiently on high-speed machines, taking only a short duration of time, but the work sits in queues for hours, days or even weeks, waiting for its next chance to be processed. If there is no work-in-process inventory and setup times are reduced 10 zero, then the optimal order size would be unity and the workpiece would flow through the factory with MLT equal to the actual processing time. The three contributory factors for long queues include inadequate capacity, erratic flow, and poor part release policies. Queue times can be reduced if products are produced as they are needed, work-in-process is kept low, and smaller lots are transported more frequently. The last point implies that the transport lot size need not be equal to the economic batch size. Example 2.1 Consider a situation where parts arrive at a machine tool in batches of 40. The machine tool takes 10 min to perform the required operation on cach workpiece (ie 400 in for the entire batch). The entire batch i then uansported to tke next machine. Assuming that the machine is idle Scanned with CamScanneraz AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Chap 2 when the batch arrives, the total waiting time for cach workpiece with you, content of 10 min is 4(4) min, Suppose the transport 1Ol size is 5 (ic, ogee are processed, they would be transported to the next machin the waiting time is reduced to 50 min. If the transport lot size is made 1, then the waiting time is completely eliminated but the transponer has 6s make 40 trips instead of one. Separating product lots from transpor toys in situations where production lots are large has a profound effect on leag time. Model to Compute MLT To write down the flow model of a manufacturing system, we first recognize the four basic operations the workpiece goes through ~ namely waiting, moving, processing, and inspection. The wa ting operation includes waiting for transport, for machining, and storage. Moving time includes all transport time from raw workpiece storage to machine shop and return and time in the machine shop. We assume that every processing is followed by inspection. There could be three outcomes of the inspection operation: (i) workpiece is discarded since it does not conform to specifications, (ii) workpiece requires rework to correct minor errors, and (iii) workpiece is good and can be moved for next operation. a i ¥ Suppose a batch of Q workpieces is going through a sequence of » operations on n different machines. Figure 2.8 shows the MLT model for this situation. It is clear that only the processing (P) operations are value-adding and others are non-value-adding. Each machine operation involves two waits, one processing, one inspection, and one transport. The W before P includes setup time and queuing time before the machine; W before T denotes the waiting time for transportation and T denotes the wansport time. Lepore | ETA-P-ILATi Figure 2.8 Basic operations in a manufacturing system Let 4i, si, a; denote, respectively, the processing, setup, and inspection times for the ith operation. Also let qj denote waiting time it the queue in front of the machine for the ith operation, and mj the move Scanned with CamScannerSect, 23 PERFORMANCE MEASURES a time for moving the workpiece from ith to (i+ 1)th operation. The symbol my denotes the move time required for unloading after the nth operation. In general, all these variables are random. Analysis of the system as a stochastic service system would be done in Chapters 34, and 5 using Markov chains, queuing networks, and stochastic Petri nets, respectively. Here, we resuict our analysis to the deterministic situation (ic., all variables are known constants). It is easy to derive the following formula for MLT in this situation, MLT => sj + Q(tit ai) + mit 2 We can interpret this model for different production situations. For a job shop, @ = 1 and the workpiece goes through the cycle (WPIWT) as many number of times as the number of machine operations. If there arc n machine operations then we have from (2). \ MLT => (sith tatu ta) 3) | | flow-type mass production, the proxluction line is set up in ad- tion is done as a part of machine operation, the waiting time is determined by the machine with the longest processing time, and move time is the same for all parts and is denoted by m. Thus we have MLT =n (m + pax, t) (4) In all the above cases, the ratio of MLT to the sum of processing times is a good indicator of the time a part is unnecessarily resident on the factory floor. Example 2.2 A part undergoes five operations, as shown in Table 2.1, on five different machines. The table gives the sctup, qucuc, and processing times. The average inspection time, moving time, and waiting time before moving add up to 10h for each operation. We want to find MLT for a batch size of 100 Scanned with CamScanner4 1 : / AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS, Ch, : ‘ap. 2 Table 2.1 Data for part in Example 2.2 480. 360 200 MLT = —— ye 64— MLT (141044 2) + (24 60 +10) + (44 60 +00) ow 4 ts to + (3+ 20 410) + (04 +00) = 22+ 18+364+17419 =112h We can easily compute the total batch processing time as 43 h. Ideally, MLT also should have been 43 h. The part is resident on the factory floor for 69 h. without any value being added to it. Example 2.3 Consider a transfer line with two machines, My and Mz. ‘The processing times on My and Mp are given by 5.0 min and 3.5 min, respectively. The material transport time from My to Mz is 0.5 min, The setup time for the wansfer line is 150 h. Then the MLT for a batch size of 100 is given by = 100 (5 + 0.5) = 550 min. Example 2.4 A job shop specializes in one-of-a-kind orders. A typical part goes through eight operations on eight conventional machines, Each operation on the average takes 20 min of processing time, 15 min of work handling time, and 10 min of tool changing time. Average setup time is 6 h. Moving. inspection, and waiting times add up to 12 h. A new programmable machine performs all eight operations in a single setup. Programming the machine takes 20 h but is done off-line. Setup time is 10 h, Machining and tool changing times are reduced to 80% and 50% of their conventional values. Work handling time is the same as for one machine, The waiting, inspection, and moving times are the same as in the conventional setup. We can now compute MLTs in both the cases: Searggs wth Camsconner canned with CamScannerSeet. 23 PERF ( PERFORMANCE, MEASURE se (a) Convent setup: (MULT), 150 hb, Total processing time = 8 x (b) NC machine: (MET), = (4 = ) + 3) + CS 9) 12 Total processing time = 1# = 2h. We sce that the ratio of MLT (o actual processing time is more than ten times even in the case of NC machines. Further improvements in MLT should come from reducing setup, moving, and transport times. 2.3.2. Work-in-Process Work-in-process (WIP) is the amount of semi-finished product currently resident on the factory ttoor. A semi-finished product is either being processed or is waiting for the next processing operation. In the traditional school of thought, inventories, including WIP, are scen as assets, and inventory built up over a week is considered as value added during the week. Inventories are also seen as the insurance buffer against various uncertainties induced by delayed supplies, machine breakdowns, absenteeism, and uncertain customer orders. Also, WIP builds up owing to the desire to improve the utilization of expensive equipment. WIP represenis an investment by the firm, and many companies incur major WIP costs that are high over long periods of time. The recent uend is to produce the jtems as required and to consider inventory as evil. Inventory is the evidence of poor design, poor forecasting, poor coordination, and poor operation of the manufacturing system. re of the WIP can be obtained by multiplying the rate at which parts flow through the factory with the length of the time parts spend in the factory. We recognize the latter t0 be the manufacturing lead time. Suppose the manufacturing lead time in a factory is 120 bh and its production rate is 20 units/fh, Then the WIP is 120x20 = 2400 units. ‘As mentioned earlier, WIP should be low. Ideally, it would be nice if there are as many parts waiting as there are being processed. This would ensure that machines will not starve and will keep the WIP low. The number of parts currently being processed is equal to the number of busy ‘A rough measu Scanned ith amScanner Scanned with CamScanner46 AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Chap, machines, which in turn cquals the total number of machines my by the utilization factor. Nig 2.3.3 Machine Utilization High machine utilization is assumed to be good because it amortizes the cost of the machinery faster. Idle time is supposed to be bad since high. priced equipment does not produce anything. The quest for manufacturing efficiency, where efficiency is measured in terms of the utilization of the equipment, encourages shop-floor supervisors and managers to keep work centers busy continuously and to produce items not mandated by current orders but perhaps required to meet future, yet unannounced demand. The more expensive the work center is, the more attention it gets to keep it busy. Ironically, such centers are likely to be high productivity types and would generate huge inventories. By forcing a machine to run so as to amortize its cost and increase its utilization, one is simply transferring a machine asset into an inventory asset, Is not idle inventory merely idle machinery in a different form? Which one would benefit business more: idle machine asset oF idle inventory asset? ‘The answer is, of course, idle machinery. Building up idle inventory may lead to perishable inventory, something customers may not want, resulting in tying Up cash in raw materials, creating and managing the inventory, and adding lots of waste. An effective resource utilization is to run the machine to manufacture exactly the right quantity of exactly the right things at exactly the right time. Example 2.5 In a certain batch production system, a part gocs through an average of Si* operations. Each operation takes 6 min on the average. ‘Average batch size is 25, and 24 such batches are processed during a week. Average setup om rach machine for each batch is 5 h and inspection, moving, and wall affer each operation per batch is 10, There are 18 prexiuetion machines in the plant, The plant operates 70 production ha week. Assume Urat re jon ate is zero, We can now detemine various performance measures. As: jon time/unit of producymachine __ Average batch production time scanned with CamScannerSect. 23 PERFORMANCE MEASURES " Gi) Production rate/machine = 1/0.7 per h. (ii) MLT = (Average bat ot epenations) \g¢ batch production time) x (Average number of machine 25 x6 60 Gv) Production capacity = Number of units produced/week = (Number of machines) x (Total number of machine hours) x Production rate | = (45s ) x6 = 105, = 18 x 70x — = 1800. 07 (v) Actual number of units produced per week =6x 70x 600. 7 (vi) Machine utilization 600 Fi = t990 7 3 33% (vii) Desired WIP = Number of busy machines = 6 units. to the desired WIP is 25. which is very high. ‘The ratio of WIP 2.3.4 Throughput For a manufacturing system, the throughput is generally expressed as an hourly or daily production rate (i.e. the number of parts produced per hour or day). ‘The reciprocal of the throughput or production rate is the production time per unit of the product. For transfer lines the throughput approximates the reciprocal of the cycle time (transfer time + longest operation time). In case of job shops: the relationship is not so simple but ceed be chasucterized as the number of units leaving the unload station per day or per hour. 2.3.5 Capacity The term capacity, or plant capacity, is used to define the maximum. formation process the plant is able to produce possible output of the trans! over some specified duration. For a continuous plant, the duration is 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, whereas for an automobile plant the capacity is defined over a shift period. Airlines measure their capacity as available seat miles, hospitals as total available beds, steel mills as tons of steel. Scanned with CamScanner~ 48 AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Ch: =p. 2 and oil refineries as barrels of oil. Often, particularly when outpy, ; non-homogeneous or the plant produces a variety of products, ee s available machine hours as the measure of capacity. an Use Capacity is an imprecise term. The best one can do is to plan on averages because of efficiency, absenteeism, idle time, breakdowns, and so on. A little more capacity than what is needed will serve the enterprise well. Investing a litle more on the machinery can mean investing in a lot less inventory, One can change capacity rather quickly by changing the staffing levels, hours worked through overtime or short time, and subcontracting, Capacity can be measured as number of good units produced per week and so on; (Number of machines) x machine hours available per week or that is, Production capacity per week = (Number of working hours) x (Production rate) 2.3.6 Flexibility Flexibility is an important yet unquantifia system, Different manufacturing systems ity. Here we bring out some general notions of flexibility those in the context of plant configurations of Section 2 ble aspect of a manufacturing ave different kinds of flexibil- and discuss Definition: A flexible system is one that is able to respond to change, and flexibility is the ability of the system to respond effectively to chan; Changing circumstances include both internal and external changes. Internal changes or disturbances include breakdown of equipment, vari- ability in processing times, worker absenteeism, and quality problems. External changes are typically changes in design, demand, and produce mix. The ability to cope with internal changes requires a degree of re dundancy in the system, whereas the ability to cope with external changes requires that the system should be versatile and capable of producing * wide variety of part types with minimal changeover times and costs !0 switch from one product to another, ‘The time to process an order and the product variety that can be produced will decide the competitiveness of the manufacturing syste" Cee araition of Ee i clear that flexibility fundamental to handle risk asocised wit ano Mil provide a strategic sven f uncertain markets, Scanned with CamScainer/ Sect. 2.3 PERFORMANCE MEASURES ° j. We recognize that a : / Pe sie sees {manofactring system can have varying degrees the equipment is managed. In aera, i ceed at er SD) higher levels of automation Sa ote system will be an adapti More investments. However, such a . pting organism capable of surviving in uncertail and changing markets, g in uncertain Pil consider the ees types of manufacturing systems and their voluraes at higt s S are very effective ‘in producing parts in large at high throughput rates, with the important limitation being that the parts be identical. These highly mechanized lines are, very inflexible and will not tolerate variations in part design. In transfer lines, failure of any of the machines would bring down the entire line and thus there is no fault-tolerance. Further in these systems, parts move from one machine to another predefined machine for the next operation. All parts follow the same path. There is no choice in choosing the machine for the next operation. In short, a transfer line does not have any flexibility and cannot tolerate any changes such as design modifications or part-mix changes or machine failures. Job shops on the other hand are highly flexible and are used for id products. They have versatile machine tools manufacture of one-of-a-kin and skilled manpower. The machines have the ability 10 adapt to product changes. Skilled workers can perform design, drafting, process planning, and machining operations. The job shops have similar machines in several numbers or have versatile machine centers capable of performing a large number of operations in a single sctup. These features would make the job shop highly flexible (i.c., it can accommodate design demand and product-mix changes, and can tolerate machine failures). However, in a typical job shop lead times are very high. The design, process planning, setup tool procurement, and changeover times all add up to several weeks or months. Although job shops are highly flexible, they usually suffer from large MLT and high WIP. 2.3.7 Performability One factor that has major influence on system performance is the unsched- uled downtime of the equipment due to failures. Since the manufacturing systems of any configuration are set up with high cost, high productivity and high payback ratio are essential for survival. Traditionally reliabilir and availability are measures that capture the percentage of downtime . Scanned with CamScanner= — 50 AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS F Chap, » repair time. ‘The performance in terms of MLT or throughput js by using Markov chain models, queuing networks, an Captureg - Fi id stochasti nets. Combined! analysis of both performance and reliability is dons ; so y Ye the notion of performability. Here we deal with the traditional theories managing the downtime and defer discussion on performability to Section 4.14, Reliability The term reliability has a dual meaning in the integrated manufacturing context. In the broad sense, it refers to a wide range of issues relating to design, manufacture, and assembly of the product which are required to work well, and often descriptors such as quality which match the actual product with the specifications and expectations of the user. In a narrow sense, Teliability is a measure of “operational success” of the manufacturing system in delivering a quality product, and we consider this later definition here. Definition: Reliability, R(t), of a manufacturing system is defined as the probability that, under stated operating conditions, it will perform well enough throughout the interval {9, t] to produce quality products. Let T be the random variable denoting the failure time of the system Then R(t)=P{T >t} Note that R(t) =1- F(t) where F (2) is the cumulative distribution function of T. Let f(t) be density function of T, then the mean time to failure (MTTF) is gives bY MITF= fuwa a Let Ty be the random variable representing repair time, then mean tine repair (MITR) is the expected value of Ty and ean be similarly define Availability Availability is & measure suitable for systems under failure 40 repair. A system goes through cycles of failure and repair, and availitb! it) Scanned with CamScannerSect. 2.3 F PERFORMANCE MEASURES answers the question “ Is the system available at time 12” Definition: Instant ; tion: tancous availabili i ihe probability thatthe sytney) time of sytem i One can show that limiting availability A A lim A (t) is given by - MIT MTTF+MTTR _ Reliability and availability studies are important in transfer lines oF in job shops in determining the daily production rates. We have two major constituents in a manufacturing system: the workpiece and the manufacturing system equipment. The equipment can fail because of wear and is maintained either periodically or on failure. The workpiece can also cause faults resulting in line stops. Such examples are jams due to bad parts fed at the workstation, misfeeding and misorientation of pars, tool breakages due to defective parts, etc. Line stoppages duc 10 “workpiece” can occur at any workstation and are usually brief. Equipment faults are generally more serious and take longer to repair. In either case, the production is a function of repair time due to failures and faults, and the development of systematic methods for computing acceptable levels of production in the face of failures is an important subject. Example 2.6 Consider a five:station transfer line, Let qj be the probability that a part will join at station i and line stops. Then the frequency of line stops per cycle is : equal 10. = 5 gi- If 4; = 0.02 for alli, then F = 0.1 breakdowns/cycle. Ideal cycle ime is given as 1.0 min and average downtime per line stop as 6.0 min, Scrap rate is 5%. Calculate (i) Production rate and (ii) Number of days required to produce 1500 units, when the system works at 70 Wweek, Average production time per work piece = 1.0 + 0.1 x 6.0 = 1.6 min The average production rate = 1/1.6 per min = 37,57 Actual production per hour (at 5% scrap rate) = 0.95 x 37.5 = 35.6/h Actual number of weeks required to produce 1500 pieces 0.6 weeks, Scanned with CamScanner52 AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS, 2.3.8 Quality ao We have used the expression “quality product” several times Quality product is the one that fulfills customer expectations by fe ea ing to the specified tolerances. Maintenance of high quality a 5 . 5 5 Fi 7 uit scious efforts in various stages in design and in manufacture" 5 con A customer expects product value to have some relationship to ite cost. This implies that the company has an obligation to meet customer demands both in functional and intrinsic values, which are in tum é pendent on integrity of the materials and integrity of the manufacturing process. Together they enable the company to supply products free of abnormal, unwanted variations — “products that are made right the firs. time.” The Japanese have spearheaded the quality control movement that i now caught on throughout the world. They have shown that high quliy and low cost can go together, and that quality is an important constituent in attaining competitiveness . AeeTne Total quality control (TQC) involves the principle o} “ aly source,” which means that any errors should be caught and comet at the source where work is performed. This is in eae widespread industrial practice of inspection by statistical sampling 2° the lot has already been produced, the defect detection as opp a defect prevention. The workers and supervisor (not the. Seam inspectors) have the primary responsibility for quality, and any aa ‘ with the “process” are corrected immediately since quality e ea source provides “fast feedback on defects.” The effects of total quel control are “fewer rework labor hours” and “‘less material waste a addition to higher quality of finished goods. Thus good quality oe expensive but actually increases productivity, because so many Coe “as rework, scrap, inspection, customer returns, and warranty costs Fi all avoided with quality improvement, All these benefits acme only production is incharge of quality as well. .. ‘The basic principles of total quality control are process control, ¢357 . - . iscuss to-see quality, insistence on compliance, and 100% inspection. We di these briefly below. Process Control . ; . ality _ This means correcting the production process by checking the aed while work is being done. Every workstation has an inspection po!" Scanned with CamScannerPEI RFORMANCE, MEASURES every worker is an inspector. Ai Pareto charts, Fishbone chan can be used to help the Operator Tun chars, and statistical control charts quality. r in his or her task of maintenance of high 53 ids S such as flowcharts, scatter diagrams, Easy-to-See Quality ‘The plant s| R plant should be open to inspection by customer teams and quality- : i testing devices; i an vers rooms and environments should be displayed in “under- * es i a language of charts, displays, and pictures. At most \ Pp plants, even defects are displayed in parts per million (PPM) rather than in percentages (%), Insistence on Compliance Frequently the inspectors from the quality control department give in to the pressure from manufacturing to pass parts and subassemblies that do not meet the standards, On the other hand, if quality is the f the worker should have the authority to stop the produ quality control problems. maintenance policy. irst priority, ition line to correct ‘This kind of authority puts teeth into quality 100% Inspection ‘This means inspection of every item, not just a random sample. ‘This would be possible if the workers in the production department are responsible for quality. Rework when required is performed by the same operator who made the wrong workpiece. It can be easily seen that “quality products” can only be made by conscious efforts. The practice of “production at any cost” should be discouraged, and manufacture of quality products shouid be insisted upon. The rate of production may seem 0 go down due to inspection and checking, but if one compares this with cost of rework and the strategic benefits of competitive edge, quality indeed works out cheaper. The next generation production systems’ managers would need to understand how to use computer-aided technologies to improve the quality and gain competitive advantage. Continual improvement is a must since what was good last year will not make the grade this year, Scanned with CamScanner54 AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING PROBLEMS Chap, y 1. Making appropriate assumptions, derive Equation (1) for batch size Qa 2, Let Q, be the batch size for processing parts and Q, the batch size f, transporting parts across work centers. Examine the implications of following choices. (a) Qy = Qt = a small integer (b) Qp = Qy = a large integer (0) Qp << Qi (d) Qp >> Qe 3, Equation (4) gives the MLT for a typical flow line. Deduce an express for the average throughput of such a flow line, What is the average m: utilization? 4. Work out an intuitive proof for the result that WIP is equal to MLT times average rate al which parts flow through a given production system. 5, A homogeneous transfer line with 50 stages is set up for producing a part product type. Two hundred parts of this type are required. Esch undergoes 50 operations in sequence, each operation taking 5 min. Ai producing 200 pants of this type, the line is set up for another product In7¢ ‘The line is operated in a synchronous way, in the sense that at the en! © cach 5-min interval, a part from each stage moves to the next machine on line, this movement taking 10s. Assuming that initially the line is set UP fe this product type, compute the following. (a) Time required for producing 200 parts (b) MLT and WIP (c) Machine util: tion ssuming the number of U5" jon time on each mach! Now, derive general expressions for the above is n, number of parts 10 be produced is NV, operati is ¢, and the move time isu. homogeneous transfer line with k st ach operation ends with an inspection that d Fy stage is okay or not, In the fonner ¢ produced an acceptable par), the finished part from each sta next stage, the moving operation taking time r. In the later case © s has a delay. DP ides whethet ayy stages (all stage’ We ne goes © Be 8 ie ‘Scanned with ComScore 7a Scanned with CamScanner 6. A synchronouy SI Detinixiow +> Material Bandtivg in the Combinatin of art dud — dence of: + woviig + phoriy a + Contrelig tha. material. Materiel hardbins — weand provioting ‘the «right ands of a ceed material, + wyht in Re Comditina. c gateiat ot GM pice woke ab te iy popition | might amount ir FR “yt pete wight amount yn Be vt tint sarateriad for Be vig pre amount _Conly_ of Metei aaig > a pra Tmavefeconing Fostbiy oO sh Re wok-foree is used in material Aandi w ssa g the ee : wis eTg, of the a Lard nae Ww St xe ;_. wer prow ISH, to Tod, of AB ‘total Cort Gees in Compas. Scanned with CamScannerGroabs of matenih Trang § wh Res canit crt of produckin Ub Maidan or improve — forvctuck frabity , rreduce —lamapey, aed provide or rate ft jor ptt tH) Rewate afety out feprove ulrbing Contin Gy Rete productivity _ WY — Prrwste — incremed on of “acitities wi) Conde invenstor, Materral Pandtirg Pag Chast i> Moterials + Mover + MetBods = Prefered Ayitens | tl ee J “Nid daatig Jpn alla Scanned with CamScannertrounport wi pment Moteried trampe’ SPER e To wot material Fron ore Pocation to . (eg, between workplaces, betwen a Doadivg hock aug area, -ele-) within oct ee a prog ihe. B Comers . Trdudtrial trucks + Cran. Tirclustrial Tracks _Waniabte fash + Unrrartricted Area) eee Conyers _/ fi xed oa) Equipmeet Betection ! > pple, tBu between tha prectuction tb Badanes pititin of a 2qtprint available, ane! ee A welyeect infer, tp anive at thy fouent Cot [unit Gi) Obyective rwateriod Pondted. wi ‘Depensle om! | Materiad te be moved Movement + Storage Cont. Equipwent foctors: aolaptabitity, pleribitity, tend n oe te Mls pie Ee eyalve?, ~care ‘ Scanned with CamScannerw Convajon: + Corge Copactty omer Cowiclrable Urtane \ + Material or party Cam be adlded © Rayanenct Popition : a frclividval chores, Vato pakao , tel os a w “Tracks! . Delivery in bartels C Pexisitiey » Rertatte power puprg Lead wwalty on a paltel. a vi) Crows: Lbaited waebitity Ne ~enpennive _ : oe pe guarementy, Sop q_tetnis Pett? WO Ww uy dw w wi vib wii) uy w Manuefactrir ‘Procunieg Covstraction | Mini | Pour’ | Machine tools | Fuck build Raik woad Cay” buitden Ba at ae pt buble Aieaft Scanned with CamScannerONITHE n AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Chap, L 6 Write a simulation program to evaluate the relative effectiveness of "ny dyni ailing poleies under varying, workloads. Choose the reamce eriterin as expected waiting time in system, and variance of oo time. ; 4. Am NC machine prxvces parts of thee types, A,B, Cin a eles, ie. ABC followed by ABC, and so on, Assume that raw pans ite ala bebe, An AGY carries exch raw part, one ata ime From We ay fo the machine anki takes 1 min for this opefation, ‘The selup tiie for eara Fea ype i 10 in the processing times are 20,0, as 4 ine et Ce respectively. After processing, the AGY is summoned from We fs ° rea an the finished partis unloaded into the load/untoad area, Uvs opera taking | min, Compute the following: (a) The cycle time (the time required to produce one part ceach of types 4 B, and C). (b) Usilizations of the mazhine and the AGY- {c) MLT for cach part 8, In the above problem, assume that the setup time is 100 min, batch size is 5. and AGV transport 1ot size is 2, with raw parts always available. AD other parameters remain the same. Now, compute the cycle time where the cycle pene is tne time for processing ane batch of A, followed by one batch of 8, followed by one batch of C. What is the MLT for each pant type? 9, In a manufacturing facility. each part undergoes wo operations oP! and OP2, in that sequence. There is an inspect ion operation at the end of exch operation. Itis found that p percent of the parts undergoing an operation ate of acceptable quality and q percent are rejected without further processing. ant | (100 ~ p ~ 4) percent of parts are accepted afler some reworking. Comput | the total fraction of parts rejected by the system. 2.5 MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTE! Mi aterial handling is an important aspect in awomated manufacturing 3 is the science and art of moving, packaging, storage, and control o workpieces at various stages of processing. 2.5.1 Introduction ‘A material handling system (MHS) is defined as a network of moving equipment such as robots, conveyors, and automated guided vehicles — ST Wit CamScan canned wi amsScannerSect, 28 MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEMS ” software-based MHS controller effectively monitors the equipment status and regulates the workpiece movement, Tt controls the system elements, co that the nght material 1s moved at the right time to the right place as required by the route sheet nufactuning Organizanons, a significant proportion of product rag, This is not surprising when si ean be attnbuted to matenal ha we consider that the MHS spans the spectrum of manufactunng activities: from the orginal receipt of raw materials t0 the ultimate shipment of the cm product The etent of matenal handling in a system is a function of the route sheet, layout, and versauility of the machine tools, The principles of effecive matenal handling include yo Reduction of 1. Best material handhng 1s no matenal hard handling ts possible by the uw of computer controtied machine Hemming muluple operanons.on the workpiece by whing of appropriate part programs, temal is dene in mate centers capable of automane change of tools and dowel Also, in. conan high volume tanster nes. tan the Werkpicee ty transferred uireetly Ww the next al handl a papeline Lastion, Ve machine tas ats in flow tw the minimum possible cx: Layout rtening travel divtar 2. Mimmad par handhag by analysis focusing 08 Wave! dhstsnces, 1. ascd Layout cesgn (oircular Layout while eaiig an AGN), ete., would help ess, ent of tacthitres to create net cay work flow, equipment. a robot handler, neat Layout whit renal handling costs and increase their handli usin, minnie Hectiv ctwork of small and smart vehicles: In nments, there iy a trend toward reducing, mprove quality, and to reduce th fast response Qo Fast response esi ing env Le automated manulse the work-un-process, to cut down the manufactunng lead ume This requires an MHS + umes wy avon! blockin: of the workstauons. Also, the transfer required to be small to reduce the queue tes and also for and staning batch sizes justan-time UIT) delivery. Thes in 29 automated manufsctunng system gysten should be small the matenal handling able of making frequent deliveries of small following JIT panciples, and smart and should be C4? lot sizes. MHS: Tre AGYs have to be scheduled arding the equipment and the workpieces lly utilized. 4. Effective scheduling © using the status information Tes so that all resources are maxims ——$mmmnnencionee Scanned with CamScanner4 AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Chap, e of the machine tool, flexible m . ih ni rovide rapid exchange of wo a ting for processing. These bute ne (handling functions to be perforsey ‘ eby improve, To avoid excessive idle ing system (FMS) manufacturers p and the other wail ssing and mate n of machine tools is 1 in work-in-process (WIP). ‘one just completed niques allow proce in parallel. Although utilization there is corresponding incre Despite the push for drastically reduced levels of WIP inventor i FMSs, there would still be need for WIP storage 0 counter varsity ig aevufacturing processes and prevent blocking and starving oF Worktator as well as the MHS. handling equipment can te vent works ~ on the floor or yy whether the equipmen way the Classifi ‘There are several ways in which materi classified, One method is by the way the equipm ‘Another classification is 6 ix operator — controlled or automated. A third way is by the \ equipment travels over & fixed route oF 3 Nesible path. snchronous 3 system il oss moving on the transport newwork move sil ‘ind with constant space berweett loads, A are examples of synchronous tanspt In an asynchronous system, loads can move independent of one y form an excellent example of this Category a farge number of material handlers used i9 our aliseussion to thnee common types of materi robots, and AGYS. suspended overhead. In yo | asynchronous transport ‘There are chronous systems. taneously, at the same speed, ousel or dedicated transfer line car systems. another, AG ‘There are Here we confine systems: conveyors, industri the industry. 1 handling betwee hat the Also. nes Flexibilities in MUS Ina flexible manufactunng system, the me the workstations vanes with changes in the ve intensity benween a given pair of workstations 1 ¥ X ray be of varying sizes, shapes. and volo S$ should have flexibility so as €0 COPE eliestnel ulate, routing, and sizes. We oe he for an MHS. rial movement mix, implying ¢ able. tralli workpieces encountered ‘This implies that the MH with these variable demands ibiliti several possible fh seg 1038 ‘This is the ability to accommodate vary ite ponse umes: TT ations without degradation in res Traffic Flexibilit levels between works canned wi amscannerSect. 2.5 MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEMS 1s flexibility is achieved as a result of both system size in terms of capacity (number of vehicles) and how the capacity is allocated in operation (scheduling). Route Flexibility: Route flexibility is the ability to transport a workpiece from a given workstation to any of several other workstations, with the decisions made for that particular workpiece independent of the move- ‘ment of any other load. For example, a conveyor has no route flexibility since it operates between two fixed locations. An AGV has, however, high degree of route flexibility since a workpiece can be loaded and unloaded at any workstation. Path Flexibility: Path flexibility is the ability to select the path to be traveled between workstations, Such a flexibility admits the possibility of real-time decision making 10 avoid congestion in the transport system, thereby improving the response time. For example, a loop conveyor system has no path flexibility whereas an AGY system can take advantage of the guided path network. Load Flexibility: Load flexibility is the ability to handle loads of varying sizes, shapes, and weights. This kind of flexibility is very valuable when products have relatively short life cycles and furure demands are uncertain. 2.5.2 Conveyors Conveyors constitute a lar are several varieties of conveyors ge family of material handling equipment. There constituting very popular fixed-path material handlinig equipment. The path is fixed in the sense Ht can be changed only by making physical adjustments. The advantages of conveyors are many: they operate independently of workers and can be easily inter- faced with a wide variety of material handling, process, oF storage equip- ve NC machines, etc. They also provide temporary ment such 2s robot: i i in-process storage. Movement ‘of materials on a conveyor is controlled by programmable controllers (PCs), which can activate switches, drives, and diveners, scan loads, and automatically route workpieces. These PCs are linked to the host computer by a local area network. Conveyors represent & fairly mature technology, although some va- ieties such as inverted powef and free conveyor are recent innovations, ‘Scanned with Camsenmer Scanned with CamScannerAUTOMATED MANUFACTURIN Chap, » systems can be analyzed using simple mathematical Models ee eyet basic perfomance measures enn be easily derived. Here we consider single direction and continuous loop conveyors interconnecting Toning an unteafing stations and other machine centers in a machine shop. We use the follow ‘onveyor speed between two workpieces 16 Conveyor ving notation: v d= spacing f= feed rate The following relationship should hold between these three variables; f d Indeed, the time interval between the introduction of raw workpieces onto the conveyor is the direct control variable and f is its reciprocal. ‘As the part flows on the line, the operator has a working envelope ang reach-time. Beyond this, the part would flow past the operator and the workstation. Let the reach of the operator be denoted by r. Then the tolerance time is defined by Example 2.8 Suppose f = 60 units/h: v = 0.5 m/mi 15m; and r= operator has 2 min to pick the part before it gocs past his Single Direction Conveyor: Consider a roller conveyor with velocity v and Jength L connecting a single load station and an unload station, as shown in Figure 2.14. Pallets are introduced by the load station and are unloaded at the unload station. The tavel time is given by L/e. Let 1 and fq denote the load and unload times, respectively. Then obviously (i) time interval between introduction of wo workpieces should be greater than ty, - i) for stability, ty < ty Continuous Loop Conveyor: Consider continuous loop conveyor shown in Figure 2.15. Here, the total conveyor can be divided into wo sections: delivery loop and retum loop. Let Ly be the length of the delivery loop and L, of the rem loop. As earlier, let v be the speed of | Scanned wih CmSearner Scanned with CamScanner1 MATERIAL HANDLING SYSTEMS Figure 2.14 Single direction conveyor ‘Phe number of carrit he spacing betw whe r, then loop travel time is Al equal io 4tle, whe ie in the forward loop and carry parts not loaded. the conveyor pallets on the conveyor cariers, Out of th Le are in the return loop and the carriers are a slicer models assume that parts loaded at Recirculating Conveyors: the load station are unloaded at the other end. No accumulation of parts ie allowed. However, a closed loop conveyor can be used for in-process storage. Recirculating conveyors exploit this feature. Example 2.9 Suppose a recirculating conveyor has a rotal length of 500 ft, a speed of 700 fvmin and a pant spacing of 25 ft. Bach carrier ean hold two parts. Robot load/unload times at ther cnd arc 0.2 min, The conveyor takes 5 min to complete une loop and can accommodate 20 carriers, ie., 40 parts, is 4 carriers per minute or 8 parts per minute. The flow rate or the feed rate ii Return Phase —~ ZO-As40 Delivery Phase Figure 2.15 Continuous loop conveyor ‘Scanned wth Cmscanner Scanned with CamScannerUNITAIL PLANT LAYOUT 8 time and production rate change if there are two robots with rbot | handling all operations from A to C and robot 2 handling all operiions from Cw E! 2. Consider a robot cell with one machine Mj, two robots Ry and Ra, and three conveyors Cy, Cs, and Cy, Incoming parts arrive at the left end of Cy and through conveyor movement reach the right end of Cy (30s). Robot Ry picks up (Ss) the raw part from Cy, moves to the left end of Cy (30 8). and deposits the part on C3 (5 s). Once the part reaches the right end of C2 (20 8). robot Ry picks it up (3 5), moves to M)(20 s) if My is available, and places the part on the machine (S s). The machine processing t Afier proces: the part is picked up by Rz (5s), which then moves to C3 (30 s) and deposits the finished part on Cy (10 5), and robot Ry picks it up (5 s). unloads it (10 ), and reaches its home point (5 s). Compute the cycle time and production rate under the following assumptions. (a) Unprocessed pans are always available at the right end of C1. (b) Each conveyor can only accommodate one part at a time. (©) Ry is involved in two operations: Cy to Cz and C3 to unload. The latter operation gets priority over the former. (4) Rp is involved in two operations: C2 to My and My to Cy (increasing order of priorities). (e) Rz will pick up a part from Cz only if My is free. - 3. Write a simulation program to investi tive AGV dispatching policies. Ma ative effectiveness of altema- table assumptions about the layout. 2.6 PLANT LAYOUT A manufacturing system consists of several 1 machine tools, robots, AG urces including versatile 's, conveyors, local and central tool lores, load/unload stations, local and central buffers, warehouses, and w shing stations, In this section we are concerned with the Problem of selecting the most effective a Tungement of these ph system so as to minimi ical facilities in am: the material handling cost, iny, manufacturing lead time, This is the facilities layout Problem. The lay, should be expandable and adaptable to changes, easily maintainable, and should promote high employee morale, ns Traditionally, the layout problem in a Manufacturing system is vie aS a static problem of locating the machines so that the flow f anne ‘Ween the machines is minimized and this minimal flow is dinecred fheg a tted flow anutacturing, enlory cost, and ee Scanned with CamScanner96 AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Chap, 2 with no backtracking. While obtaining such an optimal layout, infor. mation is used regarding the current mix of parts, volume of Production for each part, and the routing for each part. These Parameters ae as. a horizon. There are severa, remain constant over the planning . Fn Smen es such as Computerized Relative Allo. raided layout techni c cation of Pai oy Techmique (CRAFT) and ‘Computerized Relationship Layout Planning (CORELAP) useful for obtaining stand: jayouts, However, in the context of FMSs, dynamic layout problem or layouvee-layout problem is more important, Over time, demands and designs change and consequently the mix of parts. their production vol. times. and routing tables also change. This would result in change of The initial optimal layout_may not be product flow among machines. i a Optimal any more under the changed circumstances. Since FMS is oftea justified on the basis of providing a competitive edge in changing markels, s layout should be flexible enough to accommodate changes in designs and demands. ‘The layout designer of an FMS faces the difficult task of developing a system capable of handling « variety of products with variable demands, alternate and probabilistic routings, at a reasonable operating cost. In particular, during the Jayout design phase, product mix is highly uncertain and is subject to change because of forecasting errors and demand fluctuations In this section we consider group technology and the layouts based on group technology as well as functional layouts, ie., layouts in which machines are arranged by their function. 2.6.1 Group Technology Group technology (GT) is a manufacturing principle in which similar parts are identificd and grouped together to take advantage of the similarities in the part geometries and operation processes in design and manufacture. In batch-type manufacturing each part has traditionally been treated 35 being pine in design, process planning, production control, tooling, ad 50 on. lowever, by grouping several parts into part families, based on either geometric shapes or operation processes and also forming machine groups or cells that process the designated past families tie sible i Renee and streamline the work flow. Group technology enable’ ae lufacturing shops to achieve economies of scale a proaching se Of mass production, enhanced standardization of parts and process®® Scanned with CamScannerPLANT LAYouT 7 of b a . OF Both duplication in design and proliferation of ie basicte sree epeehers aroun asic concept ' years as part of sou a Of croup technology has been practiced for many Classification and eng eteetine Practice oF scientific management, A of part families Coding system developed by FW. Taylor for formation this centune eh us Used in manufacturing a8 early as the beginning of find See arly. in Japan, Germany, and the United States, one can cxamples wherein leading industries have exploited the part-family concept in both design and manufacture. cured components can be classified into old one, it was not AUthough the idea that manuf: Part families similar to biological families is an age until 1958 that a Russian engineer, $.P. Mitrofanow, formalized the concept in his book The Scientijie Principles of Group Technology. Mitrofanoy’s work was followed closely by Brisch of U.K., and IL Opitz of West Germany, Group technology is now finding increasing application in the industry. Group technology principles and their benefits can be seen by looking exists between finished products and the component fe. While assemblies bear little resemblance sures. When the sub- at the relationship tha parts from which they are m to one another, the subassemblies exhibit similar fi down further, the result iy a wide range of seemingly assemblies are broken * 2.18 illustrttes the fact that the subassemblies are a diverse pans. Figure 2 collection of items belonging to the same part family. A pan family is a collection of pars that are similar either because of geometric size and shape (design attributes) or because similar processing operations (manufacturing auinbutes) are required in their manufacture, Pans are considered to be similar with respect 10 production operations ines and processes are used and when the type. when the same machi sequence, and tooling requirements are similar. ‘The part-family concept is central 0 computer-aided process planning (CAPP) schemes. CAPP involves the automatic generation of a process plan (route shee 10 manufacture 2 part. The process routing is developed. by recognizing the specific attributes of the part in question and relating these attributes to the corresponding manufacturing operations. 2.6.2 Some Typical Layouts As we mentioned earlier, an FMS consists of a number of machine: pallets, fixtures, workpieces, tools, AGVs, a setup area, tool room, store: ‘Seamed th Conscanet Scanned with CamScanner8 AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Chap, : B c Assembly Subassembly (3) Component Figure 2.18 Assembly, subassembly, and component relationship and control room. There are several possible layouts. 1. Functional Layout This is a layout in which the machines are arranged according to the machine type or function such as turning, milling, boring, and grinding (Figure 2.19). This type of layout is most common because of several re sons: (i) Itis easy to manage a group of similar machines than a group cf dissimilar machines. (ii) Such layouts are more robust to machine breakdowns, product-mix changes, and rush orders since allocation/reallocation among similar machines is more easily done, Further, routings of fune- tional layouts are standardized. (iii) Functional layouts are also resilient {0 absenteeism since one aperator can cover for the other in view of the similar nature of work content, There are several disadvantages of functional layout. During the machining of a given par, the workpiece must be moved between sections, with perhaps the same section bei, a significant amount of Usually more setups than nece: high cost, Scanned with CamScannerSeen 2.6 Lathe | | G= Grind Figure 2.19 Functional layout 2. Cellular Layout Here each cell cons cated to process a family of pasts, ing is associated often with grOUP technology, which classities workpieces based on either geometric similarities or similar processing characteristi Iralso tends to obtain mass-production benclits tur job shop production. ‘The primary benefits of cell anufacturing are reduction in processing tine, inventory. ad tooling. Overall manulacturny, lead time and material handling times are also reduced. ‘Two major benefits are in tooling development and setup time. Since tooling cun be created for a family of parts, tooling efforts get distributed over a family of parts. p of dissimilar machines is dedi- sting of & grou in Figure 2.20. Cellular manufacturin jar ma i Scanned with CamScanner_— 100 AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Chap, L M L Group | _ _ Group 2 | M >| M >(0) >| G > Group 3 Figure 2.20 Group technology layout Because the cell is dedicated to a few different families of part types, fixturing and tooling require few changeovers and consequently setup time is reduced. And as each cell caters to a focused part family, it has other benefits such as high machine utilization and low manufacturing lead time. However, managing change in cellular production is more complex, as machine breakdowns cripple the entire cell, and accommodation of changes in product-mix may require a possible re-layout. Figures 2.19 and 2.20 show functional and cellular layouts for a tyP- ical application. From the above discussion, it is clear that there a trade-offs between purely cellular layouts and purely functional layouts. ‘The optimum lies somewhere in between. An analysis based on process planning should serve as a guide to the extent to which cellular manufacturing could be used. Perhaps in any product order, there are fe families of pans with enough volume that warrant machine cells for their production, whereas bulk of other products might be manufactured more efficiently in a functional layout. Layout of Machines in Cell: We consider next the arrangement of machines ina cell. ‘The part transport in these cells is assumed 10 De through a robot, AGV, or a gantry robot. Scanned with CamScannersect. 2.6 In a cell. seryeg by machines is determ; i . Tmined effectively if Machines , a used for part transport ‘~_ Limitations j , ‘Ons in the Ii This layout a Y 2 materia) handlin, 7 1 the arrangeme nt of » An AGV serves more ‘an be i t ria in a U-shaped layout. ae m Nulufunction operator to more than lexibility in the erties a Proximity of the machines, It provides centers and also the range oty Operators assigned to individual machine would enable the mame ‘Jobs each operator performs. This feature market demand and con ‘cturing system to adapt to small changes in are nearby. the marge cquenly in the schedule. Since the machines both be oan Tie oy facturing batch size and transport batch size could conveyors cou ee Ei can themselves transport the workpieces, or ee ae used. Synchronization of operations could be achieved unit entering the machine means one unit leaving the machine and entering another. PROBLEMS 1. The following matrix specifies the usage of machines My, M2, Ms. and Ma by four different part types p1,p2s pa. and pa in a system. The entry corre sponding to p; and M;(i, 3,4) is equal to 1 if p; requires M; for a panticular operation and 0 otherwi =1,2 1 0 0 1 ee on - c--c reach type in the above system. I is required to obtain ‘out with two cells for the above system, Suggest an Note that shuffling of rows and columns will gorithms for obtaining cellular layouts from ‘There is one machine of a group technology lay appropriate cellular layout. help. Can you devise general a ich as above? a matrix specification su 2. A panticular system has two machines of type My and two machines of M2. ad thee part types withthe following routing specifications The system produces ie processing times on the machines are 10 min for first operation and 20 Scanned with CamScannerOni TL -—— io Chapter 2 AUTOMAT MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS This chapter provides a comprehensive, logical overview of automated manufacturing systems. The aim is to create @ proper setting for the modeling techniques and tools that will be presented in Chapter 3 (Markov Models), Chapter 4 (Queuing Models), and Chapter 5 (Petri Net Models), Chapter 2 is organized into eight sections, The first section traces the evolution of manufacturing, covering important developments such as nu merically controlled machines, robotics, material handling, and computer control systems, leading to the currently available flexible manufacturing systems. This section also provides a discussion of all design and engineering functions that make up the product cycle in a manufacturing plant. In Section 2, a generic input-output model of manufacturing systems is discussed and different types of plant configurations are presented. Section 3 is devoted to performance measures of manufacturing systems. In this u ~ OO ~ SCanned with CamScannerR AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Chap. 2 section we identify eight generic performance measures ~ manufacturing lead time, work-in-process, machine utilization, throughput, capacity, flex. ibility, performability, and quality. The performance models that will be presented in subsequent chapters are meant to evaluate these performance measures, In Section 4 we treat in some detail numerically controlled machine centers and automated inspection systems. The emphasis is on the man. agement of operations and control rather than on mechanical or hardware details. In the same spirit, we discuss industrial robots, conveyors, and automated guided vehicles in Section 5, thus covering the material handling equipment. Section 6 is on plant layouts where we mainly distinguish between functional layouts and group technology layouts. The impor- eo tant topic of flexible manufacturing systems forms the subject matter of Section 7. We discuss the architecture and operation of flexible manufacturing systems using a detailed flowchart and logical diagrams. We then present flexible assembly systems and the problem of deadlocks. We also include a discussion on performance measures in the context of flexible manufacturing systems. The last section, Section 8, is on computer control systems. We first present the architecture of a hierarchical contol system for automated manufacturing systems. This is followed by a comprehensive discussion of local area networks in manufacturing, including the manufacturing automation protocol. Finally, we bring out the role of database management systems in providing information integration, 2.1 INTRODUCTION The term manufacturing embraces a great many activities, from the production of a pin to the assemblage of combinations of part types to form complex structures such as an aircraft. It can also refer to flow or continuous processes such as plastics or reaction processes, as in chemical and fertilizer industries. ufacturing produces real wealth for any country, isa source of employment for the population, and constitutes the backbone for the service sector. In this book we are concerned with manufacturing Systems producing discrete products rather than flow processes. 2.1.1 History of Manufacturing ea its history, the manufacturing industry has gone throug! aid adigoe a ous Of great changes, New niaterials, new techniques anced technology have always been at the root of these changes Scanned with camscannrSect. 2.1 INTRODUCTION 13 Recent advances in microelectronics and digital computer technologies have resulted in a new, innovative era in manufacturing. Computer- aided automation has created immense potential for producing high-quality goods in small volumes, at low cost. Further, the market for manufactured products is becoming increasingly international (i.¢., companies all over the world are finding height- ened competition in what were previously domestic markets). Manufac- turing has thus become highly competitive, and companies have had to focus their resources, capabilities, and energies on building a sustainable competitive advantage. Such an advantage may be derived, for example, from lower cost, from higher product performance, from more innovative products, or from superior service. This requires the application of some profoundly new concepts related to production processes, organization of work, and technology. Several companies with high direct labor content were practicing off-shore manufacturing with a view to take advantage of lower wages. With growth in computer-aided automation, the direct labor content in manufacturing has steadily decreased and several companies have already set the trend away from off-shore manufacturing. We thus see several changes taking place: in technology, in the variety and number of products, in quality consciousness, and in both political and individual attitudes. Survival, by effectively managing these changes, is the biggest challenge manufacturing industries face today. Here, we briefly trace some notable landmarks in the history of man- facturing. A scan of this history would provide one with a perspective of where the present industry stands in the evolution of manufacturing. The Early Stages Manufacturing involves entrepreneurship, organization of work or management, production machines, material handling, marketing, sales, and service. With the growth of civilization, all these facets of manufacturing were practiced and perfected around the world. The unique achievements of our ancestors, such as the Indian, Roman, Greek, and Egyptian temples, cathedrals, and pyramids, would indicate that logistics and project management are not such new ideas after all. Several inventions including the windmill (tenth century), watermill (A.D. 1270), iron furnace (tenth century), spinning wheel, candle- and clock- making (thirteenth century), and the steam engine (eighteenth century), logistics, project Scanned with CamScannerAUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Chap. 3 all of which were inspired by human ingenuity and desire tor a better standard of living, have contributed to the current state of automateg manufacturing, Although industry and trade are as old as humanking developments in technology have been the prime factors for the receni advances in manufacturing. Manufacturing science is not easily recognized and is hidden under a variety of more fanciful dressings including marketing, finance, ang management. There are a few principles which have a profound effect on the factory system. The Division of Labor concepts enunciated by ‘Adam Smith in 1776 as a means for increased productivity had remarkable influence in the creation of ihe factory system. Eli Whitney pioneered the idea of easily interchangeable parts made to close tolerances to enable on-the-spot repair of muskets (handguns). This idea was taken further by Samuel Colt in the 1830s. In the early 1800s, a factory generally consisted of a system of productive machines, and the earliest noteworthy example of a factory was one in England for manufacturing pulley blocks. This factory had 44 machines and 10 unskilled operators and is an example of mass production, in which a series of dedicated machines produced a single product. A significant milestone for integrated manufacture occurred in the year 1913 when Henry Ford developed a flow line on which an engine bor and was progressively assembled in 84 stages. This reduced the lel increased the rate of production. In view of the excellent results, Ford extended the methodology to the production of the entire vehicle, with a consequent reduction in the price of the motor car, bringing it within the reach of those with moderate salaries and thus greatly expanding the market. The assembly line of Henry Ford is based on the three principles of planning, scheduling, and control, and also the continuous movement of product through the factory. A scientific approach to Ford's principles was developed by Frederick Taylor, whose theory is known as Scientific Management. Taylor can be considered as the father of time and motion studies. Developments During the 1950s - 1970s The transition from the transfer line to the current unmanned, fully automated and flexible manufacturing systems has been achieved throush the development of new technologies, such as numerically conmolled a ~~—Seanned with CamScannerSect. 2.1 INTRODUCTION Is machine tools, robotics, material handling systems, and computer control systems. Numerically Controlled Machines The first numerically controlled (NC) machine center was developed in 1952 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for machining complex profiles. Soon its potential benefits in batch production were realized. The development of NC machine centers that could drill, mill, and bore was the next significant event in batch manufacturing. ‘These machine centers were further enhanced in the 1960s by the provision of automatic tool changers, and indexing work tables, The next milestone was in control system development, and this occurred in 1971, Microcomputer-controlled NC machines (also called computer numerical control) were developed for almost the same cost as hard-wired controllers. Computer numerical control (CNC) offered many advantages including storage of many part programs in memory and ability to communicate with other controllers and a central computer. These capabilities led to the development of integrated manufacturing systems. Robotics Automation and robotics are two closely related technologies. Robotics, like NC machines, is a form of industrial programmable automation. The history of robotics has roots both in science fiction and in technology development. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a number of ingenious mechanical devices with the features of robots were devised. The technology for the present generation of robots was developed by Cyril Walter Kenward in 1954 in Britain and by G.C. Devol in the United States. The latter was commercialized by Joseph Engelberger and Devol as Unimate in 1962. Since then several robots have been built and used in the industry for various applications including painting, welding, material handling, and assembly. Material Handling This is not a new concept but remarkable progress has been made in the field in the recent years, allowing greater automation of manufacturing Processes. Developments in floor-mounted and overhead roller conveyors, stacker cranes, and automated guided vehicles (AGVs) have contributed Substantially to smooth material flow on the factory floor. Programmable ““"Séarined with CamScanneree sys’ 16 AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING S Chap. 2 logic controllers of cach of these equipment could be interconnected for part flow automation. controlled material flow is the largest contributor to reduc. vind the work-in-process inventory in comparison with ‘anual material handling system Computer tion of waiting time manual loading/unloading and m stems nd 1960s, mainframe computers were used for plan. d controlling batch production. Several companies tional system of the company: with the manufactur. ing system. Use of computers in factories, for accounting, payroll, and maintenance of management information systems has been perfected. The key breakthrough, however, occurred when shop-loor equipment such as machine tools and material handling clements became controlled by the computer. Developments in the local area networks made possible the transfer of information in real time, and this provided further impetus 10 factory automation, Computer Control Sy In the 1950s ning, scheduling. integrated the organiza Flexible Manufacturing Systems The above developments have naturally culminated in the evolution of automated and flexible manufacturing systems. Automated transfer lines Were installed in automobile and other industries for mass production. Such systems, although highly economical, lack flexibility, They would be the choice configurations in steady markets. The small-batch production and custom-made products that account for 75% of total number of workpieces are essentially manufactured in job shops. These shops a inefficient in machine utilizations and have large manufacturing lead times Flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) have evolved as a solution (0 efficient mid-volume production of a variety of part types with low sel¥P time, low work-in-process inventory, short manufacturing lead time, high machine utilization, and high quality. The evolution of FMS started in the early 1960s. One of the first 55 tems that used versatile machine tools and automated material handling was developed by the Sunstrand Corporation in 1965. It had eight NC ™ chine centers and two multispindle drills linked by a computer-conwolled ur Conveyor system. This system was developed to manufacture tfferen types of aircraft gear box casings from aluminum-magtess y; “Although this system did not have the flexibility of curren! Scanned with CamScanner diSect. 24 INTRODUCTION 7 FMSs, it was the first sys ’ i + Heese lt atte a gYStEM where automated material flow integration i The first pioneering unmanned.flexible machining system was installed at Molins, Deptford, London, to manufacture relatively complex light alloy components for tooling in the tobacco industry. ‘Theodore Willian director of R&D at Molins, invented this system, named System 2h, so called because it was intended to operate for 24 hours a day under computer contol, with only the day shift attended by operator. The Molins system was designed to perform a series of operations on a wide variety of parts in random order. It consisted of several NC machines with changeable tool magazines and an automated material handling. system Palletized workpieces and tool magazines were stored in an automatic | storage and retrieval system (ASRS). The machine control programs were I held on magnetic tapes and were accessed under centralized computer | conwol. FMSs are at a very early Stage of their diffusion. In 1981, there were about 120 FMSs installed worldwide. This number increased to about 230 in 1984. Of these, Japan accounted for about 100, the United States fur 60, Germany for 25, and Sweden for 15. However, there has been worldwide attention on flexible automation. Several systems have been installed around the world in the areas of metal products, electronics and computers, electrical machinery, and transportation equipment. Developments in the 1980s Other developments also led to further advances in the area of automated manufacturing. These include the drive to conserve natural resources, to improve industrial competitiveness, reduce lead times, and insistence on higher-quality, custom-made products and good after-sales service, Further, the emergence of new materials, new technologies, and new and improved products has made the markets uncertain. In response to such demands, several production planning and control methods emerged concurrently with flexible automation technologies. These include material Tequirements planning (MRP), manufacturing resources planning (MRP- Tl), just-in-time (JIT), and optimized production technology (OPT). The emphasis on product quality has given impetus to the development of automatic inspection systems, 1(X)% inspection, in-process gauging, expert system-based failure diagnosis methods, statistical process contol, total Quality control, and, above all, their integration into the overall computer control system. Se Scanned with CamScanner7 TORT AUTOMATED MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS s Chap, 2 have spurred a great change in the manufac, 7 turin, sector across the globe. The push for intelligent, hi : ) . The push for intelligent, high-s i ible manufacturing systems is increasing. ‘The facto aan nanly Bex. a wide range of new technologies will be paperless and peoplcless ont important developments include simultaneous engineering (ie., ingore nig into a unified cycle), design formar of design, manufacturing, and tes ufacturability, design for testability. electronic prototyping, etc. All thj tc. All this would Iead to treating design, manufacturing, and business functions as a single whole, and to the concept of computer integrated manufacturing These developmen (CIM). Technical feasibility apart, it is highly important that these factories are economically efficient. The decade of the 1990s should see the con solidation of these technically feasible systems into economically viable manufacturing systems. 2.1.2 The Product Cyele ‘The major activities that define the manufacturing enterprise in direct r- lation to the manufacturing of products include (i) Marketing, (i) Engi- neering, (ii) Production Management, and (iv) Manufacturing We brieily dwell on these activities below. Marketing ‘The marketing function links the enterprise to its customers and responsible for the relationship of the enterprise with and emergence suppliers. It is competition. Information relating to changes in mark s brought about by technological changes form pat of the erms of of new market marketing function. The objectives of a company are Most clearl the products and markets. All companies ultimately themselves through products. The marketing function, ther look outward to identify clients and their requirements. Marketing is an important element of an enterpri ket and in its relauo fo attain its primary r manufactured pre’ companies Is e local stan ju ly represented in tem seek to differentia n, would be Ir directs the objective: ducts © find company within the mi competitors. It helps the enterpri create and The market for becoming increasingly internati In this scenario, themselves having to meet interna of the individual foreign countnes. ve a CUstome! jonal. utional standards or th Scanned with camsé4nnerSect. 2.1 INTRODUCTION 19 Traditional marketing strategies look into the past and i the future. This approach might work during periods of stability are en there is litle competition, However, ina highly competitive environment, which requires rapid introduction of new and customized products with short lifetimes, a new approach to marketing is nceded. Such an approach would involve the development of innovative products, creation of link- ages within-the factory among the marketing, engineering, and production functions, and responding to customers’ needs in functionality, cost, delivery, and service. Engineering Here we are concemed with the design of products and development of manufacturing processes to produce these products. Figure 2.1 shows the product cycle from an engineering perspective. These activities are often classified as design engineering and manufacturing engineering In the design engincering function, a product is designed by a process of iterative refinement. This starts with a concept, which defines the function of a product. Logical design then establishes product structure form and a descripuon of the component parts, each of which goes through the design process. Product form defines the geometric properties Product Design 1 Analysis and Verification _ Process Planning _ i Part Program Preparation __$ __ Load into the Machine Control Figure 2.1 Product cycle from the engineering perspective a TT _—eanined with CamScann canned with CamScanner

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