Shah Abdul Latif University, Khairpur

Department Of Mathematics
English Notes BS I - 2023

Tenses:
1. Simple present: Subject + base form of verb 8. Past perfect continuous: Subject + had been
+ object + verb-ing + object
Example: She reads a book every night. Example: She had been studying for her exam for
2. Present continuous: Subject + am/is/are + a week.
verb-ing + object 9. Simple future: Subject + will + base form of
Example: They are watching a movie right now. verb + object
3. Present perfect: Subject + have/has + past Example: I will call you tomorrow.
participle of verb + object 10. Future continuous: Subject + will be + verb-
Example: He has seen that movie before. ing + object
4. Present perfect continuous: Subject + Example: They will be traveling to Europe next
have/has been + verb-ing + object month.
Example: We have been studying for hours. 11. Future perfect: Subject + will have + past
5. Simple past: Subject + past tense of verb + participle of verb + object
object Example: We will have completed our project by
Example: He played football yesterday. Friday.
6. Past continuous: Subject + was/were + verb- 12. Future perfect continuous: Subject + will
ing + object have been + verb-ing + object
Example: I was cooking dinner at 7 pm. Example: By next year, she will have been working
7. Past perfect: Subject + had + past participle for five years.
of verb + object
Example: They had finished their work before the
deadline.
List of Helping Verbs:
1. Simple present tense: - To do: did
- To be: am, is, are - To have: had
- To do: do, does - Simple past form of the verb
- To have: have, has
6. Past continuous tense:
2. Present continuous tense: - To be: was, were
- To be: am, is, are - Present participle: -ing form of the verb
- Present participle: -ing form of the verb
3. Present perfect tense: 7. Past perfect tense:
- To have: have, has - To have: had
- Past participle form of the verb - Past participle form of the verb

4. Present perfect continuous tense: 8. Past perfect continuous tense:

- To have: have, has - To have: had
- Been - Been
- Present participle: -ing form of the verb - Present participle: -ing form of the verb

5. Simple past tense: 9. Simple future tense:

- To be: was, were - Will
- To be: shall, will - Past participle form of the verb
- To have: will have
- Base form of the verb 12. Future perfect continuous tense:
- Will have been
10. Future continuous tense: - To have: shall have been, will have been
- Will be - Been
- To be: shall be, will be - Present participle: -ing form of the verb
- Present participle: -ing form of the verb
Note that not all helping verbs are used in all tenses,
11. Future perfect tense: and some tenses can be formed using more than one
- Will have helping verb.
- To have: shall have, will have

Use of “since” and “for” in English grammar:

1. “Since” is used to talk about the starting point) vs. “I have been playing football for
point of an action that is still happening in five years” (duration).
the present. It is followed by a specific point
in time or a clause containing a specific point 4. “Since” can also be used with the past simple
in time. Example: “I have been living in this tense to talk about the starting point of an
city since 2015.” action that started and ended in the past.
Example: “I studied French in high school
2. “For” is used to talk about the duration of an since I was interested in learning a new
action that started in the past and continues language.”
up to the present. It is followed by a period
of time. Example: “I have been studying
English for three years.” 5. “For” can also be used with the past simple
tense to talk about a specific period of time
in the past. Example: “I worked at that
3. “Since” and “for” can both be used with the company for two years before I quit.”
present perfect tense. However, the use of
“since” focuses on the starting point of the 6. It’s important to note that “since” is usually
action, while the use of “for” focuses on the used with a specific point in time, while “for”
duration of the action. Example: “I have been is usually used with a period of time.
playing football since I was a child” (starting

Sentence:
The functional types of sentences are:
1. Declarative sentence: a sentence that makes 3. Imperative sentence: a sentence that gives a
a statement or provides information. command or instruction.
Example: John likes to play tennis. Example: Play tennis with me.

2. Interrogative sentence: a sentence that asks 4. Exclamatory sentence: a sentence that

a question. expresses strong emotion or surprise.
Example: Does John like to play tennis? Example: What a beautiful day it is!
 The structural types of sentences are:
1. Simple sentence: a sentence with one 3. Complex sentence: a sentence with one
independent clause and no dependent independent clause and one or more
clauses. dependent clauses.
Example: John likes to play tennis. Example: Although John likes to play tennis, he
doesn’t have time to play today.
2. Compound sentence: a sentence with two or
more independent clauses and no 4. Compound-complex sentence: a sentence
dependent clauses, joined together by a with two or more independent clauses and
coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. one or more dependent clauses.
Example: John likes to play tennis, but his brother Example: John likes to play tennis, but his brother
prefers basketball. prefers basketball, although John is better at tennis
than his brother.

Coordinating conjunctions and the FANBOYS acronym:

FANBOYS:
F – for O – or
A – and Y – yet
N – nor S – so
B – but

For – used to indicate a reason or purpose. Or – used to offer a choice. Example: Would you
Example: I went to the store for some milk. like tea or coffee?
And – used to join two things together. Example: Yet – used to indicate a contrast or surprise.
I like to read books and watch movies. Example: She studied hard, yet she failed the test.
Nor – used to indicate a negative condition. So – used to show a result or conclusion.
Example: I don’t like to swim, nor do I like to surf. Example: It rained all day, so we stayed inside.
But – used to contrast or show an exception.
Example: I want to go to the party, but I have to
finish my homework first.

Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect two independent clauses in a sentence.

Sure, an independent clause is a type of clause that can stand on its own as a sentence. It has a subject and a
predicate and expresses a complete thought. For example, “I went to the store” is an independent clause.

On the other hand, a dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It has a subject and a predicate, but it
does not express a complete thought. Instead, it depends on an independent clause to form a complete sentence.
For example, “because I was hungry” is a dependent clause, and it cannot stand alone as a sentence. It needs to
be connected to an independent clause like “I went to the store because I was hungry” to form a complete
sentence.

Dependent clauses can be used to add additional information or to create complex sentences. Common types
of dependent clauses include noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverb clauses.
An independent clause is a group of words that can stand alone as a sentence and express a complete thought,
whereas a dependent clause is a group of words that cannot stand alone as a sentence and relies on an
independent clause to form a complete sentence.

Examples of independent clauses: Examples of dependent clauses:

- She went to the store. - When I go to the store,
- The cat chased the mouse. - After she finishes her work,
- I am going to the party. - Because he was tired.

To form a complete sentence, a dependent clause must be joined with an independent clause. For example:
- When I go to the store, I usually buy groceries.
- After she finishes her work, she plans to go to the gym.
- Because he was tired, he went to bed early.

To Be Tenses:
The “to be” verb is used to describe a state of being or existence. It is used to create several tenses in English,
including the present, past, and future tenses. Here are the different “to be” tenses with examples:
1. Present Simple: - She had studied English for two years before
- I am a student. moving to London.
- He is tall. 8. Past Perfect Continuous:
- She is tired. - I had been studying for hours before taking the
2. Present Continuous: test.
- I am studying. - They had been waiting for a long time before the
- They are playing soccer. train finally arrived.
- She is watching TV. - She had been playing tennis since the morning.
3. Present Perfect: 9. Future Simple:
- They have been to Paris.
- I have seen this movie before. - I will be at home by 7 pm.
- He has lived in London for five years. - They will be on vacation next month.
4. Present Perfect Continuous: - She will be happy to see you.
- She has been waiting for two hours. 10. Future Continuous:
- They have been working on this project for - We will be waiting for you at the airport.
weeks. - They will be hiking in the mountains next
- I have been practicing yoga for a year. weekend.
5. Past Simple: - She will be studying for her exams all night.
- She was a teacher. 11. Future Perfect:
- They were tired after the long journey. - They will have finished the project by the end of
- He was upset about the news. the week.
6. Past Continuous: - I will have read this book by tomorrow.
- They were walking in the park when it started - She will have completed her studies by next year.
raining. 12. Future Perfect Continuous:
- I was reading a book when the phone rang. - I will have been working for six hours by the time
- She was playing piano all evening. you arrive.
7. Past Perfect: - They will have been traveling for two weeks when
- He had already eaten when I arrived. they return home.
- They had finished their work by the time the boss - She will have been practicing piano for two hours
came. by the time her teacher arrives.
 Active Voice:
The active voice describes a sentence where the So, the passive form of the sentence “The dog
subject performs the action mentioned by the verb. chased the cat” would be: “The cat was chased by the
In the passive voice, the subject receives the action. dog.”

For example, consider the sentence: “The dog chased Here are some more examples:
the cat.” This sentence is in active voice because the
subject (dog) is performing the action (chased). Active: The teacher graded the exams.
Passive: The exams were graded by the teacher.
To convert this sentence to passive voice, we need
to follow these steps: Active: John ate the pizza.
Passive: The pizza was eaten by John.
1. Put the object (cat) at the beginning of the
sentence, followed by the verb “was” or Active: They will finish the project tomorrow.
“were” (depending on the tense) and the past Passive: The project will be finished by them
participle of the main verb (chased). tomorrow.

2. Add the preposition “by” followed by the Remember that not all sentences can be converted
subject (dog) of the active sentence. to passive voice, and it is usually better to use active
voice when possible as it is more direct and
engaging.
Listening Skills
1. Active Listening: This is a type of listening where is actually not paying attention or is distracted.
the listener is fully engaged in the conversation and Pretend listening can be a form of social politeness
is paying attention to the speaker's words, tone, and or a way to avoid confrontation, but it can also be
non-verbal cues. Active listening involves giving disrespectful and undermine communication.
feedback, asking clarifying questions, and showing
empathy towards the speaker. 4. Selective Listening: This is a type of listening where
the listener only pays attention to the parts of the
2. Discriminative Listening: This is a type of listening message that are relevant or interesting to them,
where the listener focuses on distinguishing the while ignoring or filtering out other parts of the
different sounds and nuances in the speaker's message. Selective listening can be a barrier to
speech, such as tone, pitch, or pronunciation. effective communication and can lead to
Discriminative listening is important in language misunderstandings or misinterpretations.
learning or in situations where the listener needs to
identify and understand specific sounds or words. Understanding the different types of listening can
help you become more aware of your own listening
3. Pretend Listening: This is a type of listening where habits and develop more effective listening skills in
the listener pretends to be engaged in the various situations.
conversation but

Barriers to Listening:
1. Distractions: External distractions such as noise 2. Prejudice: Prejudging the speaker or the topic can
and internal distractions such as thoughts and cause us to ignore or dismiss what is being said.
emotions can make it difficult to listen effectively.
. Lack of interest: Lack of interest in the speaker or assumptions about their message can prevent us
topic can make it difficult to stay focused and from truly listening.
engaged. 5. Interrupting: Interrupting the speaker or finishing
4. Jumping to conclusions: Assuming that we know their sentences can be disrespectful and prevent
what the speaker is going to say or making them from fully communicating their message.

Three E's of speaking

1. Entertainingly: This refers to the ability to engage expectations of the audience. An effective speaker
and captivate the audience by delivering a speech in uses appropriate language,
a way that is enjoyable and memorable. An Structure, and delivery style to achieve the desired
entertaining speaker uses humor, stories, and other outcome.
engaging techniques to keep the audience 3. Enthusiastically: This refers to the ability to
interested and focused. deliver a speech with passion and conviction, which
2. Effectively: This refers to the ability to can inspire and motivate the audience. An
communicate the intended message clearly and enthusiastic speaker conveys a strong belief in the
concisely, while taking into account the needs and message being conveyed, which can help to create
an emotional connection with the audience.

Things to Do When Speaking:

1. Plan and prepare: Plan and prepare your speech 4. Use appropriate body language: Use appropriate
in advance to ensure that you have a clear and body language, such as eye contact and gestures,
concise message. to enhance your message and engage your
audience.
2. Be clear and concise: Use clear and simple
language and be concise in your message. 5. Use pauses: Use pauses to emphasize important
points and give your audience time to digest your
3. Use examples and stories: Use relevant examples message.
and stories to illustrate your points and make your
message more engaging.

Things Not to Do When Speaking:

1. Ramble: Avoid rambling or going off-topic. Stay 4. Use offensive language: Avoid using offensive
focused on your message and deliver it in a clear language or making derogatory comments, which
and concise manner. can alienate your audience and damage your
credibility.
2. Use filler words: Avoid using filler words such as
"um" and "ah," as they can be distracting and 5. Ignore your audience: Engage with your audience
detract from your message. by making eye contact and using appropriate body
language. Ignoring your audience can make them
3. Speak too quickly: Speak at an appropriate pace feel disconnected and disengaged.
and volume, and avoid speaking too quickly, which
can make it difficult for your audience to follow.

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